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Hornbill House, ee : _ : - _ Epirors,
Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, - .- - Journal of the Bombay
Bombay 400 023. Natural History Society.

VOLUME 78, No. 1: APRIL 1981

Date of Publication : 15-5-1981

CONTENTS
PAGE
IMPACT OF PESTICIDAL POLLUTION IN THE ENVIRONMENT. By R. L. Kalra and R. P. Chawla. (With

two text-figures) bx a a uy ae Bi oe 1
FLorA OF Rajoir HILts, BrnarR. By S. R. Paul. (With a map). att ie Ae 16
MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF Rasbora daniconius (Ham.-Buch.). By V. Y. Thakre and S. S.

Bapat. (Withtwo text-figures) .. ce ae 4 ile a 38
ADDITIONAL NOTES ON ANDAMAN Birpbs. By Humayun Abdulali a Mi Be 46
ADDITIONS TO THE PLANTS OF CORBETT NATIONAL PARK, U.P. By P. C. Pant, B. P. Uniyal and

R. Prasad ie Bus a a8 ie wie Ne 50
COMBAT BEHAVIOUR IN Varanus bengalensis (SAURIA : VARANIDAE). By Walter Auffenberg. (With

three text-figures) ne ‘Ae o Be ae Ae chy 54
ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES FROM PAKISTAN. By T.J. Roberts .. tie a as 73
A CHECK-LIST AND SOME NOTES CONCERNING THE MAMMALS OF THE LANGTANG NATIONAL PARK,

NepPAL. By Michael J. B. Green. (With two platesanda map) a Ne Li 717
Narora REserRvoIR, U.P.,—A POTENTIAL BIRD SANCTUARY. By Asad Rafi Rahmani a 88
TAXONOMIC REVIEW OF HODGSON’sS GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL, Pefaurista magnificus (HODGSON)

(SCIURIDAE : RODENTIA) WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SUBSPECIES FROM DARJEELING DISTRICT,

WEsT BENGAL, INDIA. By R. K. Ghose and S. S. Saha. (With three text-figures) a 93
SOME NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR WEST BENGAL FROM JALPAIGURI Distinct. By J.K.Sikdar = .. 103
MOVEMENTS OF Bandicota bengalensis AND Nesokia indica IN RICE FIELDS IN SIND. By G. W. Fulk,

A. C. Smiet and A. R. Khokhar. (With a text-figure) a on we 107
PLANT EXPLORATION IN RALAM VALLEY, KUMAON HIMALAYAS. By P. C. Pant and B. D. Naithani 113
SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF THE AXIS DEER DURING THE DRY SEASON IN GUINDY SANCTUARY, MADRAS.

By Shingo Miura. (With three text-figures) .. ae ae a ws 125
NEW DESCRIPTIONS :

STUDIES ON SPIDERS OF THE GENUS Lutica Marx (FAMILY-ZODARIIDAE) FROM INDIA. By B. K.

Tikader. (With ten text-figures) .. oh ol $i eh ae 139
A NEW SPECIES OF Ophiorrhiza (RUBIACEAE) FROM INDIA. By J. K. Sikdar and G. G. Maiti. (With

six text-figures) as oe sf Ae a ie as 143
A NEW SPECIES OF Capparis Linn. (CAPPARACEAE) FROM SOUTH INDIA. By G. Y. Subba Rao,

G. R. Kumari and Y. Chandrasekaran. (With nine text-figures) .. Ne a 146

A NEW SPECIES OF Maesa Forsk. (MyRSINACEAE) FROM MEGHALAYA. By N. C. Majumdar and
G. S. Giri (With five text-figures) ie ae Mh A te 149

CONTENTS

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

MAMMALS: 1. Social changes in the Hanuman Langur, Presbytis entellus around Jodhpur. By
S. C. Makwana and Ranjan Advani (p. 152); 2. Some notes on the longevity of two species of Indian
Wild Cats in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo and Ch. G. Mishra (p. 155); 3. Causes of Deer mortality
in India. By B.S. Rathore and S. S. Khera (p. 156) ; 4.. Reproductive biology of the Spiny Field Mouse,
Mus platythrix. (With a text-figure). By A. M. K. Mohana Rao (p. 160); 5. White Patch and
its genetic control in some of the Indian Rodent species. By M.S. Pradhanand M. Mithel (p. 164).

Birps: 6. On the occurrence of the Whitetailed Sea Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla (Linnaeus) at Chilka
Lake. By K.S.R. Krishna Raju and M. R. Apparao (p. 166); 7. Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax
(Linnaeus) breeding in sub-adult plumage. By J. S. Serrao (p. 166); 8. The Brownwinged Tern (Sterna
anaethetus): An addition to the Birds of Kerala. By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 167); 9. Jungle Crow
Coryus macrorhynchos preying upon Grey Wagtail Motacilla caspica. By Shaeque Ahmed Yahya (p. 168) ;
10. Occurrence of Dicrurus paradiseus lophorhinus (Vieillot) in Goa (India)—A comment. By S. Dillon
Ripley (p. 168); 11. The Redtailed Wheatear (Oenanthe xanthoprymna) in the Delhi area. By E. Sri-
dharan and S. Bikhchandani (p.170); 12. A curious accident to the nest of a Sunbird. By Phillippa
Mukherjee (p. 170).

RepTILE: 13. Fatal male-male conflict in the Gharial, Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) (Reptilia, Croco-
dilia). (With a text-figure). By H. R. Bustard and S. Maharana (p. 171).

FisHes: 14. Suspended animation of fish out of waterfor many hours. By P.S. Mukundan (p. 174) ;
15. A note on the Biogeographical relictness of Pillaia indica Yazdani (Pillaidae : Mastacembeloidei).
(With a text-figure). By A. Pardhasaradhi and J. R. B. Alfred (p. 175); 16. On the extension of
range of two Freshwater Catfishes, Glypfothorax conirostre (Steind.) (Sisoridae) and Clupisoma garua
(Ham.) (Schilbeidae), to Poonch Valley (Jammu and Kashmir), India. By Surendra Nath (p. 178).

Insects: 17. Occurrence of different species of Cockroaches at Ludhiana (Punjab). By Gurmel
S. Sandhu and A.S. Sohi(p.179); 18. Record of Apanteles obliquae Wikn. and Meteorus sp.(Hymenop-
tera : Braconidae) as parasites of the hairy caterpillar Amsacta moorei Butl. (Lepidoptera : Arctiidae).
By Javed Iqbal Siddiqi (p. 181); 19. New record of Melanagromyza provecta {De Meijere) (Agromy-
zidae : Diptera) on Safflower from Punjab, India. By G. S. Mavi and A. S. Sohi (p. 182) ; 20. New
records of two Tachinid Parasites from Euprectis lunata Walker. By Gurdip Singh and G. S. Grewal

(p. 183).

ARACHNIDA: 21. Two cases of Ork Web construction by Araneus. (With nine text-figures). By
T. V. Subramanyam (p._ 183).

Ecuiurip: 22. A note on Prashadus pirotansis (Menon and Datta Gupta) (Echiuridae) from the
Gulf of Cambay, India. By Badri Prasad Haldar (p. 188).

BoTANy: 23. On the distribution of Crotalaria tecta Heyne ex Roth (Fabaceae) in Maharashtra
State. ByK.K.N.Nair(p.190); 24. Notes on an interesting species of Symplocos Jacq. By G. V. Subba
Rao and R. Gopalan (p. 191) ; 25. Host parasite relationship in Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn. f.) Ettingh
(Loranthus longiflorus Desr.). By C. Narayanasamy and R. Sampathkumar (p. 192); 26. Some obser-
vations on the flowering and fruiting of Balanites roxburghii P\. (With a plate). By V. Alphonse Amalraj
(p. 194); 27. Primula malacoides Franch.—Naturalised in Garhwal Himalaya. By B. P. Uniyal and
Surendra Singh (p. 195); 28. Note on Ambemohor Pat (Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb.) from Western
India. (With a photograph). By V.D. Vartak (p. 196); 29. Vittaria linearifolia Ching—A new record
for India. (With five text-figures). By R. D. Dixit (p. 198) ; 30. Some new hosts for Dendrophthoe falcata
(Linn. f.) Ettingh (Loranthus longiflorus Desr.). By R. Sampathkumar and R. Selvaraj (p. 200).

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
Oe hy

a Ne

APRIL 1981

—_—_——_——_— ee eee —.—

IMPACT OF PESTICIDAL POLLUTION IN THE ENVIRONMENT? ?

R. L. KALRA AND R. P. CHAWLA?

(With two text-figures)

The ubiquitous presence of residues of persistent pesticides in abiotic and biotic components of the
environment is a matter of serious public concern. A brief review of the impact of pesticidal pollution on
the ecosystem is given. Data obtained from Indus Basin (India) revealed widespread contamination of milk
and wheat flour with DDT and HCH residues. Human adipose tissues also showed invariably the presence
of DDT and HCH, the level of beta-HCH as high as 30 ppm was found ina sample. Potato and soil samples
were found to be contaminated with negligible levels of insecticide residues. The possible implications of
these residues have been discussed. Research and legislative needs to control the pesticidal contamination
with particular reference to India have been outlined. It is concluded that the situation on the pesticidal
contamination in certain components of the environment in India is quite serious and demands immediate

action.

INTRODUCTION

During the past three decades, organic
pesticides have become increasingly important
in controlling pests of crops, animals and man.
These chemicals have greatly increased agri-
cultural yields and saved millions of lives from
insect-borne diseases. Unfortunately, the use

1 Accepted August 1979.

2 Presented at the National Symposium on Land and
Water Management in the Indus Basin, held at
Ludhiana, November 9-11, 1978.

8 Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural
University, Ludhiana.

of certain persistent pesticides has resulted in

the pollution of the environment. The main
reasons for environmental pollution and serious
ecological problems with pesticides are:
1. pesticides are biological poisons ; 2. large
quantities are applied to the ecosystem; 3. poor
application technology is used which results
in large amounts of pesticides being widely
spread in non-target areas; 4. little pesticide
(probably less than | per cent) ever hits the
target pests and 5. persistence in the environ-
ment for periods longer than required or
intended.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

When a pesticide is introduced into the en-
vironment, it enters a dynamic ecosystem and
immediately begins to be moved from one part
of the system to another, degraded in situ or
move out of the system to other systems.
Figure 1 portrays the various pathways by
which pesticides cycle through the environment.
Pesticides could conceivably have a biological
impact throughout all parts of the environment
since there is a continuous movement of these
chemicals between soil, living organisms, water
and air.

PESTICIDES RESIDUES AND THEIR EFFECTS

Soil: Large proportion of pesticides applied
reach the soil, which acts as a reservoir for these
chemicals. Their persistence in soil is very
variable and depends upon complex interact-
ing factors such as the characteristics of a pesti-
cide, soil type, environmental factors, etc.
(Lichtenstein 1972, Edwards 1975). The
chemical structure of a pesticide and its resultant
intrinsic stability is the most basic single factor.
Factors that are next in importance are the
adsorption of pesticide on to clay or organic
fraction, precipitation, temperature and
microbial activity. Amongst the organo-
chlorine insecticides, DDT and dieldrin persist
longest in soil, followed by endrin, lindane,
chlordane, heptachlor and aldrin in order of
decreasing persistence.

Persistent pesticides in soil may create a
variety of hazards. Their residues concentrate
into the bodies of the invertebrates and arthro-
pods that live in soil, and from these they can be
transported into the bodies of the higher
organisms (Edwards 1970, 1973). Starting
with DDT at a level of 9.9 ppm in soil, it reached
a level of 141 ppm in the earthworms and
444 ppm in the brains of adult robins (Hunt
1965). This high concentration in the robins
was toxic to some birds. Soil invertebrates

also take up some of the organophosphorus and
carbamate pesticides. Recently, Edwards
(1976) found that slugs concentrate large
amount of diazinon and phorate from soil and
considered that this may constitute a serious
danger to birds and mammals which feed on
them, even if slugs were unaffected, because of
the high toxicity of these insecticides to
vertebrates.

Soil micro-organisms which cause or contri-
bute to the breakdown of cellulose, nitrification,
turn over of organic material and other bio-
logical materials may be adversely influenced
by pesticides. For example, EPTC (herbicide)
at normal dosage impaired cellulose decomposi-
tion in soil. Another herbicide (TCA) reduced
soil nitrification (Pimentel and Goodman
1974). Earthworms and arthropods have been
severely reduced by insecticides and herbicides.
Simazine at a normal dosage caused a reduction
in a number of soil invertebrates by 33 to 50
per cent (Edwards 1964). Predatory mites,
hemeidaphic Collembola and particularly the
Isotomidae were most affected by Simazine.
DDT and some of the organophosphorus
insecticides increased many species of spring
tails and some species of non-predatory mites
even to the extent of increasing the total
biomass. The duration of ecological imbalance
following the application of pesticides, however,
was found to depend upon the persistence of
chemical and its absolute toxicity. A general
consensus is that most pesticides do not affect
microbial population if applied at the recom-
mended dosage but may cause serious ecological
problems if their dosages are exceeded.

Fortunately residues of persistent organo-
chlorine insecticides do not concentrate from
soil into plant tissues but nevertheless the small
quantities in plant tissues which are used for
human food may be undesirable. A further
hazard is the development of resistance in soil
pests due to their continuous exposure to
persistent pesticides present in the soil.

PESTICIDAL POLLUTION

Aquatic systems : There are many routes by
which pesticides can reach the aquatic en-
vironment such as rivers, lakes, oceans and
ponds. These routes are (a) surface run-off
and transport from treated soil ; (6) industrial
wastes discharge and _ factory effluents ;
(c) direct application as aerial sprays or granules
to control water-inhabiting pests; (d) spray
drift from normal agricultural practices ;
(e) atmospheric transports ; (f) municipal water
discharged into sewage effluents; (g) agri-
cultural wastes and (hf) accidental spillage
(Kilgore and Li 1976, Edwards 1977). It is
considered that run-off from agricultural land ts
the main source of gradual pollution, with direct
application to water and discharge of effluent
into aquatic systems causing more serious but
localized contamination. The pesticides that
cause maximum pollution are the organo-
chlorine insecticides and certain persistent
herbicides. Pesticide residues have been found
to be the largest in rivers, less in estuaries and
least in the ocean.

Pesticides in the aquatic environment consti-
tute both direct and indirect hazards to man as
well as to aquatic animals. Of particular con-
cern, is the phenomenon of ‘ bioconcentration ’
of persistent organochlorine insecticides like
DDT, dieldrin, DDD, etc. One of the first
studies of build-up of organochlorine insecti-
‘cides in an aquatic ecosystem was conducted in
California in 1958 by Hunt and Bischoff (1960).
DDD insecticide was applied several times to
clear lake to control gnats. The level of insecti-
cide in water immediately following the last
application was calculated to be 0.02 ppm.
Residue levels of DDD in samples taken from
the lake 13 months after treatment were 10 ppm
in plankton, 903 ppm in fat of plankton-eating
fish, 2690 ppm in fat of carnivorous fish, and
2134 ppm in fat of fish-eating birds. These
residues represent about a 500-fold increase in
levels in plankton and a 100,000-fold increase
in fish-eating birds over levels occurring in

lake water after treatment. The high levels of
pesticide residues, thus, acquired by the birds
caused mortality in Western grebes. This
process of ‘bioconcentration’ is sometimes
confused with that of * biological magnification ’
which can be defined as the accumulation of a
pesticide in an animal in any particular trophic
level of a concentration greater than that in its
food or the preceding trophic level so that
eventually, animals at the top of food chain
accumulate the largest residues. The food
chain concept is particularly questionable in
aquatic system, because, although there is a
marked tendency for the organisms in the higher
trophic levels to accumulate larger amounts
of persistent organic pesticides, there is a good
evidence that these organisms can obtain these
residues as readily from the water in which they
live as from their food (Moriarty 1973).

Many fish kills attributable to pesticides have
been reported. Such events frequently result
from accidents and ignorance. Dramatic
fish kill becomes immediately obvious, there is
considerable public outcry and the causes are
usually eliminated or controlled. Gradual
contamination, however, carries greater potential
environmental hazards. Observations on sub-
lethal effects of pesticides are accumulating and
there are indications that indirect effects on the
ecosystem, such as the disturbance of popu-
lation dynamics, changed food requirements,

_ reproductive behaviour and photosynthesis may

be quite important.

Air and Atmosphere: Pesticides enter the
atmosphere by a variety of routes, particularly
from spray drift or volatilization from soil or
water. Other routes of entry include wind
erosion and agricultural burning. The use of
aircraft for pesticidal application undoubtedly
contributes greatly to the air contamination.
Many studies have revealed the presence of
residues of pesticides in air and rain samples.
Risebrough et al. (1968) suggested that insecti-
cides can be transported long distances by

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 78

er PESTICIDE: ue

APPLICATION

DEGRADATION LOSS

Spillage, Spillage »
Accidents, Accidents,
Industry, Industry ,
pee deal DEGRADATION Sewage,

| Aquatic Orga_
2 \ nisms
@ SEDIMENT

DEGRADATION LOSS
Fig. 1.

global air currents in the same way as occurs
with radio isotopes such as Strontium-90 and
Cesium-177 and then fall out on to land or water
in pattern dependent upon local precipitation.
The significance of this route for the unexpected
contamination of untreated soil and water
situated far off from the places of application
is still to be ascertained. Current evidence
indicates that hazards from pollution of the
atmosphere. by pesticides are still small, parti-
cularly when compared with those from pol-

>
SUBSURFACE WATER

Soti Orga.
nisms

DEGRADATION LOSS

Pesticide cycle in the environment.

lution of air by other materials. The amounts
of pesticides in air are unlikely to be harmful to
general public breathing air because the con-
centrations found have been quite small.
Agricultural crops and other food commodities :
Pesticides residues in food are often a matter
of major concern to the public. Nevertheless,
it is very difficult to produce crops that contain.
no insecticide residues without serious losses
due to pests. Domestic animals are also
continuously exposed when they eat insecticide

PESTICIDAL POLLUTION

contaminated feed. This results in the conta-
mination of milk and meat. It is important
that food commodities for man should not
contain pesticides residues at ievels hazardous
to human health. In many countries, pesticide
residue tolerances have been fixed for the
maximum amounts of residues that may occur
in plant tissues or other food commodities after
taking into considerations the legitimate need
of agriculture and the acceptable daily intake
(ADI).4. As a result of these requirements,
there have been extensive studies of insecticide
residues in food commodities in many countries
of the world. It is reassuring to find that in
most countries, the daily intake of these pesti-
cides through well-balanced diets have been only
a small fraction of the ‘ADI’ (Corneliussen
1970, Duggan and Corneliussen 1972, Abbot
et al. 1969, Carassco et al. 1976).

Birds and wild life: The residues of organo-
chlorine insecticides have been reported to
occur in the tissues and eggs of many species of
birds. The concentrations varied greatly and
the quantities found were associated with the
habits and food of the birds. Generally, there
were much more insecticides residues in
raptorial and fish-eating birds than in herbi-
vorous birds ; particularly large amounts have
been found in Herons and Great-crested Grebes
and their eggs. The population of several of
the bird species is declining such as the bald
eagle, Osprey, peregrine falcon and brown
pelicans, whereas it is increasing in other
species such as the black bird or starling, quail,
pheasant and robin. Pesticides probably are
a contributing factor to this decline. Research
has produced evidence that pesticides have
and are affecting the reproduction in some
species, both in egg laying and in the thickness
of the egg shell (Wiemeyer and Porter 1970,

4 The daily dose of a chemical which appears to be
without appreciable risk to man on the basis of all facts
known at that time,

Bitman et a/. 1970). However, not. all
members of the particular family show the same
reproductive failure. The egg shell effects are
generally attributed to the pesticide causing a
change in calcium metabolism. It is very
difficult to assess the hazards of pesticidal
pollution on birds and other wild life as only
a small proportion of the total species have
been investigated.

Man : The intake of pesticides through food
and other sources result in their accumulation
in the body tissues of human beings. The most
common insecticide found in the general popu-
lation was DDT. Aldrin, dieldrin, BHC,
heptachlor and its epoxide etc. were the other
insecticides detected. Residents of different
countries have been found to contain different
mean levels of DDT, for example, Germany 2.3,
Netherlands 2.0, Denmark 3.1, Great Britain
3.0, Czechoslovakia 9.2, Italy 10.1, Hungary
12.4, Poland 13.4, Israel 18.1 and India 28 ppm
(Matsumura 1975). The high levels of DDT
residues in the general population in India was
further confirmed by Ramachandran ef al.
(1974) and Vir (1977). It has been shown that
these chemicals can be transferred from the
mother to the foetus so that babies may be born
with insecticides in their tissues. Another
susceptible reproduction-related system is the
mother-child transfer of pesticides via milk.

The most likely effects of low-level residues of

persistent organochlorine insecticides in man are
the ‘induction effects’ on the hepatic micro-
some enzyme systems. The significance of this
phenomenon on human health is not fully
understood as yet. Data presently available
do not suggest that man is being harmed by the
small quantities of the pesticides present in
his tissues. The long-term and delayed effects
of these pesticides are, however, quite difficult
to assess.

The consumption of methyl mercury derived
from sea food resulted in the outbreak of

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Minamata disease in Japan. This occurrence
was of course localised in areas of mercuric
pesticide usage but do emphasize the possibility
of development of serious situation if timely
proper precautions are not taken in the use of
pesticides.

Ecosystem effects: Pesticides impinge at all
levels of organisation—at levels of the cell and
the organs and at levels of the individual, the
population and the ecosystem. Since each
Species in a community is affected differently
by an introduced toxicant, the entire community
organisation changes often resulting in out-
breaks and the general instability of the eco-
system (Moore 1967 ; Pimentel 1971; Pimentel
and Goodman 1974). For example, when
predaceous coccinellid beetles and other
predator and parasite populations were un-
intentionally eliminated in areas treated with
DDT, chlordane and other chemicals, outbreak
of mites (Helle 1965), aphids (Pimentel 1961)
and scale insects (De Bach 1947) occurred. The
densities of these plant pests increased 20-fold
above the control levels usually achieved
through their natural enemies. There has been
an increase of green leaf hoppers on rice in
areas of intensive use of BHC and of white flies
on cotton after the introduction of DDT in the
Sudan Gezira. According to FAO/WHO (1975),
such pesticides induced disturbances may be
more severe in tropical countries where
ecological conditions tend to favour control by
natural enemies. The use of pesticides has also
been reported to alter the natural habitat
(Pimentel and Goodman 1974). Plants,
humans and other animals are all parts of the
same system or ‘establishment’. If the life
system is altered, it may have serious repercus-
sions on the nature and functions of the eco-
system and ultimately on man.

One of the more serious long-term effects on
populations has been the evolution of resistant
strains of pests to pesticides (Perry 1974). The

the dominance by some species.

effect of this pesticide resistance on the
ecosystem is varied. Species with large
amounts of genetic variability can evolve a
high degree of tolerance and become the domi-
nant species in the pesticide-stressed ecosystem.
The possibility of the alteration in the dynamic
equilibrium of the whole biotic community
cannot be overlooked through such changes in
In addition
to pests, pesticide-tolerant or resistant popu-
lations of fish have been shown to exist in areas
subjected to sustained pesticide usage. No
top carnivores were found in nearly 100 hours’
collecting in this area, suggesting that the resis-
tance may involve increased ability to store
toxic residues to the deteriment of animals
higher in food chain (Ferguson ef al. 1964).

PESTICIDES CONTAMINATION LEVELS IN
THE INDUS-BASIN (INDIA)

The information on the nature and levels of
pesticidal contamination in various components
of the environment in the Indus-Basin (India)
is available only from the Punjab State and
that too is as yet fragmentary.

According to the estimates made by the
Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India, the
consumption of pesticides in the Punjab is
about 3600 metric tonnes per year (Anon. 1976).
Most of these are insecticides, the important
being HCH, carbaryl, malathion, DDT, fenitro-
thion and endosulfan. The total use of these
six insecticides is about 2350 metric tonnes.
However, these figures do not seem to have
taken into account the use of insecticides for
the control of malaria. DDT and HCH are
the two main insecticides being used for malaria
control. About 700 metric tonnes of DDT per
year are being sprayed for this purpose in
the Punjab. Cotton, vegetable, oilseed etc.
are the major crops being sprayed with these
insecticides, However, it is apparent from the

PESTICIDAL POLLUTION

data given below that the present use of insecti-
cides is still not very extensive on most crops
except for vegetables (Sidhu, A. S.,—personal
communication).

Total area Per cent
Crop (ooo ha) area covered
Cotton ap 240 25
Rape and mustard 180 25
Maize i 560 10
Sugarcane oe 100 10
Potato a Dp 50
Other vegetables .. 38 1S

Soil, human adipose tissues and a few food
commodities have so far been analysed for
insecticides residues (Table 1). Residues of
both DDT and HCH were detected in most of
the 250 samples of wheat flour collected from
different cities in the Punjab (Joia et al. 1978).
About 20 per cent of the samples contained
DDT residues at a level above 1 ppm while a
single sample contained even more than 5 ppm
DDT. HCH residues exceeding | and 5 ppm
were found in about 30 and 4 per cent samples
respectively. Indications were obtained that
the contamination of wheat with DDT at low
levels could also occur through sources other
than their direct admixture. Earlier Bindra
et al. (1973) reported the results of analysis of
54 samples of wheat collected from the farmers’
households and grain markets. Of the 40
per cent samples contaminated, 17 contained
DDT alone while 4 contained HCH.

The overall mean level of DDT and HCH
residues in wheat flour in the Punjab was found
to be about 0.4 and 1 ppm respectively. As
most of DDT and HCH residues were retained
intact even during chapati preparation (Chawla
et al. 1979), the daily intake of DDT and HCH
by an adult comes to about 208 and 519 peg
respectively (Table 2). Thus, the daily intake
of DDT through cereal alone is about 69 per

cent of the prescribed safe level (ADI) of 0.005
mg/kg/day (FAO/WHO, 1975) and is much
higher than the total dietary intake of DDT
in USA (55 «g), England (34 «g) and Spain
(70.4 wg), (Carassco et al. 1976). Similarly, the
calculated daily intake of HCH (519 pg)
through wheat flour in the state was found to
be much higher than that in the U.K. (17 ug)
(Brooks 1972).

The contamination of milk with DDT was
fairly widespread in the Punjab (Dhaliwal and
Kalra 1977, Kalra et al. 1978). The residue
level of DDT in most of the samples collected
from the rural areas and the depots of Punjab
Dairy Development Corporation, situated in
Ludhiana, Chandigarh, Bhatinda and Amritsar
was more than the maximum permitted level.
Some samples even showed as high as 10-17
times the permitted level of DDT residues.
HCH-residues mostly in the form of alpha-and
beta-isomers were also detected. Butter and
baby milk food also showed the presence of
DDT and HCH residues (Dhaliwal and Kalra
1978, Kalra et al. 1979). The contamination
of milk is to be viewed with concern as it is
consumed in substantial quantities by infants
and the sick. The contaminated milk, if taken
by a 3 month child weighing 5 kg at the rate
of 875 ml (5 feeds of 175 ml each) per day could
result in a daily intake of 225 «xg of DDT
(Table 2). This is 9 times higher than the
‘ADI’ of 0.005 mg/kg/day. The consumption
of baby milk food is also likely to result in
the intake of DDT at levels higher than the
levels accepted to be safe. As children are
considered to be more susceptible than adults,
they are at a much greater risk. The major
portion of DDT residues was found in the form ~
of p, p’-TDE. The high level of TDE in milk
suggests that the intake of DDT in cattle pro-
bably occurs through the contaminated cattle
feed (Witt et al. 1966). As limited amount of
DDT is being used in agriculture, the contami-
nation of cattle feed with excessive DDT

Matrix

Wheat grain
Wheat flour
Bread

Pulse

Milk

Butter
Infant food
Poultry egg
Potato
Okra

Brinjal
Tomato

Animal Feed Straw ..

Fodder

Concentrate

Human Adipose
Tissues

Soil

Water

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

TABLE |

PESTICIDE RESIDUES IN THE PUNJAB ENVIRONMENT

Period of
sampling

1970
1974-76
1976
1977
1976
1976

177,
1978

1977
1976

1974

1967-68
1964
1964
1975-78

1976-78

1976-77

1976

Samples
examined

Siren hacliceerecenecemanemenemnemenmememmeenentiomemaneeeeeceetn nee nomen eech Te ee

Samples Insecticide
found detected
contaminated
17 DDT
4 HCH
210 DDT
112 HCH
9 DDT
9 HCH
6 DDT
5 HCH
102 DDT
25 HCH
6 DDT
15 DDT
15 HCH
1 DDT
20 DDT
14 HCH
20 DDT, aldrin, HCH,
heptachlor and
dieldrin
6 Endrin
4 DDT
1 DDT
29 DDT
24 HCH
10 DDT
8 HCH
12 DDT
12 HCH
51 DDT
50 HCH
4 Dieldrin
89 DDT
1 HCH
i Endrin
2 DDT

a

* These include the 140 samples examined for HCH also.

** Arithmetic mean (Maximum value).
Tr. indicates traces.

Range (ppm)

4 to>6
>4

Tr. - 10
Tr. - 12

Tr. - 0.15
Tr. - 0.1

Tr. = 1.02
Tr. - 0.05

Tr. = 1.02
Tr. = 0.05

3.11-5.86
2.61-8.19
0.51-5.35

2.72 (fat basis)

0.05-0.97
0.07-0.62

Tr.-0.05

0.06-0.38
0.08-8.0
0.08

Tr. -0.75
Tr. -0.6
0.02-0.5
0.1-0.2
0.07-0.89
Tr. =2.0

0.7-31.34

Tr. -30.05
Tr. -1.20
0.07 (1.63)**
0.5

0.1

Tr.

PESTICIDAL POLLUTION

TABLE 2

ESTIMATES OF DIETARY INTAKE OF DDT AND HCH THROUGH CONTAMINATED FOOD
COMMODITIES IN THE PUNJAB

Estimated mean

Adult/ Food Insecticide Calculated daily Proportion of the

Infantand commodity consumption* and mean intake acceptable daily
weight (g or ml/day) level of (4g) intake
(kg) contamination (%)

Actual Balanced (ppm) Actual Balanced Actual Balanced

diet diet diet diet diet diet

Adult, 60 Cereals 519 370 DDT, 0.4 208 148 69 49

-do- -do- -do- -do- HCH, 1.0 519 Suey eh ae

-do- Milk 317 180 DDT, 0.26 82 Ag Dy 16

Infant, 5 -do- 875 — DDT, 0.26 225 — 900 a

-do- Baby milk food 135 — DDT, 0.35 47 — 190 =

* The estimated mean consumption of food items for the adult is from ‘ Diet Atias of India ’ by Gopalan, C.,
Bala Subramanian, S. C., Ramsastri, B. V. and Visweswara Rao, K. (1971), Indian Council of Medical Research.

** The ADI for HCH has not been established so far. The ADI for gamma isomer is 0.0125 mg/kg/day.

residues is rather unexpected. Butter samples
obtained from Haryana and Rajasthan also
showed excessive DDT and HCH residues
indicating concentration of the residues from
contaminated milk (Dhaliwal and Kalra 1978 ;
Kalra et al., 1979).

DDT and HCH residues were also present
in the samples of poultry eggs collected from
Ludhiana but their levels rarely exceeded the
maximum permitted residue limits. Market
samples of potatoes collected from the different
cities in the Punjab showed invariably the pre-
sence of DDT, HCH, aldrin, heptachlor and
dieldrin. However, their levels in most of the
samples were negligible (Kalra et al. 1978).
DDT residues were detected in the market
samples of brinjal (Jaglan and Chopra 1970)
while endrin was detected in the samples of
okra (Bhalla et al. 1970).

Biopsy samples (51) of the adipose tissues of
human being collected from the Daya Nand
Medical College, Ludhiana, when analysed

invariably showed the presence of DDT and
HCH. The residues of HCH in few samples
were found to be quite excessive. As high
as 30 ppm of beta-HCH, which is known to
accumulate in human body, was found in a
female fat sample (Chawia et al. 1978).
Recently, the soils of Punjab and Chandigarh
were surveyed for insecticide residues (Singh
1977). A total of 106 surface soil samples were
collected at random from all over the consti-
tuent districts of the Punjab and Union Terri-
tory, Chandigarh. More than 80 per cent of
the samples were contaminated with DDT.
The mean level of total DDT-R was found to
be 0.03 ppm whereas the maximum level found
was 1.73 ppm. These values were much lower
than those found in countries like USA and
Canada. This could be attributed to the rela-
tively faster rate of loss of DDT under sub-
tropical conditions as observed by Agnihotri
and Jain (1977) in Delhi and Talekar et al.
(1977) in Taiwan. Interestingly, Vir (1977)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

found a much higher level of DDT (4.2 ppm)
in surface soil in areas located around the DDT
factory in Delhi.

The presence of DDT and BHC residues in
wheat, milk and eggs is a matter of concern
particularly in view of the fact that practically
no usage of these insecticides is directly related
to the production of these commodities. How-
ever it is reassuring to find that potatoes for
which aldrin and heptachlor have been recom-
mended, contained only negligible amount of
organochlorine insecticides.

RESEARCH AND LEGISLATIVE NEEDS

Although considerable amount of work is
being done on the development of non-chemical
methods of pest control, yet the general con-
sensus is that these methods have not reached a
stage that they can supplant the use of chemicals
in the foreseeable future. Our needs to use
pesticides will, therefore, continue to increase.
Nevertheless, we cannot ignore the potential
risks. In the use of pesticides, we must, there-
fore, be keenly aware of, and concerned, and
knowledgeable about their effects on man’s
total environment. The prime objectives of
research and regulatory programmes are the
achievement of pest control without injury to
man, animals, plants, soil, fish, or wild life and
other values in man’s total environment.
Determining the effect of pesticides on environ-
mental quality is extremely complex problem
and our understanding is far from complete.
Winteringham et al. (1974) suggested ‘ integrated
and comparative approach’ to the problem
of environmental contamination at scientific
level. This approach is system-analysis type
and there are significant information flows
in both directions between any two kinds
(Fig. 2). It is considered that this approach
would provide rational basis for the develop-
ment of necessary counter measures, regulatory

10

action control and would also help to identify
priorities.

In order to gain a better perspective about
the potential for pesticide contamination in the
environment, the amount of pesticides used now
and in the past must be known (Box II). The
environmental impact may depend not only on
a country’s total consumption but also on the
kinds and rates of application on crops.
Although some figures on the total consump-
tion of pesticides in India are available, the
data on the pattern of their usage are scanty.
Realizing the importance of such data, USA
and many countries in the European Common
Market have initiated extensive programmes for
its collection. It hardly needs any emphasis
that such an information will help in the identi-
fication of problems resulting through the
actual use of pesticides. |

Wide-scale and intensive monitoring investi-
gations to estimate the levels of pesticides in
the biotic and abiotic component of environ-
ment are being carried out in the western coun-
tries, with the aim to detect any undesirable
concentration of a pollutant as and when it
arises so that an appropriate action may be
taken before any detrimental effect occurs
(Box III). In India, no national monitoring
programme for pesticides residues has so far
been initiated. Limited and scattered surveys
have only been done to find out the extent of
pesticidal contamination in food material
(Bindra and Kalra 1973, Lakshminarayana and
Krishna Menon 1975, Agnihotri et al. 1974a
& b), soil (Singh 1977, Vir 1977) and human
adipose tissues (Ramachandran et al. 1974).
Monitoring is defined as ‘ the process of repeti-
tive observing, for defined purpose, of one or
more elements or indicators of the environment
according to pre-arranged schedules in space
and time, and using comparable methodologies
for environmental sensing and data collection ’.
Thus, monitoring is normally of long-term
nature and differs from a survey, which is

PESTICIDAL POLLUTION

I Legislation

<<
J ee
II Consumption and use |
pattern
‘ y
1a Monitoring

| a,

VII Recommendations of counter |
measures, control |

|

VI Risk: benefit analysis, assessment |
of priorities |

Biological effects, populations
(target and non-targets), identifi-
cation of ‘key-indicators’ and
specific foodchain

| : , 3 .

| IV Persistence, dispersion, conversion
| under biotic and abiotic factors,
|

interaction

Fig. 2. Integrated and comparative approach to pesticide residues in biosphere (Winteringham et al.

1974 with modification).

usually short-term and often comprises only one
period of sampling at each sampling site
(Holden 1975). Obviously, there is an im-
mediate need for initiation of monitoring pro-
gramme for pesticides residues in India.
Sufficient information on the fate of pesticides
from relevant uses must be acquired (Box IV).
Microbial action, volatilization, adsorption,
leaching, | chemical/biochemical reactions,
photodecomposition and absorption by plants,
etc. are the key processes that influence the
behaviour of pesticides in soil, water, plants
and other living organisms as also their move-
ment in the ecosystem. Although considerable

1]

progress has been made in understanding these
phenomena in temperate region, there is a
little information available in sub-tropical
countries like ours (Bindra and Kalra 1973,
Kalra 1977, Agnihotrudu and Mithyantha
1978). These studies are essential for the
judicious use of pesticides and might help in
the identification of the sources of the known
occurrence of environmental contamination.
Some species populations in the life system,
either because of their known susceptibility to
pesticides or as they are particularly vulnerable
due to their position in the particular ecosystem,
may serve valuable role of ‘ key indicators ’,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

They will ‘tell us’ when pollutant level may
be reaching dangerous level in the environment.
‘Key indicator species’ that readily take up
and concentrate residues may be identified in
the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem. It is
also important to study the transfer of pesticides
through specific food chains and their magni-
fication in humans, animals and wild life. Such
studies will enable early detection of the pro-
blem situations so that remedial action may be
taken (Box V). Practically no work has been
done on this aspect in India excepting that of
Vir (1977) who found that the local species of
earthworm, Pheretima posthuma, concentrate
DDT residues from soil.

It is becoming increasingly apparent that the
benefits of using pesticides must be considered
in the context of present and potential risks of
pesticide usage (Box VI). Both risks and
benefits could vary significantly from country
to country, or even from one period of time to
another in the same geographical area. For
example, persistent organochlorine insecticides
like DDT and HCH which have been restricted
from use in the western countries are still used
in large quantities (about 85 per cent of the total
pesticides consumption) in India. However,
sound and objective judgements can only be
made by the decision-making bodies if systematic
information is available both on the benefits
and risks. One could appreciate that it will
not be possible to have any assessment of risks
in the absence of data on the fate and signi-
ficance of foreign chemical residues, the
susceptibility of the exposed plant or animal
species (both target and non-target species) or
which significant food chain is involved under
the particular local conditions. There is
serious doubt that the correct assessment of the
benefits through pest control programmes is
even being made in India. The cases of
malaria are showing a steady increase in spite
of extensive use of DDT for its control. It
may be noted that the malaria vectors have

2

become resistant to DDT almost all over the
country. The present-day emphasis is that
the use of any pesticide in pest control pro-
grammes must be assessed on the basis of three
important criteria, economics, public health, and
environmental pollution. All three are im-
portant and a serious deficiency in any one of
these would prevent the pesticide from being
used. Unfortunately, no attempt is being
made in India to assess even the important
pest control programmes such as the use of
pesticides for public health purposes and for
the protection of crops like cotton, rice, etc.
on the basis of these criteria.

-Although most of the dangers from un-
regulated and indiscriminate use of pesticides
were known quite early, it was only in 1968
that the comprehensive ‘Insecticides Act,
1968’ was passed. The Act provides to
regulate the import, manufacture, _ sale,
transport, distribution and use of pesticides
with a view to prevent risks to human beings
or animals and for other matters connected
therewith. In addition, we have Prevention of
Food Adulteration Act, 1954 under which the
provision exists for prescribing the pesticides
residues tolerances in food commodities. The
registration of pesticide is done under the
Insecticides Act, 1968. The burden of proving
that a pesticide is safe within the requirement
of a scheme lies with the manufacturers. How-
ever, most of the manufacturers of pesticides
in the country do not have facilities for generat-
ing the required data for the purpose of
registration. Although the Prevention of Food
Adulteration Act is on the statute for about
the last 25 years, it does not seem to have been
implemented at all to regulate the pesticides
residue in the nation’s food supply. If such
a law is to be effective, it would require very
effective machinery which may not be provided
for many more years to come. However, it
must be realised that most of the problems in
controlling pesticides arise from the lack of

PESTICIDAL POLLUTION

appreciation that they are product of a techno-

logical society. The law may prescribe, pro-

scribe, or regulate anything so long as those
requiring the control can explain exactly what
they want and the criteria which they wish
to apply in order to achieve the end. The
important input for the success of pesticides
legislation is, therefore, knowledge in the form
of scientific data (Box I).

CONCLUSIONS

Pesticides are indispensable and invaluable
inputs for increased agricultural production.
However, this considered indispensability does
not justify their use in an irresponsible manner.
As is apparent from the foregoing account, the
intelligent utilization of pesticides would depend
on the fundamental knowledge of the behaviour
and effects of pesticides in the ecosystem.
Clearly, the pesticidal contamination of the
environment in India needs immediate atten-
tion in view of the following evidence :

The high levels of DDT residues
in the adipose tissues of the
Indian population.

First.

Second. The widespread contamination
of milk with excessive DDT

residues.

Third. The estimated dietary intake of

DDT in India exceeds the ADI.

The pollution with pesticides is not easy to
perceive. Changes in the ecosystem take place
so slowly that the problem may become visible
only after it has taken a serious turn making it
difficult to reverse the trend of negative effects.
Therefore, any further complacency may have
serious consequences.

Substantial monetary gains in the form of
increased agricultural production are obtained
through the use of pesticides. In India, pesti-

13

cides worth 100 crores of rupees are being used
every year. The conservative net gain through
their consumption may be put at 400-500 crores
of rupees. Appropriations of at least 2 per
cent of this net gain should be diverted to re-
search so as to develop strategies in the
rationale of pesticide use.

Each and every law has an element of
assurance for the general public. Pesticides
legislations are supposed to provide assurance
to the people against the possible harmful
effects of pesticides on man and his environ-
ment. However, both the Insecticides Act
and the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act
(PFA rules) have remained practically unimple-
mented with respect to the contamination of the
environment. The literature being issued by
the firms, mainly based on the data collected
in western countries, contains recommendations
on the use of pesticides which are likely to leave
residues more than the prescribed maximum
limit under certain situations. One wonders
on whom the onus for the presence of residues
above tolerances under the PFA rules will lie
when the sources of contamination of food
commodities like wheat, milk, etc. remain
obscure. We should not feel shy to accept the
realities of the situation. It is suggested that
an * Expert Working Group on _ Pesticides
Residues ’ may be constituted to take stock of
the present situation, decide priorities, suggest
an action plan for immediate implementation
through the co-operative efforts of the Govern-
ment, Industry and related organisations, and
help the Government in rationalization of its
policy. 2

It is well recognized that many of the hazards
result through the improper usage of the pesti-
cides. If we are to maintain a satisfactory
cost/benefit/risk ratio, we must select pesticides
carefully and use them correctly and safely.
Education on the safe and proper usage of
pesticides can go a long way to achieve this.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

In the end, it is not inappropriate to state
that the use of pesticides is not an ecological
sin. Rather, the pesticides are capable of

improving the quality of life and environment
provided their use is based on sound
scientific principles.

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14

PESTICIDAL POLLUTION

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669-713.

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(1975): Screening of Hydrabad market samples of
food stuffs for organochlorine insecticide residues.
Indian J.Pl. Prot. 3: 4-19.

LICHTENSTEIN, E. P. (1972) : Degradation of Synthetic
Organic molecules in Biosphere, Natl. Acad. Sciences,
Washington, D.C., 190-205.

MATSUMURA, F. (1975): Toxicology of Insecticides,
Plenum Press, New York, 503 pp.

Moore, N. W. (1967): A synopsis of the pesticide
problem. Adv. in Ecological Res. 4 : 75-129.

Moriarty, F. (1973): Pesticides : Significance and
Implications of Biological Accumulation. ACPP:
Misc./iOFAO/WS/E. 4902, 14 pp.

PIMENTEL, D. (1961) : An ecological approach to the
insecticide problem. J. econ. Ent. 54: 108-14.

ee ee ee es ee ee

15

PIMENTEL, D. (1971) : Ecological effects of pesticides
on non target species. U.S. Government Printing Office,
220 pp.

——-———— AND GOODMAN, N. (1974) : Environmental
impact of pesticides in Survival in toxic environments.
(Eds. Khan, M.A.Q. and Bederka, J.P. Jr.) Academic
Press, New York, 25-52.

Perry, A. S. (1974) : Insecticide resistance in insects
and its ecological and economic thrust in Survival in
toxicenvironments. (Eds., Khan, M.A.Q. and Bederka,
J. P. Jr.) Academic Press, New York, 399-466.

RAMACHANDRAN, M., SHARMA, M. J. D., SHARMA,
S. C., MATHUR, P. S., ARVINDAKSHAN, A. G. AND
EDWARD, G. C. (1974): DDT and its metabolites in
the body fat of Indians. J. Comm. Dis., 6: 256-59.

RISEBROUGH, R. W., HUGGET, R. J., GRIFFIN, J. J.
AND GOLDBERG, E. D. (1968) : Pesticides : Transatlantic
movements in the north-east trades. Science, 159:
1233-36.

SINGH, P. P. (1977) : Monitoring of the Punjab Soils
for residues of some of the commonly used insecticides.
M.Sc. Thesis, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana,
India.

TALEKAR, N.S., SUN, L. T., Lee, E. M. AND CHEN,
J. S. (1977) : Persistence of some insecticides in sub-
tropical soils. J. Agric. Food Chem., 25 : 348-52.

Vir, DHARAM (1977) : Studies on the levels of DDT
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Delhi.

WIEMEYER, S. M. AND PorTER, R. D. (1970) : DDE
thins eggshells of captive American Kestrels. Nature,
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WINTERINGHAM, F. P. W., MARCHART, H. AND MUNN,
J. I. (1974); Comparative studies of food and Environ-
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WITT, J. M., WHITING, F. M., BRown, W. H. AND
STULL, J. W. (1966): Contamination of milk from
different routes of animal exposure to DDT. J. Dairy
Sci. 49 : 370-80.

FLORA OF RAJGIR HILLS, BIHAR !

S. R. PAUL

5S

(With a map)

INTRODUCTION

Rajgir, the capital of ancient Magadha was
first known and identified by Dr. Buchanan
Hamilton as Rajagriha or Giribraja, the resi-
dence of Buddha. The city is surrounded by
five hills which is mentioned in the Maha-
bharata and in the Pali annals. The Rajgir
hills are a part of a range running north-east
near Bodh-Gaya and the main hills are two
parallel ranges between Rajgir and Giraik,

1 Accepted March 1980.

2 Division of Plant Taxonomy & Herbarium, Nationa!
Gardens,

Botanic Lucknow, India.

IPULAGIAS
‘

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situated at 25° 1’ 435° Ny, 857 28° E (Map 4).
Ratnagiri which is about 305 m is the highest
peak among the five hills. The soil layer is
thin, coarse and just below it lie rocks. Rajgir
has a monsoon type of climate with an annual
rainfall of approx. 113 cm, with the maximum
rainfall in July-August.

Rajgit hills remained unexplored botanically
and there is no detailed catalogue of the flower-
ing plants of the area except a very short account
by Srivastava (1956) who gave a list of about
forty-eight angiosperms. This study gives
a comprehensive list of 399 vascular plants in
the flora of the area based mainly on the col-

GIRIAR WILL We,

99 AML A Qu re Sete
cemmanecsny 2

er
\ ~ s

&

THE RAJGIR HILLS

0c YW ary

ST) |

Map |

16

FLORA OF RAJGIR HILLS

lections made by the parties of the National
Botanic Gardens, Lucknow (LWG) and Central
Drug Research Institute (CDRI) supplemented
by my personnel collections. The frequency
of occurrence based on visual estimation,
flowering and fruiting period and field numbers
are provided for each species.

According to Haines (1921-25) no specimens of
Trachyspermum strictocarpum (Cl.) Wolf has ever
been collected from the province, although he
surmised that it probably enters the province.
It is found throughout Higher Vindhyan
range from Pachmari, through the Balaghat
plateau to the mountains of Bilaspur and its
occurrence on Rajgir hills is interesting phyto-
geographically. Mooney (Suppl. 68.1950)
recorded it from Kalahandi (Orissa) and the
present report is an addition to the Bihar flora.
Galactia tenuiflora (Klein ex Willd.) Wt. & Arn.,
Acacia gageana Craib. and Lolium perenne L.

are recorded for the first time from Bihar.

RANUNCULACEAE

Ranunculus scleratus L.

Common in open, moist places.
Paul 2523.

Fl: Feb.,

DILLENIACEAE

Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.

Frequent in scrub jungles. F/.: April.
Paul 2505.
ANNONACEAE
Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) Sinclair
Common in open grounds. F/.: April.
Srivastava & Party 20658.
MENISPERMACEAE
Cissampelos pareira L.
Frequent in village hedges. F/.: Sept.
Fr, Dec. Saran & Party 25847.

Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels.

Rare in waste land. Fr. >>> April.
Srivastava & Party 46683.

Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers

Not common in _ villages. Fi.: Aug.
Paul 2512.

NYMPHAEACEAE

Nymphaea stellata Willd.

Rare in paddy-fields. F/.: Oct.

PAPAVERACEAE

Argemone mexicana L.
Common weed of waste land. F/.: April.

Saran & Party 25864.
FUMARIACEAE

Fumaria parviflora Lamk.
Not common in cultivated fields. FI.:

Oct.-Nov. Srivastava & Party 46659.
CRUCIFERAE

Brassica campestris L. var. sarson Prain
Found as an escape from cultivation.

Cochlearia flava Buch.-Ham.

Rare in cultivated fields. F/.: Nov.
Saran & Party 25648.
Rorippa indica (L.) Bailey

Not common along banks of streams.
Bic: Jan, Paul 2537.

CAPPARACEAE

Capparis sepiaria L.

Large climber. Common. F/.: March-
May. Srivastava & Party 20623 ; Singh & Party
2388 (CDRI).

i

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

C. zeylanica L.
Frequent in hedges.
Party 25869.

Fl.: April. Saran &

CLEOMACEAE

Clieome gynandra L.

Common weed of waste places.
Sept. Paul 2520.

Fl. : July-

C. viscosa L.

Common in open waste grounds.
Aug.-Oct. Paul 2538.

ae

VIOLACEAE

Ionidium enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell
Not common. F/.: Nov.-Dec. Paul 2540.

FLACOURTIACEAE

Flacourtia indica (Burm.) Merr.

Rare in places... Fl. : ‘Dec-Feb.

Paul 2503.

open

¥, sepiaria Roxb.

Frequent in open waste lands.
March. Srivastava & Party 20626.

dee

COCHLOSPERMACEAE

Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alst.

Frequent. Fi/.: Feb.-April.
June. Saran & Party 25831.

Fr.: May-

POLYGALACEAE

Polygaia chinensis L.

Common in waste places among grass.
Fl.: Aug.-Oct. Chandra & Party 37023.

P. erioptera DC.

Frequent among grass. Fl/.: Dec.-Jan.
Chandra & Party 37022 ; Saran & Party 25849 ;
Srivastava & Party 46520.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE
Pelycarpon prostratum (Forsk.) Aschers &
Schweinf.
In moist, waste land. Rare. Fl; : Oct.-
Dec. Saran & Party 25021.
PORTULACACEAE
Portulaca oleracea L.
Common in waste places. Fi.: Aug.

18

Chandra & Party 29340.

P. quadrifida L.

Frequent. F/.: Sept., Srivastava & Party
46737.

MALVACEAE

Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet

Not common in_ hedges.
Saran & Party 25690.

Fle? Aug:
Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medic.

Frequent in undergrowth of forest.
Oct.-Nov. Paul 2549.

Fly:

Azanza lampas (Cav.) Alef.

Frequent on _ hilly slopes.
Saran & Party 25888.

Flo: Sept.

Hibiscus lobatus (Murr.) O. Kuntze

Rare. near siteams. Fl. : Sept.-Oct.

H. ovalifolius (Forsk.) Vahl
Frequent in waste ground. F/.: April.
Srivastava & Party 20617.

H. vitifolius L.

Fairly common on hilly paths. F/.: Nov.
Saran & Party 25683.
Kydia calycina Roxb.

Not common in forest.) Fi: Oct, “Paul

2534.

FLORA OF RAJGIR HILLS

Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke

Common in moist, waste land. Fis
Aug.-Oct. Saran & Party 25610.

Sida acuta Burm. f.

Common weed of waste places. Fi.:
Aug.-Oct. Saran & Party 25691.

S. cordifolia DC.

Not common. Fi/.: Aug.-Sept. Paul 2515.

S. rhombifolia L. subsp. rhombifolia.

Frequent in waste land. F/.: Sept. Paul

2526.

S. spinosa L.

Fairly common on the edge of forests.
Fl. : Oct.-Nov. Saran & Party 25681.

S. veronicaefolia Lamk.
Frequent along roadsides: ii.) & Fr.:

Sept.-Feb. Chandra & Party 36932.

Urena lobata L. subsp. sinuata var. sinuata (L.)
Borss.

Common in waste land and along streams.
Hy. 6c Fr > sept. Jan. — Srivastava & Party
46598.

BOMBACACEAE

Bombax ceiba L.

Not common in valleys.
April-May.

Flos Bebe Fir:

STERCULIACEAE

Helicteres isora L.

Common in the forest.
Srivastava & Party 46529.

Fl. : March-April.

Melochia corchorifolia L.

Rare in the plains near villages. Fl &
Fr, Sept...Chandra & Party 37017.

Sterculia urens Roxb.
A few trees noted in scrub jungles. F/.:
Jan.-Feb. Srivastava & Party 20644.

Waltheria indica L.

Not common in open lands near foot-
hills. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Srivastava & Party
20647 ; Saran & Party 46527.

TILIACEAE

Corchorus aestuans L.

Not common on hilly slopes. F/.: Feb.-
March. Srivastava & Party 46627.
C, capsularis L.

Rare near ditches. F/.: July-Aug. Paul
2530.
C. trilocularis L.

Frequent in moist places. Fl/.: June-July.

Srivastava & Party 20194.

Grewia disperma Roiti. ex Spreng.
Rare in forest. F/.: July-Oct.

S.7.

Srivastava,

G. hirsuta Vanb.

Occasional in forests. F/. : Sept.
Party 36994.

Chandra &

G. tiliifolia Vahl

Common im open lands. . Fi; .Oct.-
Nov. Srivastava & Party 20639, 20645.
Triumfetta neglecta W. & A.

Frequent in valleys. F/.: Oct.-Dec.

— Saran & Party 25694.
T. rhombeoidea Jacq.
Frequent in waste places. Fl.: Nov.-Dec.

Chandra & Party, s.n.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

LINACEAE

Linum usitatissimum L.

Not common. Found as an escape along
road sides. Fi. & Fr.: Nov.-Jan. Saran &
Party 25928.

OXALIDACEAE

Biophytum sensitivum DC.

Not common among grasses. Fi. & Fr.:

July-Sept. Srivastava, s.n.

B. reinwardtii (Zucc.) Klotz.

Frequent in moist, shady grounds. F/.:
Aug.-Oct.. Saran & Party 46562.

Oxalis corniculata L.

open, wastelands. Fi. &
Saran & Party 25693.

Common in
Fr. : March-Oct.

O. latifolia H.B. & K.

Not common in moist, shady places near
cultivated fields. F/.: Aug. Srivastava &
Party 21134.

RUTACEAE

Atalantia monophylla (Roxb.) DC.

Not common. F/. & Fr.:
Saran & Party 25650.

Novy.-March.

Murraya paniculata (L.) Jacq.

Frequent in valleys. Fl. & Fr.: April-
June. Saran & Party 25624; Srivastava &
Party 25625.

SIMAROUBACEAE

Balanites roxburghii Planch.

Frequent in scrub jungles. Fl. & Fyv.:
Feb.-May. Chandra & Party 37027.

BURSERACEAE

Boswellia serrata Roxb.
Local name : Salai.

Occasional in forest. Fi. & Fr. : Feb.-May.
Srivastava & Party 20653, 46518.

Garuga pinnata Roxb.
Local name : Kekar.

Not common in the Forest.
March-July. Paul 2502.

Fl. wee Er.

MELIACEAE
Soymeda febrifuga A. Juss.
Rohini.
Fl. : March-April.

Local name :

Occasional.
Paul 2541.

Fr. : June.

Walsura piscidia Roxb.

Common inside the forest. Fi. & Fr. : Feb.-
April. Srivastava & Party 20661; Saran &
Party 25813, 46513.

OLACINACEAE

Olax scandens Roxb.
Ramilbari.

Common in forest. Fi. & Fr.: April-July.
Srivastava & Party 20620, 46538; Saran &
Party 25899. |

Local name :

OPILIACEAE

Cansjera rheedii Gmel.

Rare in open places.
March. Paul 2550.

Fl. & Fr.: Dec.-

CELASTRACEAE

Celastrus paniculata Willd.

Frequent. Conspicuous from the colour
of its aril. F/. & Fr.: April-Sept. Paul 2524.

20

FLORA OF. RAJGIR HILLS

Elaeodendron glaucum Pers.

Occasional. Fi. & Fr.: Oct.-Dec. Paul
2510.
RHAMNACEAE
Ventilago denticulata Willd.
Frequently climbing over large bushes.

Fl. & Fr.: Oct.-Jan. Saran & Party 25844 ;
Srivastava & Party 46539.

Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.

Common in dry places. Fi. & Fr:
Feb.-March. Chandra & Party 37029. Paul
2501.

Z. oenoplia Mill.

Rare in waste places. F/.: July-Aug.
Paul 2528.
Z. xylopyra (Retz.) Willd.

Frequent in forest. Fl. & Fr..:. March-

April. Saran & Party 46555, 25866 ; Srivastava
& Party 20651.

VITACEAE

Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch.

Occasional. Fl. & Fr.: April-Aug. Paul

ASV

Cayratia trifolia (L.) Domin
Commons 70h & | Fr:
Chandra & Party 29343.

March-Nov.

Leea edgeworthii Sant.

Not common. F/. & Fr.:
2539.

May-Oct. Paul

SAPINDACEAE

Cardiospermum halicacabum L.
Fairly common in Villages. Fi/.: April-

May. Saran & Party 25674,

21

Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken.

Occasional in forest. Fi. & Fr.: March-
Aug. Srivastava & Party 46540.
ANACARDIACEAE
Buchanania lanzan Spreng.
Frequent along roadsides. Fl. & Fr.:

April-May. Srivastava & Party 20652.

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr.

Frequent. Fl. & Fr.: April-June. Saran &

Party 25633.

Semecarpus anacardium L.f.

Rare near forest edges.
Oct. Saran & Party 25867.

El. Se Fr. May-

PAPILIONACEAE

Abrus precatorius L.

Not common. Fl. & Fr.: Sept.-Feb. — Saran

& Party 25661.

Alhagi pseudalhagi (M.B.) Desv.

Not common in Plains. Fi.:
Paul 2543.

Feb.-April.

Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.) DC.
Frequent in grasslands. Fl. & Fr.: Aug.-

Nov. Paul 2504.

A. monilifer (L.) DC.

Common in waste places. Fi. & Fr.: Sept.-
Dec. Srivastava & Party, s.n.

A. vaginalis (L.) DC.
Frequent among grasses on moist grounds.
Fl. & Fr.: Oct.-Jan. Paul 2513.

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.

Local name: Palas. Rare. FI.
Feb.-June. Saran & Party, s.n,

ro’ ope el ee

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Crotalaria calycina Sch.

Rare i waste. lands.:: Al. :

Paul 2547.

July-Sept.

C. chinensis L.

in (forest, 2 id ek brs
Srivastava & Party 46632.

Frequent
Dec.

Sept.-

C. evolvuloides Wight

Frequent. in shady places, . f4 & jkr.
Aug.-Jan. Srivastava & Party 21552.

C. prostrata Rottl. ex Willd.

Frequent. im ‘forest. #/. & Fr. : .Aug.-
Oct. Paul 2531;

C. sericea Retz.

Rare in grasslands. Fi. & Fr.: Aug.-Jan.
Paul 2511.

Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.

Frequent im open “places. fio & br.

Sept.-Feb. Srivastava & Party 46547, 46535.

D. paniculata Roxb.

Occasional in forest.
Oct. Saran & Party 25870.

Fl, So Fre: July-

Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC.

Fairly common. FJ. & Fr.: April-Oct.
Srivastava & Party 46551.
D. latifolium DC.

Rare «= m waste erounds.” Fil. & Fy:
Sept.-Nov. Paul 2506.
D. motorium (Hout.) Merr.

Not common among grasses. Fi. & Fr.:
April-Sept. Paul 2525.
D. pulchellum Benth.

Frequent. Fi. & Fr.: Sept.-Dec. Paul 2636.
D. triangulare (Retz.) Merr.

Not common in moist places. Fi. & Fr. :

Aug.-Jan. Paul 2516.

D. triflorum (L.) DC.

Common in wastelands. Fi. & Fr.: Sept.-
Feb. Srivastava & Party 46594.

Galactia tenuiflora (Klein ex Willd.) Wt. & Arn.

Frequent. Fi. & Fr.: July-Feb. Saran &
Party 25898.

(This is the only record for the province).

Indigofera hamiltoni Grah.

Prequent in forest: (Fi) & Fr. < Niarch-
June. Saran & Party 25895.
I. hirsuta L.

Common in. moist places: oF. 1S shee

Sept.-Nov. Srivastava & Party 46507.

I. linifolia (L.) Retz.

Common. Fl. & Fr.: July-Dec. Srivastava
& Party 46522 ; Saran & Party 25881.

I. linnaei Ali

Frequent.
37000.

F].: Aug. Chandra & Party

I. pulchella Roxb.

Prequent.) ile
Party 20656, 20635.

Dec.-Feb. Srivastava &

I. tinetoria L.
Not common in forest.
Nov. Saran & Party 46579.

Fl. & Fr.: Aug.-

Lathyrus sativus L.

Escape from _ cultivation.
Srivastava & Party 46615.

Jays Oct.

Medicago denticulata Willd.

Rare among grasses.
Dec: Paul 207i

Fl. 8 Fe: Aue.

Melilotus alba Desr.

Common weed of cultivation.

Fl. & Fr.:
Feb.-April. Saran & Party 25936, ,

p42

FLORA OF RAJGIR HILLS

M. indica (L.) All.
In cultivated fields.
Paul 2508.

Fl. & Fr. : Oct.-Dec.

Milletia auriculata Baker ex Brand.

Rare wm: ‘forest: Fil. &. Fr:
aul 2532.

Aug.-Feb.

Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.
Local name: Kanwach.

Occasional in forest. Fr. : Oct.-Dec.
2514.

Paul

Ougenia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Hoch.
Rare in open places. Fr.: Feb.

Phaseolus caicaratus Roxb.

Not common in forest. Fi. & Fr.:
Jan. Chandra & Party 29299.

Oct.-

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.

Not commons ls) 8 Fr:
Srivastava & Party 20643.

Oct.-Feb.

Rhynchosia minima DC.

Frequent in waste places. Fi.
Aug.-Nov. Srivastava & Party 46681.

Oo BR:

Tephrosia purpurea Pers.
Brequent on dry ‘soilsi: Fl. & Er. : Oct.-

Feb. Srivastava & Party 20629.

Teramnus labialis (L.f.) Spreng.

Occasional in forest. Fl. & Fr.:
Dec. Paul 2518.

Sept.-

Uraria picta Desv.

Rare? in “forest. 9 F/:
Paul 2544.

Vicia hirsuta Gray

Frequent in cultivated fields.
Sept.-Dec. Paul 2507.

& Fr.: Aug.-Oct.

Fle. & Fr:

Zornia gibbosa Spanoghe

Common in dry paddy fields,
Paul 2536,

Fle | Nov.

23

CAESALPINIACEAE

Bauhinia malabarica Roxb.

Frequent. F/.: March-Oct.

Party 20657.

Srivastava &

B. vahlii Wt. & Arn.

Not common. Fi. & Fr.: July-Jan. Paul
2509:

B. variegata L.

Occasional. Fi/.: Feb.-March. Saran &
Party 25621.
Cassia fistula L.

Not common. Fil. & Fr.: June-Nov.

Srivastava & Party 20644.

C. occidentalis L.

Common in waste places. Fi. & Fr.:

Aug.-Oct. Saran & Party 25675.
G, sophora L.
Frequent. Fi. & Fr. : Sept.-Nov. Srivastava &
Party 26491.
C. tora L.

Frequent in waste grounds.
Oct.-Feb. Paul 2535

BE Sor:

MIMOSACEAE

Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd.

Not common along forest edges. Fi. &
Fr.: March-May. Paul 2546.
A. gageana Craib. in Kew Bull. 1915: 409,

1915.

Rare in forest. F/.: April. Srivastava &
Party 46516.

New record for Bihar & Orissa. Distr. :

W. Pakistan; Jammu,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

A. nilotica (L.) Delile subsp. indica (Benth.)
Brenan

Frequent.
25660.

Fr.: Oct.-Nov. Saran & Party

A. torta (Roxb.) Craib.

Not common. F/.: Oct.-Nov.
& Party 20634, 46516.

Srivastava

Albizzia lebbek (L.) Benth.

Not common in valleys. Fr.:
Srivastava & Party 20633.

Oct.-Nov.

A. odoratissima (L.f.) Benth.

Occasional. F/.: March-April. Paul 2639.

Mimosa himalayana Gamble

Common. Fi, & Fr.: April-June. Srivastava &
Party 20627.

M. pudica L.

Rare in waste grounds.
Oct. Paul 2521.

Fl. & Fr.: Aug.-

Neptunia oleracea Lour.

Not common in streams. Fi.
Oct.-Nov. Srivastava & Party 21497.

S&S fre:

ROSACEAE

Potentilla supina L.

Frequent. F/.: April-May. Saran & Party

25930.
Rosa macrophylla Lindl.

Some plants were noted as escape from
cultivation. F/.: Oct. Saran & Party 25929.

DROSERACEAE

Drosera burmanni Vahl

Rare in Swampy fields. F/.: April-June.

Paul 2548,

COMBRETACEAE

Combretum decandrum Roxb.

Not common. F/.: Oct.-Feb. Saran &

Party 25823, 46526.

C. nanum Ham.

Rare. F/.: March-May. Saran & Party

25671:

Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb.

Not common. fr: Jan-Feb. Paul 2522.

T. tomentosa Wt. & Arn.

Frequent. Fr.: April-June. Chandra &

Party 28141.

MYRTACEAE

Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston

Frequent. Fi. & Fr.: April-July. Paul

2545.

LYTHRACEAE

Ammannia baccifera L.

Occasional near streams. Fl. & Fr.: Sept.-
Dec. Saran & Party 25577.

Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne

Frequent in marshy places. F/.: Oct.-
Nov. Paul 2554.
R. rotundifolia (Buch.-Ham.) Koehne

Common aquatic. F/.: March-June. Paul

Za19,

Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz

Local name: Dhaki.

Frequent in open, dry places in the forest.
Fl, & Fr.: Feb.-May. Saran & Party 25829,
46557.

FLORA OF RAJGIR HIELS

ONAGRACEAE

Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven subsp.

octovalvis
Common in moist grounds. F/.: Nov.

Saran & Party 25678.

L. perennis L.

Erequent im, tice-nelds. fi. :
Saran & Party 25695.

Sept.-Oct.

CUCURBITACEAE

Bryonopsis ampiexicaulis Lamk.

Common climber. Fr.: Oct.-Nov. Sri-

vastava & Party 25631.

Coccinia grandis (L.) Voight
Frequent in village hedges. Fr.: Oct.-

Nov. Srivastava & Party 46585.

Momordica dioica Roxb.

Frequent in waste grounds.
Nov. Paul 2533.

Fl. & Fr. : Sept.-

Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.

Occasional. Fr.: Feb.-March. Srivastava
& Party 46561.

FICOIDACEAE

Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk.

Frequent. Fl. & Fr. : Feb.-Sept.
& Party 21492.

Srivastava

M. pentaphylia L.

Not common in open fields. Fi.: July-
Oct. Paul 2551:
Trianthema portulacastrum L.

Fairly common. Fi. & Fr.: Sept.-Jan.

Chandra & Party 29356, 29352 ;
Party 46661.

Srivastava &

UMBELLIFERAE

Centella asiatica (L.) Urban

Frequent along roadsides. Fr.: Oct.
Party 25696.

Saran &

Seseli indicum W. & A.

Common. F/.: Jan.-March. Srivastava &

Party 21550.

Trachyspermum strictocarpum (Cl.) Wolf

Not ‘common; Fl, & #r..:.,Sept.-Feb,
Saran & Party 25923; Singh & Party 2384
(CDRI).

ALANGIACEAE

Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wang.

Common on hills. F/: Feb.-April. Saran &
Party 23817.

RUBIACEAE

Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq.

Occasional. F/.: April-July. Srivastava &

Party 20650.

Borreria stricta (L.f.) C.F.W. Mey

Frequent along way side and waste lands.
Fil, > Sept.-Nov.. Paul 2529.

Gardenia latifolia Aiton

Occasional in forest. Fi.:

Paul 2553.

April-June.

G. turgida Roxb.

Frequent. Fi. & Fr.: March-April. Srivast-
ava & Party 20649; Saran & Party 25842.

Hedyotis hispida Retz.

Occasional. Fr.: Jan.-Feb, Saran & Party
25921,

25

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Hymenodictyon exselsum Wall.
Not common. F/.: Oct.-Feb. Saran &

Party 25895.

Ixora arborea Roxb. ex Smith

Frequent. Fl.: March-April. Saran &
Party 25824.
Oldenlandia affinis (R. & S.) DC.

Occasional near river banks, (ki:
Oct.- Dec. Paul 2542.

O. corymbosa L.
Frequent. F/.: Oct.

O. ovatifolia (Cav.) DC.
Fi: INov-Feb.; Paul 2573.

Paul 1500.

Frequent.

Pavetta indica L.
Frequent. Fl.: June. Srivastava & Party
46553. Saran & Party 25886.

P. tomentosa (Haines) Bremek.

Not common along footpaths! Fi. :
Nov.-Jan. Srivastava & Party 20640.

Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Poir.

Occasional. Fis Peb.-June: Paul 2555.
COMPOSITAE
Ageratum conyzoides L.
Very Common everywhere. Fi/.: Dec.

Paul 2552.

Blumea jacquemontii Hook. f.
Frequent. Fil.: Feb. Srivastava & Party

46517.

B. lacera DC.

Occasional in sheltered places. Fi. :
Jan.-Feb. Paul 2560.
B. laciniata DC.

Occasional in wastelands.
Saran & Party 25699,

Plinc: March.

26

B. mollis (D. Don) Merrill

Not common
Nov.-Dec.

in cultivated fields. F/.:

Paul 2562.

B. oxyodonta De:

Frequent along roadsides.
Marehe "Paul 2566.) 7

Fi Jan.-

Caesulia axillaris Roxb.

Common in rice-fields. F/.: Oct.-Nov.

Paul 2578.

Eclipta prostrata (L.) Linn.

Common in rice-fields. Fi/.:

Paul 2570.

Sept.-Dec.

Elephantopus scaber L.

Not common in grassland. Fl.: & Fr.:
Aug.-Oct. Paul 2557.

Emilia sonchifolia DC.

Occasional in waste places. Fl. : Oct.-Nov.
Paul 2569.

Gnaphalium indicum L.

Frequent along muddy banks of streams.
Fl, : Oct.-Jan. Paul 2571.

G. purpurium L.

Not common in wet ground. F/.: Feb.
Paul 2566.

Grangea maderaspatana Poir.
Common. Fi. & Fr.: April-July. Saran &

Party 25685.

Laggera alata Sch.-Bip.
Rare. Fil. :Sept.-Nov. Paul 2556,

Launaea procumbens (Roxb.) Ramayya &
Rajagopal
Frequent among grasses.
Paul 2580.

Fl.: April.

Senecio nudicaulis Buch.-Ham.

Frequent. F/.: Sept. Paul 2561,

FLORA OF RAJGIR HILLS

Sonchus brachyotus DC.

Common. Fil. : Oct.-Dec.

S. oleraceus L.

Frequent. Fi/.: July. Srivastava & Party,
Suet: :

Sphaeranthus indicus L.

Common in marshy places.
Oct. Paul 2574.

Fl, : Feb.-

Tridax procumbens L.

Very. Commons (Fl: :
25719.

Aug.-Nov. Paul

Vernonia cinerea Less.

Common in_ waste,
Feb) Paul 2583:

open places. Fi. :

Vicoa indica (Willd.) DC.

Common. F/.: Feb.-Nov. Srivastava &
Party 46548.
Xanthium indicum Koenig
Common. Fr.: Oct.-Dec. Paul 2594,
CAMPANULACEAE

Campanula benthamii Wall. ex Kitamura
Rare. Fl. : Feb.-March. Paul 2575.

PRIMULACEAE

Anagallis arvensis L.

Not common in moist ground. F/.: Oct.-
Dec. Paul 2590.

MYRSINACEAE

Ardisia solanacea (Poir.) Roxb.

Occasional in valleys. Fi. & Fy.:

July. Paul 2558.

Feb.-

SAPOTACEAE

Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) MacBride var.
longifolia

Rare. Fi. & Fr.: May-Jan: -Saran’ &
Party, Sn:
EBENACEAE
Diospyros melanoxylion Roxb.
Frequent. Fr.: April-June. Paul 2577.
D. montana Roxb.
Occasional. Fr.: June. Saran ‘& Party

25816.

D. tomentosa Roxb.

Frequent, Fr.
Parity 20656.

April-May. Srivastava &

NYCTANTHACEAE

Nyctanthus arber—tristis L.

Occasional. F/.: April. Srivastava & Party

46532.

APOCYNACEAE

Carissa opaca Stapf ex Haines

Frequently met with on hilly slopes. F/. & Fr. :
Feb.-April. Saran & Party 25808.
C. paucinervia A. DC.

Not common. Fi. & Fr. : Oct. Dec.
Party 25808.

Saran &

Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) Ait. & Ait.

Common climber in shady localities. FY.

Oct.-Jan. Saran & Party 25827.

Wrightia tomentosa Roem. & Sch.

Frequent. Fi. & Fr.: April-Dec. Saran &
Party 25884 ; Srivastava & Party 46514.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Calotropis procera R. Br.

Frequent along roadsides.
April. Saran & Party 25862.

Fl.: March-

Cryptolepis buchanani Roem. & Sch.
Not common. Fil. & Fr.: May-Dec.
vastava & Party, Ss. n.

Sri-

Dragea volubilis (L.f.) Benth. ex Hook. f.
Frequent. Fr.: April. Chandra & Party,

S. H.

Gymnema sylvestris R. Br.
Common. Fl. & Fr.: Aug.-Feb. Saran &
Party 25809 ; Srivastava & Party 20901.

Hemidesmus indicus (L.) Sch.

Common. Fi. & Fr.: Sept.-Nov. Srivast-
ava & Party 46558.
GENTIANACEAE

Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R. Br.

Common in moist, shady places. Fi. &
Fr.: Oct.-March. Saran & Party 25944.
Exacum tetragonum Roxb.

Not common among grasses. Fi/.: Sept.-

Nov. Srivastava & Party, s. n.
Nymphoides indicum (L.) O. Kuntze.
Rare aquatic. Fil. : May-Oct. Paul 2592.

BORAGINACEAE

Cordia dichotoma Forst. f.

Rare. Fl. & Fr.: March-April. Paul 2559.

Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forsk.

Not common in waste grounds and along
roadsides, F/. April-Nov. Paul 2584.

Heliotropium indicum L.
Frequent. F/.: Aug.-Sept.

25679.

Saran & Party

H. ovalifolium Forsk.

Occasional. Fi. : Feb.-March. Saran &
Party 25932.

H. supinum L.
Frequent. F/. & Fr.: Jan.-Feb. Saran &

Party 25937.

Trichodesma indicum R. Br.

Occasional. F/.: Oct.-Nov. Paul 2563.
CONVOLVULACEAE
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.
Occasional. F/.: Oct.-Nov. Chandra &
Par hy San:

Convolvulus arvensis Sieb. ex Spreng.

Rare in cultivated fields. F/.: Feb.- April.
Paul 2572.

Erycibe paniculata Roxb.

Frequent. Fi. & Fr.: April-June. Srivastava
& Party 46552.

Evolvulus alsinoides L.

Common. Fi. & Fr.: July-Oct. Saran &
Party 25901.
E. nummularius L.

Not common. Fl.: Oct.-Dec. Saran &
Party, s. n.
Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.

Abundant. Fi. & Fr.: March-Oct. Paul
2576.
I, nil (L.) Roth

Occasional in waste lands. Fi. & Fr.;

March-June. Paul 2585,

28

FLORA OF RKAJGIR HILLS

I. pestigridis L.
Frequent in cultivated fields. F/.: Aug.-
Sept. Paul 2593.

Merremia emarginata (Burm. f.) Hallier f.

Frequent in paddy-fields. F/.: Oct.-Dec.
Saran & Party 25915.

Porana paniculata Roxb.

Frequent on hedges in scrub-jungles. F/.:
Oct.- Dec. Paul 2567.

Rivea ornata Choisy

Not common in waste lands. F/.: Aug.-
Sept. Saran & Party 25868.

SOLANACEAE

Capsicum annuum L.

Occasional near houses. F/.: Aug. Saran &
Party 25835.

Datura metel L.

Frequent in low-lying fields near villages.
Fl.: April-May. Srivastava & Party 46711.

Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv.

A weed introduced from Mexico; natura-
lized in waste, moist places. F/.: March-June.
Saran & Party 25912.

Solanum nigrum L.

Common in cultivated fields. Fr.: July-
Sept: Paul 2591.

S. surattense Burm. f.

Frequent in waste lands. F/.: Nov.-Jan.
Saran & Party 25804.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Limnophila indica (L.) Druce

Not common in muddy places. F/.:
Sept.-Nov. Paul 2564.

Lindenbergia muraria (Roxb.) Bruhl

Occasional. F/.: Oct.-Dec. Saran & Party
25664.

Lindernia crustacea (L.) F. Muell.

Common in moist, shady places. Fi.:
July-Sept. Paul 2595.

L. parviflora (Roxb.) Haines

Frequent in marshy places. Fi.: Aug.-
Sept. Paul 2565.

L. sessiliflora (Benth.) Wettst.
Frequent. F/.: July-Aug. Paul 2581.

Scoparia duicis L.

Common in cultivated fields. F/.: Aug.-
Sept. Paul 2600.

OROBANCHACEAE

Orobanche aegyptiaca Pers.

Common parasite on roots of cultivated
plants. Fl: Oct.-Feb. — Paul 2588.

LENTIBULARIACEAE
Utricularia inflexa Forsk. var. stellaris (L-.f.)
Taylor

Occasional in swamps, paddy fields, etc.
Fl. & Fr.: Oct.-Nov. Paul 2610.

BIGNONIACEAE

Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC.

Occasional in forest. Fl. & Fr. : Feb.-April.
Paul 2586.

PEDALIACEAE

Martynia annua L.

Not common among grasses. Fi/.: Aug.
Paul 2599.

Sesamum indicum L.

Frequent in cultivated fields. F/. & Fr.:
July-Oct. Srivastava & Party 21520.

29

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

ACANTHACEAE

Adhatoda vasica Nees

Occasional. Fi. & Fr.: Nov.-Jan. Saran &
Party 25854.
Andrographis paniculata Nees

Frequent in moist places. F/.: Aug.-Oct.

Srivastava & Party 46630.

Barleria cristata L.
Frequent in swampy places. F/.: Nov.

Paul 2587.

B. prionitis L.

Not common in open places. F/.: Oct.-

Nov. Paul 2605.

Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) Heyne ex Roth

Common in hedges and open, moist places.
Fl.: Nov. Saran & Party 25904.

Dicliptera micranthes Nees
Occasional in forest... F/-: Feb. Saran &

Party 25625.

Eranthemum purpurascens Nees

Frequent in ‘forest: He:
Srivastava & Party 46625.

March-April.

Hemigraphis hirta T. Anders

Frequent along hill slopes. F/.: March-

April. Saran & Party 25619.

Hygrophila auriculata (Sch.) Heyne

Occasional along water courses.
Oct. Saran & Party 25676.

Fi. : Aug.-

Indoneesiella echioides (L.) Sreem.

Frequent in waste lands. Fi/.: Nov. Saran &
Party 25907.

Justicia diffusa Wilid.
Common in cultivated fields. F/.:
Feb. . Paul 2397,

Dec.-

J. quinqueanguiaris Koen. ex Roxb.
Frequent in fields and waste grounds.
Fl.: Feb. Srivastava & Party 46690.

Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees :

Common in hedges. F/.: Nov.
Party 25850.

Saran &

Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees

Common in dry sandy soils and in open
fields. F/.: Oct.-Dec. Srivastava & Party
20621.

R. repens (L.) Nees
Frequent in
vated fields.

moist places and in culti-
Fl. : Nov.-Dec. Paul 2589.

VERBENACEAE

Gmelina arborea Roxb.

Frequent in scrub jungles. F/.:
April. Saran & Party 25865.

March-

Lantana camara L. var. aculeata (L.) Mold.
Common in villages. Fl.: Feb. Saran &

Party 25558.

Lippia javanica (Burm. f.) Spreng.

Not common in marshy waste lands. Fi. :
July-Sept. Paul 2598.
Phyila nodifiora (L.) Green

Frequent in marshy places. Fi.‘ Oct.-

Dec. Srivastava & Party 25677.
Pygnacopremna herbacea (Roxb.) Moldenke
Occasional in forest. F/.: June. Paul
2609.
Verbena officinalis L.
Rare in paddy fields. Eien Dec Jan:
Paul 2582.
Vitex negundo L.
Along roadsides near the villages. F/.:

July-Oct. Paul 2596.

30

FLORA OF RAJGIR HILLS

LABIATAE

Anisochilus carnosus Wall.

Frequent in paddy fields. /.: Nov.-Dec.
Paul 2612.
Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze

In open country along hedges. Fi. : Oct.

Srivastava & Party 40675.

Hyptis suaveolens Poit.

Frequent. f/.: Nov.
46508.

Srivastava & Party

Leucas cephailotes Spreng.

Frequent in cultivated fields. F/.: Sept.-
Dec. Paul 2601.
L. montana Spreng.

@eccasional: int forest, F/:: Feb. Sri-
vastava & Party 46560.
Nepeta hindostana (Roth) Haines

Rare in marshy waste lands. F/.: Nov.
Paul 2617.
Ocimum sanctum L.

Frequent near garden beds. F/.: Oct.-

Nov. Srivastava & Party 46570.

NYCTAGINACEAE

Bacrhavia diffuse 1.

Common near villages in waste grounds.
Fl.: June-Oct. Saran & Party 25861.

AMARANTHACEAE

Achyranthes aspera L.

Frequent in waste places.
Nov.

Fl. & Fr. < Sept.-
Srivastava & Party 46651.

Aerva lanata (L.) Juss.

Common. #F/.: Nov.-Dec.
Party 46714.

Srivastava &

A. sanguinoienta (L.) BI.
Not common among grasses.
Dec. Srivastava & Party 46523.

Fl. : Sept.-

Alternanthera paronychioides St. Hil.
Frequent in marshy places. F/.: Aug.-
Oct. Srivastava & Party 46490.

A. sessilis (L.) DC.
cultivated fields and moist
Paul 2606.

Common in
places. F/. : May-Sept.

Amaranthus gracilis Desf. }
Common in cultivated fields and dry,

waste land. Fil. & Fr.: Sept.-Oct. Saran
& Party 25860.
A. spinosus L.

Common in; waste, lands... Fl. 8 Fr. :

Oci.-Jan. Saran & Party 25672.

A. tricolor L.
Frequent in waste lands and in cultivated

grounds. Fi. & Fr.: Nov.-Jan. Chandra &
Party 29349,
Celosia argentea L.

Not common in shady places. F/.: Sept.-

Nov. Srivastava & Party 46559.

Gomphrena celosicides Mart.

Occasional in cultivated grounds. Fi:
March-April. Paul 2608.
CHENOPODIACEAE

Chenopodium album L.

Common weed. Fi/.: April. Saran &

Party 25934.

C. murale L.

Frequent in ‘cultivated fields: F/2: Jan.-

April. Saran & Party 25548.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

POLYGONACEAE

Polygonum barbatum L.

Frequent along stream banks. F/.: Nov.-
Dec. Paul 2614.
P. limbatum Meissn.

Not common. F/.: Dec.-April. Paul 2602.

P. plebeium R. Br.

Common in moist places, cultivated fields,
dried ditches etc. F/.: March-April. Saran
& Party 25920.

P. stagnium Buch.-Ham.
Not common. F/.: Dec.-Feb. Paul 2624.

Rumex maritimus L.

Common in waste places. FY/.:
April. Saran & Party 25935.

March-

LORANTHACEAE

Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.) Etting

Common parasite on trees. F/.: Dec.-
Feb. Paul 2607.
EUPHORBIACEAE
Acalypha indica L.
Frequent weed in waste places. Fl. & Fr.:

Nov.-Jan. Saran & Party 25857.

Bridelia montana Willd.

Occasional in forest. F/.: Aug. Srivastava &
Party 20660.

B. retusa Spreng.

Frequent. F/. & Fr.: Aug.-Oct. Srivastava &
Party 20638.

B. stipularis (L.) BI.

Not common. Fi.
Srivastava & Party, s.n.

& Fr.: April-Nov.

B. tomentosa BI.

Not common. Fl. & Fr. : Oct.-Feb. Saran &
Party, s.n. C

Croton bonplandianum Baill.

Very common in waste places. Fl. & Fr.:

Feb.-April. Saran & Party 25673.

Cleistanthus collinus Benth. .

Frequent in forest. F/.: March-April.
Srivastava & Party, s.n.
Euphorbia dracunculoides Lamk. |
Frequent in waste ground. Fl. & Fr.:

Oct.-Jan. Srivastava & Party 20021.

KE. granulata Forsk.

Frequent on dry, fallow fields.
Feb. Chandra & Party 29300.

Fl. : Sept.-

E. hirta L.

Fairly common weed. F/.: Aug.-Oct. Paul
2613:

KE. microphylla Heyne

Frequently met with among grasses. F/I. :
Aug.-Dec. Saran & Party 25914.
E. nivulia Buch.-Ham.

Occasional in rocky places. F/.: March-

April. Saran & Party 25832.

K. perbracteata Gage
Not common. F/.: Jan.-March. Chandra

& Party 29281.

Phyllanthus fraternus Webster

Common in waste places.
Paul 2604.

Fi.: July-Sept.

P. urinaria L.

Occasional along roadsides and in waste
places. Fl. & Fr.: May-Nov. Paul 2620.

32

FLORA OF RAJGIR HILLS

Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Pax &
Hoffm.

Frequent in forest.
vastava & Party 20648.

Fi. : June-Aug. Sri-

Tragia involucrata L.
Common in hedges. Fi. : Nov.-Jan. Saran &
Party 25833.

T. gagei Haines

Rare in_ hedges.
Vastava & Party, s.n.

Fl.: Feb.-April. — Sri-

Trewia polycarpa Benth.

Frequent in waste places. Fl:
April. Saran & Party 25954.

Feb.-

ULMACEAE

Trema orientalis (L.) BI.

Occasional near villages.
Paul 2611.

Fl. : Oct.-Dec.

MORACEAE

Ficus glabella BI.

Common in scrub jungles.
May. Srivastava & Party, s.n.

Fr.: April-

F. lacor Buch.-Ham.

Frequent, in’ forest: Fr.:
2619.

April. Paul
F. mollis Vahl

Frequent near villages. Fr.: March-May.

Paul 2603.
F, racemosa L.
Common. Fr.: May-June. Paul 2621.
CERATOPHYLLACEAE

Ceratophyllum demersum L.

Frequent in marshy places. F/.:
Oct. Paul 2623.

Aug.-

MONOCOTYLEDONS

HYDROCHARITACEAE

Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle

Common aquatic herb. Fi:
Srivastava & Party 46493.

Aug.-Sept.

Vallisneria spiralis L.

Scarce in streams.
2616.

Fl. : Feb.-March. Paul

ORCHIDACEAE

Vanda parviflora Lindl.
Frequent epiphyte.
2625.

Fl. : March-April. Paul

HyYPOXIDACEAE

Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.

Not common in_ forest.
Paul 2615.

Fl. : Oct.-Dec.

DIOSCOREACEAE

Dioscorea bulbifera L.
Rare in hedges.
2631.

Fr.: July-Aug. Paul

LILIACEAE

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

Fl. : Nov.-Jan. Paul 2618.

Not common.

Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav.

Frequently met with as a weed of cultivated
fields. FI. & Fr.: April-Oct. Paul 2640.

PONTEDERIACEAE

Eichhernia crassipes (Mart.) Solms.

Not common in ditches below the _ hill.

Fl. : March-April. Paul 2622.

33

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

COMMELINACEAE

Commelina benghalensis L.

Fairly common weed. F!/.: July-Aug.
Chandra & Party 29336.
C. forskalii Vahl

Common in marshy places. F/.: Sept.-

Oct. Saran & Party 25698.

Cyanotis cristata (L.) D. Don

Common in marshy places, among grasses
and in crevices of rocks. Fl.: Oct.-Nov.
Paul 2629.

Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan

Common along streams, river banks and in
moist grassy places. Fi/.: Aug.-Sept. Paul
2638.

PALMAE

Phoenix acaulis Buch.-Ham.
Occasional in forest undergrowth.

ALISMATACEAE
Sagittaria guayanensis H.B. & K. subsp. lappula
(D. Don) Bogin
Not common in muddy banks.
Oct. Paul 2626.

Fl. > Sept.

POTAMOGETONACEAE

Potamogeton crispus L.

Frequent in shallow ditches.
March. Srivastava & Party 46762.

Fl.: Jan.-

ERIOCAULACEAE

Eriocaulon cinereum R. Br.
Frequent in paddy fields.
2634.

Fl.: Oct. Paul

CYPERACEAE

Bulbostylis barbata (Rottb.) Cl.

Occasional in forest. Fi.:
Chandra & Party 37049.

Sept.-Nov.

Cyperus amabilis Vahl
Frequent. F/.: April-Sept.
Party 36969. ¢

Chandra &

C. brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk.

Common in moist places. Fl.:
Sept. Saran & Party 25697.

June-

C. compressus L.

Common in _ rice-fields.
Chandra & Party 37013.

Fl.: June-Aug.

C. exaltatus Retz.

Common along streams.
Srivastava & Party 21933.

Fl: Aug.-Oct.

C. iria L.

Common in rice fields.
Chandra & Party 37004.

Fl.: Sept.-Jan.

C. kyllingia Endl.

Frequent along streams in marshy places.
Fl. : June-Aug. Srivastava & Party 21473.

C. malaccensis Lamk.

Not common among grasslands. Fl. : Sept.-
Jan. Saran & Party 25946.

C. pygmaeus Rottb.

Not common in paddy-fields. F/.: April-
June. Paul 2633.
C. rotundus L.

Common in cultivated fields. F/.: Aug.-

Nov. Chandra & Party 29293.

Eleocharis plantaginea R. Br.

Frequent along margins of shallow ditches.
FI. : Oct.-Nov. Srivastava & Party 21478.

Fimbristylis junciformis Kunth

Common among grasses.
Srivastava & Party 21102.

F/.: April-Aug.

34

FLORA OF RAJGIR HILLS

F. monostachya Hassk.

Frequent near hot springs.
Sept. Srivastava & Party 21121.

Fi.: Aug.-

F. miliaceae (L.f.) Vahl ( = S. quinquangularis
Vahl)
Frequent

Dec.

in marshy places. Fl.: Oct.-

Srivastava & Party 21475.

Scirpus maritimus L.

Common
April.

along streams. F/.: March-

Saran & Party 25922.

Scleria levis Retz.
(= S. hebecarpa Nees)

Not common. Fi/.:
& Party 20611.

Aug.-Oct. Srivastava

POACEAE

Andropogon pumilus Roxb.

Frequent in forest. Fi.:
Srivastava & Party 20630.

Nov.-Dec.

Apluda mutica L.
Common on marshy banks of paddy fields.

Fl, : Aug.-Sept. Srivastava & Party 20655.
Aristida adscensionis Lour.

Occasional in dry fields. Fi.: July.
Srivastava & Party 20659.

Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst.

Common in open waste places. F/.: Oct.-
Nov. Srivastava & Party 20622.
Arundinella benghalensis Druce

Frequent in grasslands. F/.: Aug.-Sept.
Srivastava & Party 22636.

A. pumila (Hochst.) Steud.
Common on hill sides. F/.: July-Aug.

Srivastava & Party 21173.

35

Arundo donax L.

Frequent in forest. Fi/.:
Srivastava & Party 21458.

Nov.-Dec.

Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf

Occasional in waste places Fi.: April-
May. Srivastava & Party 21470.

B. reptans (L.) Gard. et Hubb.

Not common in paddy fields.
Nov. Paul 2627.

Fl.: Oct.-

Bothriochloa glabra Stapf
Occasional. Fi/.: April.
Party 20603.

B. pertusa (Willd.) A. Camus

Frequent in grasslands. Fi. :
Srivastava & Party 20615.

Srivastava &

Nov.-Dec.

Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.) Chiov.

Common in open, moist, waste places. Fi. :
Oct.-Nov. Srivastava & Party 20628.
Crypsis schoenoides Lamk.

Not common in waste places. F/.: Sept.-

Oct. Srivastava & Party 21465.

Cymbopogon caesius (Nees) Stapf

Rare in forest. Fi.: Nov. Srivastava &
Party 20654.
C. martini (Roxb.) Wats.

Frequent in forest. Fi.: Oct.-Dec. Sri-

vastava & Party 20200.

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

Very common everywhere. F/.: Aug. Paul
2635.

Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees

Frequent in outskirts of forests. Sri-
vastava & Party 20625.
Dicanthium annulatum (L.)7A. Camus

Common on hilly slopes. Fi. : July-Aug.

Srivastava & Party 46618.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Digitaria adscendens (H.B. & K.) Henr. subsp.
adscendens

Common in waste places. Fl.: Oct.-
Nov. Paul 2628.
D. marginata Link.
Frequent among. grasses. Fl: Sept.

Srivastava & Party 21093.

Echinochloa colona (L.) Link.

Common in marshy places and in paddy
fields. Fi.: Oct.-Dec. Chandra & Party
29287.

Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.

Common along roadsides, waste places and
in cultivated fields. F/.: July-Aug. Srivastava
& Party 21459.

Eragrostiella bifaria (Vahl) Bor

Occasional in moist grounds. F/.: Aug.
Srivastava & Party 20632.
Eragrostis pilosa (L.) Beauv.
Common in waste grounds. F/.: July.
Srivastava & Party 21127.
E. tenella (L.) Beauv. ex Roem. & Sch.
Frequent in grasslands. F/.: Dec.-Jan.
Paul 2637.
Eulalia trispicata (Sch.) Henr. .
Frequent in open, waste grounds. Fi. :
Oct.-Nov. Chandra & Party 33637.
Hackelochloa granularis (L.) O. Kuntze
Occasional in marshy places. F/.: Nov.-

Dec. Srivastava & Party 20641.

Heteropogon contortus (L.) Beauv. ex R. & S.

Common in forest. F/.: March-April.
Srivastava & Party 20619.
Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv.

Frequent in open grasslands. F/.: Nov.

Srivastava & Party 21136.

Leptochioa chinensis (L.) Nees

Frequent near hot springs. F/.: April.

Srivastava & Party 21133.
Lolium perenne L.

Occasional in the forest.
Srivastava & Party 21467.

Fl.: April-July.

Microchloa setacea R. Br.

Frequent on old walls of the fort. Fl:
Aug.-Sept. Srivastava & Party 20896.

Oplismenus burmanni (Retz.) P. Beauv.

Common along roadsides in the forest.
Fi. : Oct.-Nov. Srivastava & Party 20631.

Ophiurus monostachyus Presl.

Not common. F7.: Srivastava &

Party 20642.

Sept.

Panicum paludosum Roxb.

Occasional. F/.: Oct.

21463.

Srivastava & Party

P. psilopodium Trin.

Occasional in rice fields. F/.: Nov. Sri-

vastava & Party 21119.

Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A. Camus

Frequent in moist places. F/.: Oct.-
Nov. Paul 2632.
Pennisetum pedicillatum Trin.

Occasional in forest. Fi.: Sept.-Oct.
Srivastava & Party 20618.
Saccharum spontaneum L.

Common in grasslands. Fi/.: Aug.-Sept.
Srivastava & Party 20198.
Schizachyrium brevifolium (Sw.) Nees

Frequent in dry, waste lands. F/.: Nov.-

Jan. Srivastava & Party 20616.

36

FLORA OF RAJGIR HILLS

S. exile Stapf

Occasional. F/.: Nov. Srivastava & Party
20624.
Setaria glauca (L.) Beauv.

Very common. F/.: Aug.-Sept. Srivastava

& Party 20674.

Sporobolus diander (Retz.) Beauv.

Occasional in moist places and in culti-
vated fields. Fi.: Sept. Chandra & Party
27908.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. T. N. Khoshoo, Director,
National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow for the
facilities to work and for encouragement ; to the
Officer-in-Charge, Botany Branch, Central Drug
Research Institute and to Director-in-Charge,
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for permis-
sion to consult their herbaria and to Dr. H. A.
Khan, Curator Herbarium of the Birbal Sahni
Institute of Palaeobotany, Lucknow for the
map.

REFERENCES

HAINES, H. H. (1921-25): The Botany of Bihar &

Orissa, London.

HUNTER, W. W. (1886): The Imperial Gazetteer

of India, 11: 380-381.

SRIVASTAVA, J. G. (1956): The vegetation of Patna

District (Bihar).

37

J. Indian bot. Soc. 35: 391-401.

MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF RASBORA DANICONIUS
(HAM.-BUCH.)!

V. Y. THAKRE AND S. S. BAPAT?

(With two text-figures)

The present paper deals with the study on the gonadal maturation, sex ratio, minimum size at maturity,
spawning season and spawning periodicity in a cyprinid fish, Rasbora daniconius.

INTRODUCTION

The maturation and spawning study is
important as a factor with significant corre-
lations with other biological activities, since
this study is useful in various applied aspects
of fishery, its management and industries.

Oviparous fishes exhibit various types of
spawning tendencies which can be studied from
the development of the intra-ovarian eggs.
Walford (1932), Clark (1934), and Hickling &
Rutenberg (1936) studied various spawning
behaviours based on the size distribution of the
intra-ovarian eggs in different fishes.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

3085 specimens of Rasbora daniconius were
collected from August 1973 to July 1974 from
river Kham near Aurangabad. The total
length and weight of each fish were accurately
measured in mm and mg respectively and the
lengths and weights of the gonads were also
noted. The ovaries were then preserved in 5%
formalin for ova-diameter measurements of
the intra-ovarian eggs. Since the distribution
of ova in anterior, middle and posterior regions
was uniform, the ova-diameter measurements
from only the middle region of each ovary were

1 Accepted February, 1980.

° Department of Zoology, Marathwada University,
Aurangabad,

taken. The range of ova in each ovary was
then divided into several groups with a class
interval of three micrometer divisions and the
percentage of the ova present in each size group
was calculated and presented in graphs (Figs.
I 82).

Growth of ova in different stages of maturity :
The ova-diameter frequency polygons exhibited
in Fig. 1, show size distribution of ova in the
ovaries of different stages of maturity. On the
basis of the gonadal appearance, the size of the
intra-ovarian eggs and the extent of the yolk
present in the ova, the ovaries have been classi-
fied into seven maturity stages (Wood 1930).
Stage V again has been sub-classified into V,,
V. and V3 sub-stages on the basis of the modes
shown by the ovaries in stage V.

Sex ratio: Sex composition for different
months and different size groups is shown in
Tables 1 and 2 respectively. The Chi-square
test (Snedecor 1961), used in each case con-
firms whether the observed ratio agrees to the
expected 1:1 ratio between the two sexes.
The X? values significant at 5% level are shown
with one asterisk and those significant at both
5% and 1% levels are shown with two asterisks.

Minimum size at maturity: 2152 females
specimens ranging between 36 and 160 mm in
total length were examined for their maturity
stages. The number and percentage of females
in different maturity states, such as immature,
maturing, mature and spent were recorded

38

~

TABLE |

SPAWNING OF RASBORA DANICONIUS

SEX COMPOSITION AND ITS CHI-SQUARE TEST FOR DIFFERENT MONTHS IN R. daniconius

Total Females Males
INGO ee ee
Months specimens Number Percen- Number Percen- xX? D.F.
examined tage tage

1973
August 192 155 80.73 By 19.27 72. 5%* 1
September 559 322 57.60 237 42.40 12.925** 1
October 320 173 54.06 147 45.94 2.113 1
November 268 178 66.42 90 33.58 29.895** 1
December 372 272 TAD 100 26.88 719. S2T** 1

1974
January 311 262 84.24 49 15.76 145.881** 1
February 238 197 82.77 41 17.23 102.252** 1
March 188 136 72.34 52 27.66 37.531** 1
April 201 18) 65.17 70 34.83 18.512** ]
May 93 qs) 80.65 18 19.35 34.93 6%* 1
June 137 100 72.99 37 27.01 28.971%* 1
July 206 AS 73.30 55 26.70 44,738** 1

Pooled ec s.0S5 Zale 69.76

933 30.24 481.673%* 1

TABLE 2

SEX COMPOSITION AND ITS CHI-SQUARE TEST FOR DIFFERENT 10 MMSIZE GROUPS IN &. daniconius

Total Females Males
Length groups No. of wa
in mm. specimens Number Percen- Number _ Percen- xX? D.F.
examined tage tage
36-45 2 235 135 57.45 100 42.55 5.213" 1
46-55 es 371 212 57.14 159 42.86 Tonk 1
56-65 a 349 213 61.03 136 38.97 16.989%** 1
66-75 Bt 604 373 61.75 231 38.25 33.384%* 1
76-85 sy 550 362 65.82 188 34.18 55.047** 1
86-95 ae 486 431 88.68 Se) 132 290.897%** 1
96-105 a 268 241 89.93 27 10.07 170.881%* 1
106-115 ay 104 83 79.81 21 20.19 36.962** i
116-125 ie 55 39 70.91 16 29.09 9.618%**
126-135 ms 35 35 100.00 2
136-145 ae 19 19 100.00
146-155 os 7 7 100.00
156-165 ae 2 2 100.00
Pooled 3,085 DASZ 69.76 933 30.24 481.673** 1

39

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

for each size group as shown in Table 3. The
Table indicates that mature females appear for
the first time in 66-75 mm size group in 4.29%.
In the next size group 76-85 mm these females
occur in 22.1%. As the percentage 4.29 in
the 66-75 mm size group is too insignificant, the
minimum size of maturity can be fixed between
76 and 85 mm or 80 mm, the average size of the
length group. The occurrence of spent females
in the same size group may be due to the wide
range of the size group.

Spawning season: Out of 2152 females
examined during one year, only 1219 females—

all above the minimum size of maturity (i.e.
above 75 mm total length), were taken into
consideration in this observation. The data of
1219 females collected in different months were
analysed into different maturity stages as re-
presented in Table 4. The Table indicates total
absence of ripe females in May and _ their
presence from June to November. The small
percentage (4.23) of spent females in June may
be due to spawners shedding their eggs in early
June. In November only two ripe females
(4.65°%) were caught and there was total
absence of spent females in December. This

TABLE 3

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF IMMATURE, MATURING, MATURE AND SPENT SPECIMENS IN EACH
10 MM SIZE GROUP

Length No. of Immature Maturing Mature Spent
groups females No. and No. and No. and No.
in mm. examined %, WA We YA
36-45 is 135 135
(100.00)
46-55 a 212 166 46
(78.30) (21.70)
56-65 oe 213 136 77
(63.85) (36.15)
66-75 ay 373 224 133 16
(60.05) (35.66) (4.29)
76-85 pe 362 179 54 80 49
(49.44) (14.91) (22.10) (13.54)
86-95 ve 431 159 82 122 68
(36.89) (19.03) (28.30) (15.78)
96-105 as 241 54 73 74 50
(22.41) (30.29) (30.71) (16.60)
106-115 Bo 83 13 25 30 15
(15.66) (30.12) (36.14) (18.07)
116-125 a 39 2 12 16 9
(5.13) (30.77) (41.03) (23.08)
126-135 a 35 1 i 17 10
(2.86) (20.00) (48.57) (28.57)
136-145 a 19 Re 2 11 6
(10.52) (57.90) (31.58)
146-155 ae if ae 5 2
(71.43) (28.57)
156-165 oe 2 2 eat
(100.00)

(Figures in brackets indicate percentage)

40

SPAWNING OF RASBORA DANICONIUS

TABLE 4

NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF FEMALES (ABOVE 75 MM TOTAL LENGTH) IN DIFFERENT
STAGES OF MATURITY

Total
Month No. of I Il
females
examined
1973
August 122
September 122
October 105 12
(11.43)
November 43 20
(46.51)
December 112 16 36
(67.86) (32.14)
1974
January 130 Ui 112
(5.38) (86.15)
February 120 ae 84
(70.06)
March 107 39
(36.45)
April 78 16
(20.51)
May 64 6
(9.38)
June wk ae
July 145

suggests that there was no spawning in
November, the two ripe females thereat
belonged to the late spawners. The data,
therefore, indicate that R. daniconius spawns
from early June to late October, lasting for a
period of five months.

Spawning periodicity : Ova-diameter
measurement method was adopted for this
purpose. Mature ovaries in Vth and VIth

(Figures in brackets indicate percentages)

41

OBI IV Vv VI VII
1 38 45 38
(0.82) (31.15) (36.89) (31.15)
1 28 49 44
(0.82) (22.95) (40.16) (36.07)
vs 11 36 46
(10.48) (34.29) (43.81)
AS 2 21
( 4.65) (48.84)
11
(8.46)
a5 1
(29.17) (0.83)
59 9
(55.14) (8.41)
30 27 5
(38.46) (34.62) (6.41)
21 23 14
G2;81) 5.94) (21.88)

o 26 16 22 3
(5.63) (36.62) (22.54) (30.99) (4.23)
7 43 48 47

(4.83) (29.66) (33.10): °° @2.41)

were obtained from mature females
collected in breeding season and fixed in 5%

Stages

formalin. Eleven such ovaries were selected
and the ova-diameter measurements from the
middle region of each of the ovaries were taken.
From the number of ova and their percentage
in each ova-diameter size group, frequency
distribution graph for each of the ovaries was
drawn as shown in Fig. 2,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

suas : il STAGE
Pe
33 {cep
b
I STAGE IV STAGE
a
~~ Q
< et set fe
> i ‘commen, .
ra
: :
=
. V, STAGE vI STAGE
Ww a
a a ;
= : {>
ae) ae ‘
a oe a ~~ “
tad ee | ee il :
©
< a , :
he V, STAGE ; VIE STAGE
a 7
u) b
) Aes
ox
Wl . ~~
a.
[e'e) = wT ips S (oa) wo Cop) —N wh (2.0)
i Cet Ce a ~~ NWN NOON OY Mm @~
See Ee A
V, STAGE é COST OE NETO RON AONB CTEM, 3 levy OO aes ces
et OVA DIAMETER IN M.D.
a Vf NX
Tl es aie 2
C2 2 ee Ss
OVA DIAMETER IN M.0.

Fig. 1. Ova-diameter frequency polygons showing the growth of the ova in different stages of maturity.

42

40

NUMBER OF OVA
oS

PERCENTAGE
Lem)

SPAWNING OF RASBORA DANICONIUS

p VST A Ge
Q
c
V STAGE
b }
one “
aac
hv STAGE q
oo Zo X
Ee
V STAGE N
SS ie py
a
Y STAGE ve

Q
Vi STAG &

i a sO
ee) = x ™~ (oy do) fen) a:
Se ee or
NOt CO ngs ON ee
ag “SF, ™N N Sen m

OVA DIAMETER IN M.D.

Fig, 2.

43

V SIAGE

| vie
EN ve -

a

, VI STAGE ae
BP i Peel
fee
VI STAGE a
b ae ‘
, SE ORO es
VI STAGE

co

oe

ye

VI SUAsG: Ee

a
ro
b
oes

oo — wT ~ Oo ™ Cop) ~N uw ©
en a Ge eye oy oe
Oe 9) Oo. 4 SoS ee a ea
See EN SN IN ~m oO —™

OVA DIAMETER IN M.D.

Size frequency distribution of ova in mature ovaries (Stages V and VI) of Rasbora daniconius.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

TABLE 5

SHOWING DETAILS OF OVA*DIAMETER RANGE, MODAL TYPES AND MODAL SIZES OF OVA IN EACH
MATURITY STAGE OF THE OVARY

Stage of maturiy Range of ova Modal type Modal size of
diameter in m.d. ova in m.d.
if e 6-8 Nas (6-8)
II et 6-11 nas (6-8)
Iii AN 6-20 ral (15-17)
ie NBS (6-8)
IV is 6-23 vate (18-20)
[oy (6-8)
V 6-35 aes (21-23),(24-26),(27-29)
vibe (6-8), (9-11)
VI 6-38 vat (30-32)
Ato) 4 (9-11)
Vil Shortened and

indefinite

It is clear from Fig. 2 that each of the ova-
diameter frequency polygons has two distinct
modes, “b’ and ‘a’, the former representing
the immature egg stock and the latter the
mature ones. Walford (1932) observed that in
a fish spawning once in a year, the mature
ovary contains only two types of ova, the im-
mature and the mature. Hence from the above
observation it can be said that the fish spawns
only once in a year. From Table 5 and Fig. 2
it is clear that the total range of the distribution
of intra-ovarian eggs in R. daniconius is from
6 to 38 m.d., out of which the mature ova cover
a range of 18 to 38 m.d., which is nearly half
of the total range of the distribution of the
intra-ovarian eggs, thereby indicating a pro-
longed breeding season of the species (Prabhu
1956). The fact that the mature ova are clearly
differentiated from the immature ones indicates
that the fish spawns in a definite spawning
season (Hickling & Rutenberg 1936, De Jong
1939).

ves <=

It is observed from Table 5 and Fig. 2 that
the range of mature ova in the ovaries in
stages V and VI is very wide. In the ovaries
in Vth stage the mature ova ranged from
18-35 m.d., while those in stage VI ranged from
18-38 m.d. This shows that from Stage V
to VI the ova grow from 35 to 38 m.d., i.e. 3 m.d.
in diameter. The maximum size of the ova
in the ovaries in Stage IV is 23 m.d. This
indicates that the mature ova in stage V grow
from 23 to 35 m.d., i.e. 12 m.d. in diameter,
thus showing that the ovary in stage V grows
through a wide range of size and also progresses
through different modes showing differential
maturity as shown by the sub-stages V,, V, and
V3. The sub-stage V, can be said to be more
advanced when compared to other two. The
phenomenon deals with the prolonged breeding
habits of the fish.

It is also clear from the above observations
that in stage VI the growth of ova is only 3 m.d.
in diameter, whereas, in stage V it is 12 md,

44

SPAWNING OF RASBORA DANICONIUS

in diameter, indicating that the growth of the
ova in stage VI is less than that in the stage V
and also that the ova after attaining stage VI
spawn immediately within a short duration.
From this observation it can also be concluded
that the ova in stage V have longer persistence
in the ovary than those in stage VI.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The sex ratio in different months and size
groups showed dominance of one sex, the
females. The Chi-square tests proved that in
none of the cases except in October, the sex
ratio agreed to the expected 1:1 ratio. Since
the fish spawns in October, the above obser-
vation closely agreed with the view of Tandon
(1961), who found that Selaroides leptolepis
congregated in almost equal numbers during
spawning season. The minimum size of
maturity was found to be between 76 and
85 mm in total length. The spawning season
extended from early June to late October,

exhibiting a prolonged duration of spawning
periodicity in a single spawning season.

The ovaries of R. daniconius were classified
into seven maturity stages on the basis of ova-
diameter and degree of yolk content in ova.
In ova-diameier distribution graphs the mode
‘a’ of mature ova showed only one constant
position in each of the stages except in stage V,
where it showed three different positions which
formed the basis to sub-classify the ovaries in
stage V as V,, V. and V3, showing gradation
in the maturity in one stage itself. Formation
of these sub-stages in the stage V could be attri-
buted to the wide range of ova diameter pro-
gressed in the stage. The above observation
also formed the basis to find out the prolonged
spawning periodicity in the fish.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Dr. R. Nagabhushanam,
Professor and Head, Department of Zoology,
Marathwada University, Aurangabad for his
constant encouragement and help.

REFERENCES

CLARK, F. N. (1934): Maturity of California sardine,
Sardina caerulea, determined by ova-diameter measure-
ments. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Bull., 42: 1-49.

DE Jona, J. K. (1939): A preliminary investigation
on the spawning habits of some fishes of Java Sea.
Treubia, 17 : 307-327.

HICKLING, C. F. & RUTENBERG, E. (1936): The ovary
as an indicator of spawning period of fishes. J. Mar.
biol. Ass. ‘U-K.. 21: 311-317.

PRABHU, M. S. (1956): Maturation of intra-ovarian

eggs and spawning periodicities in some fishes. Jndian
J. Fish. 3(1): 59-90.

45

SNEDECOR, G. W. (1961): Statistical methods applied
to Experiments in Agriculture and Biology. (Indian
Edition). Allied Pacific private Ltd., Bombay, India:
pp. 534.

TANDON, K. K. (1961): Biology and fishery of ‘ Choo
Parai’, Selaroides leptolepis (Cuv. and Val.). Indian J.
Fish. 8(1) : 127-144.

WALFoRD, L. A. (1932): The California barracuda
(Sphyraena argentea). Calif. Div. Fish and Game,
Fish. Bull, 37.

Woop, H. (1930): Scottish herring shoals. Pre-
spawning and spawning movements. Scotland Fish.
Bd. Sci. Invest., 1: 1-71.

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON ANDAMAN BIRDS!

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

This paper covers the notes on Andaman birds
obtained during the course of my last two trips
to Car and Great Nicobar which have already
been reported upon (JBNHS 75 : 744-772).
The first two items relate to records from
Battye Malve, south of Car Nicobar, and are
really inadvertent omissions from the last paper.

15. Fregetta tropica melanogaster (Gould)

19.

(Southern Indian Ocean) Duskyvented
Storm Petrel.

On 12 April 1977, a dark petrel with
white underparts and in flight not unlike
a whimbrel, was seen far away, off Battye
Malve, and may have been of this
species ?

Phaethon lepturus lepturus Daudin
(Mauritius) Longtailed Tropic Bird.

On 21 March 1976, about an hour before
we reached N. Cinque I., we saw a large
white tropic bird in the distance with
dark markings on the back which was
probably this species. While talking to
the sailors of M.v. Yonge on the return
trip (after seeing the storm petrel men-
tioned above), they referred to a white
long-tailed bird, all white, with webbed
feet, a black streak through the eye and
yellowish orange bill, which had taken
refuge on the boat during a shower of
rain, about two months ago, roughly
off Battye Malve, south of Car Nicobar.
The bird refused to take the food offered
and was duly eaten. The tail feathers
17 inches long, had been preserved and
their identity has been confirmed at the
Smithsonian. :

1 Accepted April 1979.

46

200. Spilornis

elgini elgini (Blyth) (S.
Andaman Island) Dark Andaman
Serpent Eagle.

The examination of two specimens of
Spilornis elgini abbotti Richmond (1903)
from Simalur IL, off the north-west
coast of Sumatra borrowed from
Rijksmuseum N.H., Leiden, leaves no
doubt that elgini is a different species
from cheela. I had overlooked the
fact that Peter’s BIRDS OF THE WORLD
(1931, 1:273) had accepted e/gini and
minimus as two species both separate
from cheela.

In April 1976, I saw 2 dark elgini
and one pale davisoni in the Port Blair

Zoo, and have the following com-

parative notes :

elgini
(a) Darker & smaller
(b) Bill:
thicker & shorter
(c) Lower belly & vent :
spotted
(d) Call:
Deep short whistle
& also sharp rat-
tling tuk-tuk-tuk
(ce) Legs & feet :
yellowish &
smoother
(f) Tarsus :
central line of large
scales

(g) Head &
concolorous

back

davisoni

Paler & larger

thinner & longer

barred

phui-phui-phui, not
unlike Indian cheela
at distance

paler, less yellowish
& rougher

hexagonal scales all
over

head blackish &
darker than rest of
plumage ; traces of
grey cheek patch

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON ANDAMAN BIRDS

elgini davisoni
(h) sits in more owl-like
posture
(i) head broader narrower

Brown 1968 (EAGLES, HAWKS & FALCONS
OF THE WORLD 1 pl. 41) illustrates the
immature of elgini as similar to the
adult, only slightly paler all over, and
with a whitish head. Some time back
Dr. W. Meise drew my attention to
Stresemann’s statement that the young
of elgini did not have white underparts
as in all races of cheela in which this
plumage is known. This acceptance
of two species makes it much easier
to understand S. elgini and S. cheela
davisoni living side by side, though with
varying habits, rather than as races of
the same species. A davisoni obtained
at Pyinmalana, South Andaman, in
March 1972 contained remains of a
small mammal (rat 7).

In JBNHS 68 (2) p.397 I have re-
ferred to the first publication of the
name being in /bis for January 1863, and
not in the Journal of Asiatic Society of
Bengal for the same month, which I
said, was dated February. This is not
quite correct but it includes the pro-
ceeding of a meeting held on 4 February
1863. Inquiry at the British Ornitho-
logists Union indicates that there is no
reason to believe that the /bis was not
published in January, and the first
publication would have to be accepted
therein.

The same remarks would apply to the
first description of the Rail (Rallus
canningi) and the Tree Pie (Dendrocitta
bayleyi) published under the same
circumstances.

47

315a:

383.

Turnix tanki albiventris © Hume
(Andamans) Andaman Yellowlegged
Button Quail

Hume (1873, Stray Feathers 1, p. 310)
described this from the Andamans ‘as
close to maculosa with a perfectly white
abdomen’. He adds that the specimen
is an indifferent one and that he is pro-
visionally suggesting the name albi-
ventris. This was accepted in Sharpe’s
CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN BRITISH MUSEUM
(22 : 545) and Blanford’s FAUNA (4: 154),
both indicating that it was much rarer
in the Andamans than in the Central
Nicobars. Stuart Baker (5: 456)
synonymised it with tanki (Bengal,
later restricted to northern suburbs of
Calcutta) but refers only to birds from
the Nicobars. The species has not
been found on Car or Great Nicobar,
and the three which I obtained at
Trinkut and Camorta (JBNHS 64 : 158)
though no doubt different from those
from India and Burma, can scarcely be
said to have white bellies. A juvenile
2 obtained by de Roepstorff at Camorta
on 24 April 1876 has its wings in quill
and is paler than three adults from the
same area available for examination.
At Camorta, it was seen feeding on the
road, when the yellow of the bill, legs
and feet, was very prominent.

Mr. S. V. Chatterji, L.F.S., told me that
one had been caught in a house at Port
Blair (1976) and died at the local zoo,
Without seeing some material from the
Andamans, it is not possible to comment
upon the validity of albiventris.

Charadrius placidus J. E. Gray (Nepal),
Longbilled Ringed Plover

Sp. No. 156 in Tytler collection in
Lahore is marked ‘ Charadrius longipes

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

(presumably David 1854—HA). 2 536. Streptopelia tranquebarica humilis
Andaman islands’, which according to (Temminck) (Bengal and Luzon)
the synonymy in Stuart Baker’s FAUNA Red Turtle Dove
is Charadrius placidus not previously On 18 March 1976, they were calling
recorded from these islands. The everywhere at Port Blair and a female
identity of the specimen needs was seen on a nest 20 ft. up in a large
confirmation. tree (6 April).
548. Psittacula eupatria magnirostris (Ball)
418. Calidris subminutus (Middendorff) (Andaman Islands) Large Parakeet
(Stanovoi Mountains and mouth of On 6 April 1976 a female was seen bob-
Uda) Longtoed Stint bing her head up and down on a branch
1 of 1 @ Dhanikheri, South Andamans, 20 a little below a male, obviously solicit-
March 1977. ing. The male bent over with open
bill and the female thrust hers inside,
In spite of the paucity of earlier records, then withdrew. This was repeated four
I obtained specimens while looking for times before they flew away. Also seen
snipe on all three recent trips out of entering a hole in a tree.
parties of about 8/10 birds. 603. Centropus (sinensis) | andamanensis
The 12 specimens now available for Beavan’s Crow Pheasant
examination consist of 3 gg and 9 99. At Port Blair, on 6 April 1976, a bird
Their measurements overlap but the with a pale, almost white head was heard
females are slightly larger than the calling from an exposed position in a
males. (see Table.) tree. The bill was held in front and
TABLE
Wing Bill Tarsus Tail Middletoe
without claw
did 90-92 (7.7: 18.7,19: |. 1949.6, 20 34, 37 20,21, 212
oe) 90-100 18-20.9 19-22 34-39 19-22
ave 937.2 av. 19.7 45
(FauNA g9 87-95 17-19 c. 20-21 34-36 -)
438. Esacus magnirostris magnirostris pointed downwards, and the feathers
(Vieillot) (Australia) Great Stone on the head slightly raised, every time
Plover it called. Another called ‘kuk’ and

then rattled off a series of short kuk-
kuk-kuk (over 20 times) and quite unlike
the calls of C. sinensis around Bombay.
After sunset, several called together
from different places, the area resound-
ing with their calls.

Pairs were noted on Sir Hugh Rose
and North Cinque islands and I have
referred to their trusting nature in the
introduction to my last para on Great
Nicobar (JBNHS 75, p. 745).

48

O79:

742.

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON ANDAMAN BIRDS

In JBNHS 64(2): 17 I had referred to
the males, which at least in collections
were scarcer than females, being smaller.
Two additional males from South
Andaman both have their wings only
173 mm, and tails 232, 235 mm.

One obtained on 23 April 1977 1s
marked as with enlarged gonads.

Caprimulgus macrurus andamanicus
Hume (Jolly Boys Island, S. Andamans)
Longtailed Nightjar

23809 Q Landfall Island

Head more heavily streaked than earlier
specimens and interspaces and under-
parts also darker.

Halcyon’ chloris_davisoni Sharpe
(Aberdeen, S. Andamans) Andaman
Whitecollared Kingfisher

6 Landfall Island, 15 April 1972.

In my Catalogue (JBNHS 69, p. 546),
I have measured the bills from feathers
of a ¢ and 2 9° from the Andamans as
47, 43, 42; the present specimen
measures 44.6, all being larger than indi-
cated in INDIAN HANDBOOK (4: 98)
38-41 mm.

764. Upupa epops saturata Lonnberg
(Kjachta, Southern Transbaicalia)
Hoopoe

983.

1903.

49

The de Roepstorffe collection contains
a male hoopoe said to have been ob-
tained in South Andaman on 10 October
1876. The head is pale as in nominate
epops, but the first primary is all black
on one side and has white spots on the
other. It was identified by Dr. Ripley
as saturata. The species has not been
recorded from this area before.

Artamus sp. Swallow Shrike

On North Cinque Island (19 March
1976), I noted several swallow shrikes as
very similar to Bombay birds and quite
different from dark, white-vented A.
leucorhynchus humei from Port Blair.
This remains unexplained.

Dicaeum concolor virescens Hume
(Neighbourhood of Port Blair) Plain-
coloured Flowerpecker.

On 19 March 1976, a bird with a bright
orange lower mandible was being fed
by dark-billed parents. The young
bird while waiting for its parents, often
picked and swallowed small yellow
berries after testing them with :ts bill.

ADDITIONS TO THE PLANTS OF CORBETT NATIONAL
PARK, UP.

P. C. PANT, B. P. UNIYAL AND R. PrasaAp2

In the present paper 256 species are added to
the list of plants of Corbett National Park.

Under the programme of working out the
flora of National Parks and Game sanctuaries
Northern Circle of the Botanical Survey of
India undertook a project for preparing a com-
plete floristic account of the Corbett National
Park (Nainital and Garhwal District) in north
western U.P. Before the final preparation of
the account covering all aspects it has been felt
necessary to prepare check-lists for correlating
ecological and other observations.

From the initial two explorations conducted,
the senior author published a list of plants of
Corbett National Park comprising of 232
species. Later more collections were gathered
from the area by K. P. Janardhanan in 1972.
Critical study of the specimens continued and
materials were gradually housed in the BSD
Herbarium. As a result of subsequent explora-
tion two notes relating to interesting distribu-
tion of species and new records were published
(Janardhanan & Prasad 1975 & Janardhanan
and Unityal 1973). In addition to the earlier
list 256 species reported in this paper turned
out to be the additions to the previous list.

The additional plants species collected are
enumerated here according to their habit.

TREES

Alangium salvifolium (L.F.) Wang
Albizzia procera Benth.

Bridelia verrucosa Haines
Buchanania lanzan Spreng.

Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub.
Casearia elliptica Willd.

* Accepted September 1979.
* Botanical Survey of India, Northern Circle, Dehra
Dun.

30

Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze

Clausena pentaphylla DC.

Cordia dichotoma Forst. f.

C. vestita Hook. f. & Thoms.

Crataeva adansonii DC. ssp. odora(Buch.-Ham.)
Jacobs.

Drypetes roxburghii (Wall.) Hurus.

Ehretia acuminata R. Br.

Embelia tsjeriam-cottam(Roem. & Sch.) A. DC.

Erythrina suberosa Roxb.

Ficus arnottiana Miq.

F. hispida L.f.

F. infectoria Roxb.

F. racemosa L.

F. rumphii Blume

F. semicordata Buch.-Ham.

Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr.

Garuga pinnata Roxb.

Grewia elastica Royle

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr.

Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Robins.

L. monopetala (Roxb) Pers.

Miliusa velutina Hook. f. et Thoms.

Morus alba L.

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L.

Phoebe lanceolata Nees

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre

Premna barbata Wall. ex Schauer

P. latifolia Roxb. var. Mucronata (Roxb.) Clarke

Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus ex Bahadur

Sapium insigne Trimen

Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken.

Stereospermum suaveolens DC.

Syzygium cerasioides (Roxb.) Chatt. & Kanjilal

Terminalia bellerica (Gaertn.) Roxb.

T. chebula Retz.

Toona ciliata Roem.

Wrightia tomentosa (Roxb.) R. & S.

Ziziphus glaberrima Santapau

PLANTS OF CORBETT NATIONAL PARK

SHRUBS

Acacia pseudo-eburnea J. R. Drumm.
Antidesma diandrum Roth

Ardisia humilis Vahl

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

Azanza lampas (Cav.) Alef.

Boehmeria macrophylla D. Don

Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br.

C. procera (Ait.) R. Br.

Caryopteris wallichiana Schauer

Coffea bengalensis Heyne ex R. & S.
Combretum nanum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don
Datura metel L.

Debregeasia hypoleuca Wedd.

Gardenia turgida Roxb.

Grewia sapida Roxb.

Indigofera cassioides Rottl. ex. DC.
Ipomoea fistulosa Mart. ex Choisy
Jatropha curcas L.

Lantana camara L. var. aculeata (L.) ELON
Leucomeris spectabilis D. Don

Moghania macrophylla (Willd.) O. Ktze.
Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus Nees

Rubus niveus Thunb.

Solanum indicum L.

Vitex negundo L.

HERBS

Ajuga bracteosa Wall. ex Benth.

A. macrosperma Wall. ex Benth.

Artemisia parviflora Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.
Asystasia macrocarpa Nees

Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell.-Arg.
Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC.

Blumea fistulosa (Roxb.) Kurz.

B. laciniata (Roxb.) DC.

B. mollis (D. Don) Merr.

B. oxyodonta (Wall.) DC.

Campanula colorata Wall. ex Roxb.

Chirita pumila D. Don

Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.

Clinopodium umbrosum (M. Bieb.) C. Koch
Costus speciosus Sm.

Cotula anthemoides L.

Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk.

C. prostrata Rottl. ex Willd.

Curcuma angustifolia Roxb.

Cynoglossum zeylanicum (Vahl) Thunb. ex Lehm.
Desmodium microphyllum (Thunb.) DC.
D. triflorum (L.) DC.

Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.

Eranthemum nervosum (Vahl) R. Br.
Erigeron asteroides Roxb.

Eulophia dabia (D. Don) Hochr.
Euphorbia geniculata Orteg.

Gnaphalium luteo-album L.

Hartmannia rosea G. Don

Hedychium ellipticum Hamilt. ex Rees
Hedyotis pinifolia Wall. ex G. Don
Heliotropium strigosum Willd.
Hemigraphis rupestris Heyne ex T. Andr.
Hypericum japonicum Thunb.

Kohautia gracilis (Wall.) DC.

Lactuca dissecta D. Don

Laggera falcata (D. Don) O. Ktze
Lepidagathis cuspidata (Wall.) Nees
Leucas hyssopifolia Benth.

Lindernia cordifolia (Colsm.) Merr.

L. crustacea (L.) F. V. Muell.

L. sessiliflora (Benth.) Wettst.

L. viscosa (Hornem.) Boldingh

Lobelia heyneana Roem. & Sch.

Mazus delavayi Bonati

Mollugo pentaphylla L.

Mosla dianthera (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) Maxim.
Oldenlandia corymbosa L.

Orthosiphon rubicundus Benth.
Pachystoma senile Reichb. f.

Persicaria nepalensis (Meissn.) H. Gross.
Peucedanum dana Buch.-Ham. ex Clarke
Phyllanthus debilis Klein. ex Willd.
Physalis minima L. var. indica Clarke
Plumbago zeylanica L.

Polygala crotalarioides Buch.-Ham. ex DC.
Polygonum plebejum R. Br.

P. serrulatum Lagasc.

P. stagninum Buch.-Ham. ex Meissn.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Portulaca oleracea L.

Potentilla indica (Andr.) Wolf.
Psilotrichum ferrugineum (Roxb.) Mog.
Saussurea heteromalla (D. Don) Hand.-Mazz.
Senecio chrysanthemoides DC.

S. nudicaulis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don
Sonchus arvensis L.

Sonerila tenera Royle

Sphaeranthus indicus L.

Tephrosia purpurea Pers.

Verbascum chinense (L.) Sant.

Vernonia squarrosa (D. Don) Less.
Vicoa vestita Benth. ex Hook. f.
Youngia japonica (L.) DC.

Zingiber capitatum Roxb.

Z. roseum (Roxb.) Rose.

GRASSES

Aristida cyanantha Nees ex Steud.
Arthraxon lancifolius (Yrin.) Hochst.
Arundinella bengalensis (Spreng.) Druce
A. nepalensis Trin.

A. pumila (Hochst.) Steud.

Arundo donax L.

Bothriochloa intermedia (R. Br.) A. Camus vat.

punctata (Roxb.) Keng
B. pertusa (L.) A. Camus
Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf
Capillipedium assimile (Steud.) A. Camus
Chionachne koenigii (Spr.) Thw.
Chloris dolichostachya Lagasca
Chrysopogon serrulatus Trin.
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
Cyrtococcum accrescens (Trin.) Stapf
Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) P. Beauv.
Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers.
Echinochloa colonum (L.) Link
Eragrostis atrovirens (Desf.) Trin, ex Steud.
Erianthus filifolius Nees ex Steud.
Hackelochloa granularis (L.) O. Ktze.
Heteropogon contortus (L.) P. Beauv.
H. melanocarpus (Ell.) Benth.
Isachne miliacea Roth

Microstegium ciliatum (Trin.) A. Camus
Narenga porphyrocoma (Hance) Bor
Neyraudia arundinacea (L.) Henr.
Oplismenus burmannii (Retz.) P. Beauv.
Panicum antidotale Retz.

P. austroasiaticum Ohwi.

P. montanum Roxb.

Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud.
Pogeonatherum paniceum (Lamk.) Hack.
Pseudosorghum fasciculare (Roxb.) A. Camus —
Rottboellia exaltata L.f.

Saccharum bengalense Retz.

Setaria barbata (Lamk.) Kunth

S. geniculata (Lamk.) P. Beauv.

S. homonyma (Steud.) Chiov.

S. pallide-fusca (Schum.) Stapf et C. E. Hubb.
Themeda quadrivalvis (L.) O. Ktz.

SEDGES

Bulbostylis barbata (Rottb.) Clarke
Carex myosurus Nees

Cyperus compressus L.

C. corymbosus Rottb.

C. haspan L.

C. niveus Retz.

C. pangorei Rottb.

C. pilosus Vahl

C. pumilus L.

C. rotundus L.

Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forsk.) Bub.
F. dichotoma (L.) Vahl

Lipocarpha chinensis (Osb.) Kern.
Scirpus mucronatus L.

Scleria parvula Steud.

AQUATIC, WET OR MARSH HERBS

Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell

Cardamine scutata Thunb.ssp. flexuosa (With.)
Hara

Centella asiatica (L.) Urban

Centipeda minima (L.) A. Br. & Asch.

52

PLANTS OF CORBETT NATIONAL PARK

Cyanotis cristata (L.) D. Don
Hoppea dichotoma Willd.
Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven
Murdannia scapiflora (Roxb.) Royle
Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene
Potamogeton nodosus Poit.
Ranunculus sceleratus L.

Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne

R. mexicana Cham. & Schlecht.
R. rotundifolia Koehne

Veronica anagallis-aquatica L.

WOODY CLIMBERS

Celastrus paniculatus Willd.

Helinus lanceolatus Brand.

Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz.

Jasminum arborescens Roxb.

J. roxburghianum Wall. ex DC.

Leptadenia reticulata W. & A.

Mucuna nigricans (Lour.) Steud.

Phothos cathcartii Schott

Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC.
Rhaphidophora glauca Schott

Sabia paniculata Edgew. ex Hook. f. et T.
Tetrastigma campylocarpum (Kurz.) Planch.
Vitis sernicordata Planch. :

HERBACEOUS AND SUBWOODY CLIMBERS

Atylosia mollis Benth.
Cardiospermum halicacabum L.
Dioscorea belophylla Voigt

D. bulbifera L. :
Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) Jeftrey
Mucuna capitata W. & A.

Piper nigrum L.

Rhynchosia minima DC.

Smilax zeylanica L.
Trichosanthes cucumerina L.

T. dioica Roxb.

OCCASIONAL EPIPHYTES

Ficus benjamina L.
F. hederacea Roxb.
F., retusa L.

PARASITES

Viscum nepalense Spreng.

FERNS AND FERN-ALLIES

Ampelopteris prolifera (Retz.) Copel.
Ceratopteris siliguosa (L.) Copel.
Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw.

D. japonicum (Thunb.) Bedd.
Dryopteris crenata (Forsk.) O. Ktze.
D. rampans (Baker) C. Chr.
Nephrodium cucullatum Baker
Psilotum nudum (L.) Griseb.
Pyrrosia flocculosa (D. Don) Ching
Riccia fluitans L.

Selaginella involvens (Sw.) Spring.
S. subdiaphana (Wall.) Spring.
Thelypteris subpubescens (BI.) Iwats.

REFERENCES

JANARDHANAN, K. P. & PRASAD, R. (1975): On the
occurrence of Ziziphus glaberrima Sant. in N. India.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71 (2): 344.

———— & UNIYAL, B. P. (1973) : On the occurrence

of Hypericum japonicum Thunb. ex Murr. in the Upper
Gangetic Plain. Curr. Sci. 42 (13): 478.

PANT, P. C. (1976): Plants of Corbett National
Park, Uttar Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73 (2):
2874295.

D3

COMBAT BEHAVIOUR IN VARANUS BENGALENSIS
(SAURIA: VARANIDAE)!

WALTER AUFFENBERG2

(With three text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The published information pertaining to varanid
combat behaviour contains very few quanti-
tative data. Though important because they
outline the major features of varanid combat,
all earlier papers were necessarily anecdotal, for
they were based on very few observations
(Abdoessoeki, no date ; Sterling 1912 ; Schmidt
1927 ; Lederer 1929, 1933; Smith 1931 ; Mertens
1942; Vogel 1954, 1979; Ditmars 1955;
Deraniyagala 1958; Honegger and Heusser
1969 ; Hoogerwerf 1970 ; Murphy and Mitchell
1974). From these reports it becomes clear
that in ritualized male-male varanid combat the
most significant feature is a test of strength in
which the combatants wrestle while embraced
and standing on their hind legs (see Carpenter
and Ferguson 1977 for review and comparison
of all lizard social behaviour), similar to that
known in snakes (Carpenter 1978). The most
thorough analysis of the combat of any varanid
species is by Carpenter ef al. (1976), who stress
that part of the combat sequence in these lizards
known as body arching.

The only data pertaining to combat in the
Bengal monitor, Varanus bengalensis, 1s pro-
vided in the reports of ritualized fighting seen
between wild males in India (Ali 1944) and
Sri Lanka (Deraniyagala 1957). The Ali report
is very short and stresses the bipedal stance.
Deraniyagala’s observations also emphasize
this phase, as well as body arching and biting
attempts. ;

1 Accepted September 1979.
2 Florida State Museum, Gainesville, Florida 32611,
U.S.A.

34

Individuals of the same species maintained in
captivity under my care in Florida showed
slightly different behavioural patterns than those
reported by Deraniyagala and, more important,
afforded an opportunity to study the details of,
and variation in, varanid combat in greater
detail than had previously been possible.
During the present study, data were obtained
on differences in male, female, and adolescent
combat, the component behavioural acts
comprising each type, conditions under which
combat was initiated, and the temporal factors
in regard to both season and maturation.
Agonistic behaviour, excluding actual fighting,
has been described in this species by Auffenberg
and Ganci (in press), who conclude that certain
behavioural acts often previously considered
as threat behaviour by other workers are best
considered as part of a stress reaction, for they
appear commonly in a variety of stressful
contexts, including threatening ones. This paper
is an additional part of an anticipated series of
contributions on the behaviour of Varanus
bengalensis in captivity (see also Auffenberg
1979).

METHODS

The results below were obtained largely by
review and analysis of continuously running
closed circuit TV equipment, including remote
cameras appropriately mounted in two green-
houses and a time lapse VIR automatic re-
corder set to advance the tape at 0.3 sec
intervals. This allowed for rapid review when
set at a normal replay speed, yet preserved
sufficient detail of the recorded social inter-

Fig. 1.

Cloacal area of subadult male
posteriolateral to the vent.

Varanus bengalensis

(UF 40557), showing thickened ridges

atae eas

“

C3

ricsenks

iced ae

el:
bea:
‘ Nati

COMBAT BEHAVIOUR IN V. BENGALENSIS

actions. In addition to this analysis system,
motion pictures (Super-8) were made whenever
practical, often within a 2 m range, so that
details of the behavioural acts were clearly
evident when reviewed by a stop-motion film
projector, using a projection system similar to
that described by Jenssen (1977).

Each of the two greenhouses (56 m? each)
usually contained one adult male, several adult
females, and a variable number of adolescents
of both sexes. Individuals were often shifted
from one greenhouse to another to encourage
combative interactions among individuals being
studied. Observations were carried out from
June 1977 to July 1979. During this time 137
combative interactions between 25 individuals
were recorded and analyzed. The origin of
the individuals and the conditions under which
they were kept from 1974 to the present have
been described earlier (Auffenberg and Ganci,
in press). During the time when the following
results were obtained, the lengths and weights
of the individuals used were as follows : 4 adult
males, average total length 149 cm(X SVL
58.0 cm), weight 2743 gm ; 8 females, 119.3 cm
(X SVL 46.3 cm), weight 1452 gm; 13 adoles-
cents, 89.0 cm (X SVL 38.7 cm), weight 720 gm.

RESULTS

Monitor lizards are notoriously difficult to
sex from external characters (Mertens 1946,
1958). Males attain larger size, grow faster,
are generally dominant to females (Auffenberg
1979, in press), and in at least some species,
more active (Auffenberg 1979). Minor scale
characters separate the sexes of some species
(Mertens 1958; Auffenberg, in press). These
differences are often near the cloacal area.
After studying the scalation of 89 preserved and
live Varanus bengalensis, found a consistent
external morphological character that will
separate at least 96 per cent of all adults and 47
per cent of the juveniles ; i.e. all males with a

snout-vent-length of 25 cm or more possess a
patch of scales on the base of the tail just
posterior to each of the lateral corners of the
vent. These scales form a protrusion that is
very slightly flap-like in the sense that the lateral
edge forms a shelf raised above the lateral sur-
face of the tail base (Fig. 1). The edge of this
Shelf is provided with from 3 to 5 slightly en-
larged scales, the largest 2-3 being light-coloured.
The structure is much smaller in females and
barely, if at all, raised above the surface of the
tail base. In adults its presence or absence is
usually easily seen even in individuals walking
about.

Individuals were recognized on the basis of a
combination of size, head shape, and colour
pattern characteristics. These were easily noted
on TV tape and motion picture film.

Combative interactions involving females or
adolescents occur at any time of the year.
However, male ritual combat is restricted to a
much shorter period preceding and during
extensive courtship activity of the same indi-
viduals (April through July in Florida), suggest-
ing photoperiodic control. It was first noted
in individuals known to have attained an age of
three years at that time. The first courtship
attempts were correlated with the appearance
of the earliest signs of ritual combat, so that
expression of the latter seems associated with
sexual maturity.

Of the total of 137 combat encounters ob-
served and analyzed during this study, 44.5%
occurred between adult males, 32.8°% between
adult males and females, 6.3% between adults
and adolescents, 4.7% between adult females,
and 11.7% between adolescents (usually males).

Combat activity included a number of
behavioural acts, some characteristically pre-
ceding or succeeding combat and others occur-
ring only during the combat itself. These
could be categorized into several contextural
and functional classes (= adaptive behavioural
types of Scott 1950). The most common acts

55

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

were in the agonistic class and included
weaponry use, warning signals, combat tactics
meant to enhance the effectiveness of the actual
encounter whether ritualistic or not, and acts
related to social status (dominant or sub-
ordinate). Others could be classed as re-
productive, for they are most often associated
with varanid courtship behaviour. Still others
are classed as simple investigatory tactics, and
the last class comprises what I believe to be
stress-related behaviours that convey the moti-
vational level of the displayer and are used in a
variety of contexts (see Auffenberg 1979, in
press; Auffenberg and Ganci, in press).
Operational definitions of those acts I believe
to be important in agonistic behaviour in adults
of this species of varanid lizard follow.

Weaponry Class

Biting : Clearly the strongest reinforcement
of intent ; used by both sexes in both intra-
and interspecific combat. It is used more
often by females than males in intraspecific
fighting and is infrequently used by males during
courtship (Auffenberg, MS in _ preparation).
Most bites are on the dorsum, neck, or head,
rarely the legs or tail. Deraniyagala (1957)
said it occurs in V. bengalensis.

Tail slap: A rapid lateral swing of the tail,
often, but not always, following tail coiling
(see below). The tail slap usually terminates
the interaction. The blow is swift and smartly
delivered, usually striking the other individual
on the side of its body, or less often the head.
Tail slapping in combat has been reported in
V. niloticus (Cowles 1930), varius, spenceri,
mertensi, and salvadori (Murphy and Mitchell
1974).

Warning Class

Tail coil: Partially or completely coiling
the tail in the horizontal plane, usually preced-
ing and leading to a tail slap (Fig. 2B).

Gape: A strong cue directing attention to
the teeth, but very rarely used in intraspecific
combat.

Hiss: An auditory cue, sometimes in the
form of huffing, used only in a defensive context.

Lateral compression: Compression of the
body laterally so that it presents the broadest
lateral view (Fig. 2 B).

Dorsal arch: A dorsal bending of the mid-
body region (Fig. 2 B), usually used in a defen-
sive context with lateral compression.

Lateral orientation: Placing the body so
that it presents the least perpendicular view,
often performed in conjunction with body high,
lateral compression, and dorsal arch. Together
these serve to increase apparent size (Fig. 2 B).

Dorsal flattening : Dorso-ventral flattening
of the trunk, usually accompanied by tilting
the broadened surface towards the rival (Fig.
3 G. m Catpenter esa) 1976). Uhisiais
apparently a rare act in Varanus bengalensis.

Head tilted: Bowing or bending the neck
to place the head in a sloping position relative
to the substrate (Fig. 2 B).

Combat Tactics Class

Bipedal stance: Rearing smoothly onto the
hind legs, with the tail usually used as a support.
In a defensive context the front legs may hang
limply at the sides (Fig. 2 C), but in an offensive
combat context they are used in a brachial
embrace (see Fig. 2 G). The defensive form
often follows a quick unexpected advance or
attack by another individual. The offensive
tactic has been described in varanids as follows :
Fleay (1958), V. varius and V. spenceri ; Johnson
(1976), V. gouldi ; Ali (1944) and Deraniyagala
(1957), V. bengalensis; and Lederer (1933)
and Vogel (1979), V. salvator.

Brachial embrace : Two individuals, ventral
surfaces opposed, clasp one another with their

36

COMBAT BEHAVIOUR IN V. BENGALENSIS

Fig. 2. Behavioural acts of Varanus bengalensis common in agonistic contexts, made from motion picture film.
(captions continued overleaf)

57

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Fig. 2 (Contd.) :

(A) investigatory pose with no stress, i.e., tail down and not bowed, no raised roach, head not greatly raised, lowered
turned away or tilted, no body compression or gular expansion. Compare with (B) which illustrates a high stress
pose, with bowed tail, raised roach, back arched, body compressed, gular expanded, and head tilted downward.
(C) defensive bipedal position with gular expansion and head tilted. (D) licking head of potential rival prior to
ritualized combat. (BE) one individual placing front foot on other as a dominance act. (F) ritual bipedal male-
male wrestling combat, with the individual on the right illustrating climbing behaviour—an important fighting
tactic while the other individual is using a lateral head push technique (arrow) to avoid being pushed farther back-
wards. (G) bipedal stance with mutual brachial embrace and with the individual on the right using a snout-in-
throat tactic to lift or twist the other individual. (H) left individual moves snout to the substrate and forms a
body arch as he is twisted downward by individual on the right. (1) topping behaviour by adult female on left
immediately after being mounted by male on right. (J) dominance behaviour by mounted male directed to
subadult male after ritual combat, including brachial embrace and neck biting—often part of the courtship
sequence. (K) same, but showing chin rubbing and tail lifting (arrow) by male.

58

COMBAT BEHAVIOUR IN V. BENGALENSIS

front legs (Fig. 2 G). This tactic was usually
also mentioned in the reports of the several
varanids listed above.

Wrestle: Twisting and turning, bipedal
individuals try to push the embraced rival to
the ground (Fig. 2 G). During this tactic it is
apparent that the splayed hind legs of the op-
ponents help to resist lateral movement when
force is applied by the opponent (Fig. 2 F). The
major tactic is thus to push forward in such a
way that the weight of the opponent is shifted
onto his tail base (Fig. 2 F), thereby raising
his hind legs off the ground and making it
easier to topple him sidewards. To help the
weight transfer, opponents sometimes try to
climb the other while in a bipedal stance, parti-
cularly up the other’s thighs (Fig. 2 F). Wrest-
ling has. been mentioned in several of the
reports listed above.

Snout thrust: One individual during the
bipedal stance, and always when engaged in a
brachial embrace, thrusts its snout into the
space between the posterior parts of the lower
jaw, thus providing a nonslip surface when the
head is used to push the head of the other
laterally (Fig. 2 G).

_Lunge: Move rapidly towards another
individual ; the distance involved less than the
lizard’s own length.

Head push: Pushing sidewards with the
head and neck to force the other individual off
balance during ritual male combat (Fig. 2 F).
The necks and heads are sometimes so crossed
that they appear entwined (more so in long-
necked varanids, such as V. salvator, see Vogel
1979), reminding one of the much more highly
twisted necks of snakes in ritual combat
(Carpenter 1977).

Body arch: Always following bipedal
wrestling, when one individual is nearly pushed
to the ground by the other. It is a tactic that
is apparently meant to keep the momentarily

disadvantaged individual from being pushed to
the ground and into a subordinant position.
To accomplish this the snout of one or both
individuals is used as one base of an arch
produced by the neck and body, with the base
or middle of the tail and one of the hind legs
forming the other base of the arch (Fig. 2 H).
The hind foot on the side of the body closest
to the ground is used as an important sup-
porting strut (Fig. 3), and the opposite free leg
attempts to hold down the hind foot of the
other individual, or is at least kept over the
body of the other. This tactic makes it diffi-
cult for the arch to be broken, for the hind legs
are linked over one another. The loser in this
part of the combat is usually the one who allows
his hind leg to be displaced from this position
by having it slip under the opponent’s body.
This individual is then easily pushed to the
substrate by the body and hind legs of the other ;
the winner ending in a superior, nearly mounted
position. Body arching has previously been
described in ritual combat of male varanids
in V. gilleni (Murphy and Mitchell 1974;
Carpenter et al. 1976), V. bengalensis
(Deraniyagala 1957), and V. salvator (Vogel
1979).

Dominant Class

Head raised: Head lifted above the trunk
axis and held there (Fig. 2 A).

Topping : One individual puts one of its
front feet on the back of the other (Fig. 2 E),
or even climbs upon the other (Fig. 2 I), and
maintains this position even as the lower indi-
vidual tries to move away (= riding of Carpenter
and Ferguson 1978).

Subordinant Class

Head down: Head dropped below trunk
axis and held there.

Facing away: Head and/or body oriented
away from the other individual,

59

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

\\

Fig. 3.
explanation.

Eye(s) closed: Usually only the eye facing
the opposing individual is closed and held so ;
an uncommon act in this species.

Body adpression: Entire body pressed
against the substrate, probably to decrease
apparent size. When intense this act may
include the neck and chin pressed against the
ground as well.

Moving away: Walking or running away
from another individual, usually terminating
the interaction.

Sexual Class

Straddle (mount): One individual assumes
a superior position on another, with all four
legs (or at least the front legs) positioned on
opposite sides of the lower individual.

Scratching : One individual places one of its
front feet on the back of the other and scratches

Cross section through hind legs of male Varanus bengalensis engaged in a body arch. See text for

feebly in two or three posterior movements
(figured by Auffenberg 1978 for V. komodoensis).

Chin rubbing: Male in mounted position
rubs his chin on the neck and/or head of the
lower individual, usually while pressing down-
ward (Fig. 2 K).

Neck bite: Mounted male bites neck (or
head) of lower female or male (Fig. 2 J) ; rare
in this species. Biting has been reported in the
combat of V. niloticus (Cowles 1930) and V.
gilleni (Murphy and Mitchell 1974 ; Carpenter
et al, 1976). !

Tail lift: A mounted male tries to lift the
tail base of the lower individual (usually a
female) with one of his hind feet by stroking
upward with the claws (Fig. 2 K).

Investigative Class
Tongue flicking : Touching or directing the
extended tongue to another individual (Fig,

60

COMBAT BEHAVIOUR IN V. BENGALENSIS

2 D), usually on the head, neck or side of body.
Concomitant pressing of the snout into
tympanic, and snout areas as occurs in V.
komodoensis (Auffenberg, in press) does not
occur in this species.

Stress Reaction Class

Body high: All legs stiff and somewhat
extended, raising the body maximally when in
a quadrupedal position (Fig. 2 B).

Gular expansion: Enlarging the throat by
both lowering the hyoid apparatus and in-
flation, often accompanied by a hiss or huffing
(Fig. 2 B). This is, in part, the inflated throat
of Carpenter and Ferguson (1977).

Roach raised: Tissue along the dorsal
midline of part of the neck is very slightly
raised ; not common in adults of this species,
but frequently used by juveniles (Auffenberg
and Ganci, in press).

The two following sequences are typical of
those occurring between pairs of adult males
(= M) and those in which a female (= F) is
included in the pair, or when both are females.
‘Step’ denotes the order in which the pre-
combative behavioural acts occurred.

Male-Male Sequence

Step Time Behavioural Acts
Min:Sec.

1 0:00 #Aapproaches B from behind, scratch-
ing B on tail base with front foot.

2 0:08 #A licks inguinal area of B.

3 0:15 A moves closer and licks neck and
ear area of B, who turns head away
as it slowly walks off.

4 0:21 #A follows, B licks air with head down.

5 0:23 #£Blicks A’s tail, with both individuals
parallel.

6 0:26 # A licks tail base of B while both remain

in same position, with B’s head
still down.

61

7

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17
18

19

20

21
22

23

0

oi

742

245

> 48

: 50

Quis

93

12

: 16

:18

BB)
34

Pe

: 39

> 43
Sil

> 13

A straddles tail of B, then licks
axillary area of B.

B turns head over shoulder, licks air,
starts to coil tail.

A tilts head down, extends gular area.

A licks tail of B5 times, moving up
tail to cloacal area, when B turns to
face A.

A licks head of B and latter imme-
diately raises into bipedal position,
with A doing the same.

Both individuals embrace, with front
claws digging into each other’s backs.
The wounds produced are not
deep, but bleed, tend to be parallel
and are transversely oriented, with
most located dorsoposteriorly to the
insertion of the front legs.

Beginning of wrestling behaviours by
both combatants.

A uses snout thrust on B, pushing
head of B posteriorly.

B slips out of thrust and uses same
technique on A, forcing latter to bend
posteriorly, then wrestles A toward
surface. A forms body arch and
struggle continues in this position.

A slips out of arch and re-embraces B,
pinning both of B’s front legs to his
side as they both rise to a bipedal
position and continue to wrestle.

Both form body arch.

A forces B to substrate in ventral
adpression posture, mounting B at
same time.

A embraces B, pinning his front legs to
the side of his body, and rubs neck
of B with the underside of its chin.

B tries to move forward from under A,
as embrace and chin rubbing by A
continue.

A stands on dorsum of B (topping).

A again straddles and lays on B,
chinning B while making huffing
noises and trying to lift tail of B
with its hind foot.

B finally slipping out from under A
and running away.

bo

10
11

17

18

©

: 00

: 03

vid

233

: 41

Beek

st)

: 56
eo

a0

: 07

: 09

: 16

Be |

: 04

oS

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Male-Female Sequence

M approaches F from behind and
straddles tail as F basks.

M licks tail of F, then her hind leg,
then dorsum as M moves up onto,
her body.

F moves out from under M, but not
far away.

M straddles tail again and scratches
feebly on her dorsum with one of
his front legs.

M in mounted position, licks neck of
F two times.

F suddenly whirls about and places
her front foot over his head and
pushes down on his neck with her
neck.

M slips away quickly and licks F’s
hind leg two times.

F whirls around, body compressed,
high, roach raised, and _ places
herself lateraliy, with head tilted
and hissing.

F climbs onto back of M (topping)
with front feet only.

M licks axillary area of F.

F whirls about and bites M_ on
dorsum, then on side.

M lunges upward, carrying her body
with him as she tries to both bite his
throat and embrace him with her
front feet.

M tries to slap F with tail, but she is
too close.

F again leaps on M, biting his neck
as she straddles him.

M waiks away with her in straddled
position, his gular area extended.

F slips off M and extends her gular
area as they roll over and over with
many tail slapping attempts (not
clear if F only).

M in fully mounted position, with
brachial embrace pushing her fore-
limbs to her sides.

Chinning starts and F’s body is pushed
tightly against the substrate as the
combat sequence grades into court-
ship.

END

The most significant factors in all ritual
male-male combats observed is that (1) no
stereotyped display action patterns precede
combat, (2) licking is a very pronounced
activity, (3) combat takes the form of a ritua-
lized wrestling match, with the mutually em-
braced combatant males in a bipedal position,
and (4) there is no biting. Deraniyagala (1957)
has briefly described all these features in Varanus
bengalensis male-male combat, but he also
reported unsuccessful biting attempts by the
engaged males. In view of the fact that close
analysis of film and CCTV tape of many com-
bats in this study failed to indicate any biting
attempts during combat itself, but did include
similar appearing activities, such as snout
thrusting, suggests to me that Deraniyagala
misinterpreted some of what was seen. Vogel
(1977) reported that V. salvator do not bite
one another during ritualized combat. How-
ever, biting is part of the combat in other
monitor species, for Murphy and Mitchell
(1974), and later Carpenter et al. (1976), re-
ported repeated biting in male-male combat of
V. gilleni.

In the non-ritualized combat of adult males
and females, or between females of V. benga-
lensis biting is common, but only by the female.
Tail slapping is used by both sexes. The other
major differences when compared to ritualized
male-male combat are that the fighting is much
more energetic on the part of at least the female,
and that the combatants do not use the bipedal
stance.

The total combat encounters seen during this
study (137) could be divided into (1) those in
which teeth and/or tail were employed at least
once during the interaction, and (2) those in
which weaponry was never used. The latter
included male-male ritualistic combat.

Within adult male-male combat interactions,
36.5 per cent fall in the weaponry use category
and 63.5 per cent in the non-weaponry use type,
almost all of which are ritualistic in the sense

62

COMBAT BEHAVIOUR IN V. BENGALENSIS

that bipedalism was involved. In adult male-
adult female combats, all were of the weaponry
use type, with actual biting or tail slap always
initiated by the females. Of combats between
adult females and adolescents and between
two adult females, about 45% are of the
weaponry use type, and 55% are with no
weapons used. Thus the most stressful combat
encounters usually involve females.

On the other hand, adult male-male ritua-
listic (non-weaponry use) combat is of statisti-
cally much longer duration than all weaponry
use types (tf => 0.02 in all pair comparisons),
having an average length of 3.3 minutes (SD +
0.7). Mean duration of weaponry use types
is as follows : adult male-male 1.8 min, SD +
0.7; adult female-female 0.3 min, SD+ 0.1 ;
adult male-adult female 1.1 min, SD1+ 0.6;
adult-adolescent 0.4 min, SD -+0.2; adoles-
cent-adolescent 0.6 min, SD + 0.2.

Of 568 interactions recorded since 1977,
none resulted in combat when both interacting
individuals approached one another from the
front. Of the 137 instances of combat re-
corded, in 73.3°% one of the eventual com-
batants approached the other from behind,
and in only 26% one approached from the side.
There is no significant difference in these pro-
portions between male-male, female-male,
adolescent-adolescent, or adult-adolescent inter-
actions.

The interaction eventually leading to combat
was initiated 90.1% of the time by the moving
individual and only 9.9% of the time by the
non-moving one. The first behavioural act of
the initiating individual was either licking the
other (76.5%), mounting attempts, even though
feeble (17.5%), and scratching the tail, head, or
back (6%). Of the licking types of initiation,
46.7°% occurred on the head, 13.3% on the end
and/or middle of the tail, 12.0% on the tail
base and/or near the cloacal area, 9.0% on the
scapular and/or axillary area, 7.1° on the
hind legs, 6.0%% on the dorsal part of the body,

63

and 5.8% on the neck. The last three are not
significantly different from one another; nor
were the two licked tail areas. The reminder
of the categories are significantly different at
the 0.01 % level (¢ test).

These acts by the initiating individual result
in variable responses: gular extension 16.1%,
tongue licking 35.5%, topping 9.0%, mounting
10.4%, head down 6.5%, head away 3.1%,
walking away 7.1%, hissing 9.3°%, and scratch-
ing 3.0%. Actual weaponry use or ritualized
combat was immediately preceded by the
following acts on the part of the other indivi-
duals: licking 45.5°%, mounting attempts
36.4%, scratch 9.1%, gular expansion 6.2°%%,
and head down 2.8%. The number of
behavioural acts preceding combat varies from
1 to 22. In general ritualistic combat is pre-
ceded by a greater number of behavioural
acts, (X= 12:3 steps, SD =: 3.14) than non-
ritualistic combat (X = 5.8 steps, SD -b 1.03),
primarily due to the quick agonistic response of
particularly the females.

Table 1 shows the frequency of behavioural
acts probably serving as signals (excluding
combat tactics and weaponry use) for male-
male, female-female, male-female, adult-
adolescent, and adolescent-adolescent combat
interactions. Note that for every one of these
class encounters, licking represents the highest,
or nearly so, of the total acts represenied.
The only exception is in adolescent-adolescent
combative interactions, where gular expansion
is slightly (but not significantly) higher. In
female-female interactions topping behaviour is
equally represented. The highest frequency of
licking occurs among males, in which the other
acts are used very little. It is apparently much
less important in female interactions, where
topping, head down, and even mounting is
much more common. In a sense, female-
female combative interactions include more
acts considered typically male (mounting,
chinning, and topping) than expected when

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

TABLE |

FREQUENCY (IN %) OF BEHAVIOURAL ACTS PROBABLY SERVING AS SIGNALS LEADING TO, BUT
EXCLUDING COMBAT TACTICS AND WEAPONRY USE

Combat Categories

a ca a ae RS RS RS a

Acts Adult male- Adult female- Adult- Adult male- Adolescent-

male female adolescent female adolescent
Licking 65.1 23.0 50.0 45.0 20.1
Tail coil 4.3 ou so ws 10.2
Gular expansion 4.3 1 11.1 JES) 26.2
Head down 5.4 15.4 16.7 5.3 8.1
Head away 5.8 ; 10.0 2all
Head up Dee 7.0 ib 2.8 1.0
Mounting #2 16.1 Ne 7S.
Topping 4.3 23.1 12.2 15.0 15.3
Chinning 1.4 Te DSS) De
Hissing 3.0 17.0
TABLE 2
FREQUENCY (IN %) of MAJOR BEHAVIOURAL ACT CLASSES (EXCLUDING ACTUAL COMBAT
ACTS) IN VARIOUS AGE AND SEX INTERACTIONS
Combat Categories
Act Classes Adult male- Adult female- Adult- Adult male- Adolescent-
male female adolescent female adolescent

Investigative 65.1 23.0 50.0 45.0 20.1
Sexual 8.6 23.8 a 20.0 ahs
Stress Reaction 4.3 Ta. 11.1 LS 26.2
Warning 4.3 on es 3.0 Diez
Social : 10.7 45.5 38.9 23.1 26.5

Dominant 6.5 30.1 122 17.8 16.3

Subordinant 4.2 i 5:3 10.2

TABLE 3

INITIAL AND PENULTIMATE BEHAVIOURAL CLASSES (IN °%) IN SEQUENCES LEADING TO AGGRESSION

Act Classes Initial Act Following Act Penultimate Act
Investigative | 76.5 3.3 40.1
Sexual 23.5 13.4 38.9
Stress Reaction 0.0 16.1 9.6
Warning 0.0 9.3 0.0
Weaponry use 0.0 N.A., N.A.
Social : 0.0 25.7 112

Dominant 0.0 9.0 Bynes

Subordinant 0.0 16.7 8.0

64

COMBAT BEHAVIOUR IN V. BENGALENSIS

compared with male-male precombat acts.
Adult-adolescent interactions include the least
variety of acts, with several missing types being
of considerable social significance, such as
mounting and chinning, for they are part of the
sexual class of behavioural acts.

This pattern suggests that important relation-
ships among the major act classes (see above)
may be more easily demonstrated than between
the acts themselves. For this reason I have
reorganized the acts in Table 1 into the major
act classes of Table 2. The investigative cate-
gory remains unchanged from Table |; the
sexual class is high in female-female and male-
female categories, but absent when adolescents
are involved in the encounter, even if adults
are also involved. Stress reaction acts are
highest in categories including adolescents ;
warning acts are most often exchanged between
adolescents ; dominant acts most common in
female-female and least common in male-male
interactions ; and subordinant acts are most
common in interactions between adults and
adolescents (caused almost entirely by the
adolescent’s behaviour).

Analysis of the major behavioural act classes
in various phases of all combat categories
(Table 3) shows that only investigative and
sexual acts are included during the initiation
of an eventually combative interaction, and
that the former is three times more common
than the latter. During the succeeding stages
of the interaction, investigative acts remain
most frequent, with sexual, stress-related, and
subordinant acts being less frequent (not signi-
ficantly different). Warning and dominant
acts (not significantly different) are least
utilized. The most common acts immediately
preceding combat remain investigative and
sexual (not significantly different) types, though
there is a significant(P => 0.02) increase in the
frequency of sexual acts. Stress, warning,
dominant, and subordinant acts are all signi-

ficantly reduced (P = 0.05, 0.01, 0.02, and 0.03 :
| 65

respectively) from values in the intermediate
phases of the interaction.

Table 4 provides the probabilities for those
sequential behavioural acts leading to non-
ritualized (adult male-female and adult female-
female sequences ending in weaponry use)
combat, and Table 5 includes the data for the
Same categories in a ritual combative context
(male-male sequences end in bipedal posture
on the part of both individuals). Weaponry
use iS never the initiating act, but follows some
other act class 15.3% of the time. Investiga-
tive, dominant, and subordinant act classes are
common (not statistically significantly different).
Investigative initial acts are most often followed
by particularly dominant acts, and less often
subordinant ones and weaponry use. Warning
following acts are rare. Dominant initial
acts are most often followed by investigative
ones by the respondent. Subdominant initial
acts are very common, followed by either domi-
nant or sexual ones. Stress reactions are less
often initiating acts leading to dominant or
sexual ones. Sexual initial acts elicit the second
greatest variety of act classes (next to the investi-
gative class), never leading to investigation
by the respondent, but to particularly dominant,
subordinant, stress reactions, and weaponry
use. Warning is rare as an initial act, and is
followed only by subordinant acts.

Table 5 provides the data for the same classes
in encounters leading to ritualistic male-male
combat. Investigative acts are again both
common as initial acts and lead to the largest
variety of reciprocal acts and most ritual com-
bats. However, dominant acts are rare and
when performed are always followed by sub-
ordinant and stress reactions only by the
respondent. Dominant acts are, however,
common after ritual combat (see below). As
in non-ritual combat, subordinant initial acts
are most commonly followed by investigative
acts by the respondent, and by subordinant acts,
stress reaction and by bipedalism, which was

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

TABLE 4

TWO-TUPLE SEQUENTIAL MATRIX OF BEHAVIOURAL ACT CLASS FREQUENCY (IN °%) IN STEPS 1 AND 2
FOR TWO INTERACTING INDIVIDUALS DURING NON-RITUAL COMBAT
(NS=P> 0.05, *=P < 0.05-0-02, No SYMBoL=P<=0.01).

Reciprocal Act Class of Respondent

a cee ee ES MS ES ER ES SE ORT ENS ES SS Me ES SRS ES SS eS eee ED ers SS ne EE SE ES SE SEES EN SUNT SRD eects SD NED

Initial Act Class Investi- Weaponry

of Initiator gative Dominant Subordinant Stress Sexual Warning Use Totals
Dominant 4.4 ae 0.6) © o o a 2.0 7.0
Subordinant 8.6 as 22. is Bee fe a 14.0
Stress Reaction 3.9 2.0 gi se 0:7 as Wee 6.6
Sexual ie 6.8 447 4.4 0O5NS 1.0NS 5.0 22.1
Warning a i Dvd Sa a a ys 22
Weaponry Use a3 a ay a e a oy 0.0
Investigative 5.ONS 15.3* 8.1* 6.5 NS 4.4NS 0.5 NS 8.3 48.1

Totals 21.9 26.3 15.3 10.9 8.8 ) 15.3
TABLE 5

TWO-TUPLE SEQUENTIAL MATRIX OF BEHAVIOURAL ACT CLASS FREQUENCY (IN %) IN STEPS 1 AND 2
FOR TWO INTERACTING INDIVIDUALS DURING RITUAL COMBAT (SYMBOLS ASIN TABLE 4).

Reciprocal Act Class of Respondent

a a eS ee ES RE en RS NS RR eR an ee Se a

Initial Act Class Weaponry
Of Initiator Investi- Domi- Subordi- Stress Sexual Warning Use Bipedal Totals
gative nant nant

a N,N A SS cL

Investigative ae 3.6NS 10.3 6.7NS 3.0NS ss a 13.4 54.4
‘Dominant a af a 3.9 3.4 a ie a ae TS
Subordinant oO. ce 3.0 3.4 es ee ise 3.2 16.3
Stress es 1629 ne a a ve oe ae 3.6 10.5
Sexual ke o _ bs 2 a . 12393123
Warning aid a a Ph, ae 4p sk Me ke 0.0
Weaponry Use ef) i off a sia sh da is ie 0.0
Totals a One: 3.6 ef Wh). 3.0 a As 32.5

66

COMBAT BEHAVIOUR.IN V. BENGALENSIS

not found in a non-ritualistic context. Stress
reactions are commonly followed by investi-
gative ones and by bipedalism. Unlike non-
ritualistic combat, sexual initial acts were
commonly followed only by bipedal posturing.
Warning and weaponry use are never involved,
as pointed out above. In general, dominant
acts are not common, probably because its
determination is the purpose of the interaction
in the first place.

Tables 3 through 5 also show that it is ex-
tremely unlikely that the transition probabi-
lities of the behavioural acts are stationary in
the first several steps of the encounter (see
Oden 1977, for discussion of stationarity).
Rather, the data suggest that the acts tend to
follow a pattern dependent on both time
(periods between combat interactions) and the
identity (initiator, respondent) of the actor.

To test this, the’ data in Table 5 were
further analyzed to determine whether the
observed number of |-step (pair of adjacent acts,
= 2-tuple sequences) behavioural transitions
were significantly different from expected under
the hypothesis of independence. The approach
used was that for nonstationary transitions out-
lined by Oden (1977), but using X? analysis
after probability estimators were calculated
(P(A,B,) = n (A,) nB,/N?, where n(A,) = no.
times A occurred in step 1, etc., and N= total
number of male-male combats). Significant
deviations (P= 0.05, binomial test) from the ex-
pected values were obtained from several data
subsets. These significantly associated adja-
cent acts in decreasing significance ranking are :
sexual-bipedal, subordinant-investigative, in-
vestigative-investigative, investigative-domi-
nant, dominant-subordinant, dominant-stress
reaction, subordinant-subordinant, — investi-
gative-bipedal, investigative-subordinant, in-
vestigative-stress reaction and _ investigative-
sexual.

The same type of analysis was extended to
include the first three adjacent behavioural acts

in both ritual and non-ritual contexts
(= 3-tuple sequences). There are 36 possible
combinations of 3-step mnoncombative act
sequences that can conceivably be used by two
monitors, beginning with step 1 of the initial
three steps of any social interaction. However,
of these possibilities, only 15 actually occur in
the initial three steps of interactions ending in
ritual combat and 13 in interactions ending in
non-ritual combat. Furthermore, the nature
and frequence of these act class combinations
are different in the two contexts, suggesting that
only certain of the possible combinations are
important in early communication between an
interacting pair of V. bengalensis. In the
ritualistic encounters only 9 of the 36 possible
3-step sequences show a statistically significant
dependence (X* analysis, P < 0.5). These
comprise only three behavioural classes (investi-
gative, stress reactions, and — subordinant).
Ranked from greatest to least sequence de-
pendence probability, these 3-step sequences
are: investigative, steps 1, 2, 3 ; investigative for
steps and | and 2 and stress reaction for step 3 ;
investigative for first two steps and subordinant
for step 3; stress for step 1, investigative for
steps 2 and 3; subordinant for step | and
investigative for steps 2 and 3 ; stress reaction
for steps 1 and 3 and investigative for step 2 ;
stress reaction for step 1, investigative for step 2,
and subordinant for step 3; the reverse of 7;
and subordinant for steps 1 and 2 and investi-
gative for step 2. Of these, the first two are
apparently most important, for they are most
consistently involved in the early phases of
interactions eventually leading to ritual combat.

In the non-ritualistic context mutual sequen-
tial investigative acts are not significantly
higher than other sequences and never a step 2
act class of the respondent. Co-investigation
is thus characteristic of ritual combat, explain-
ing the generally smaller number of steps before
combat in the ritualistic contexts. Investi-

gative steps | and/or 2 are so commonly

67

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

followed by subordinant acts of stress reactions
that close relationship and partial dependence
is very highly probable (P = < 0.01). This
is not true in non-ritual contexts. Step 1
dominant acts lead only to ritualistic combat
by the respondent, but in non-ritualistic con-
texts they were sequentially followed by a
number of different act classes by the initiator,
as well as by combative reactions by the res-
pondent. Subordinant initiating acts were
followed by investigative or particularly by
dominant acts, or combat in the non-ritualistic
contexts, but only by combat or reciprocal
subordinant acts in ritual contexts. A step 1
stress act was followed by combat only in the
ritual context. Step 2 of the respondent’s stress
was commonly followed by a subordinant act
in step 4 within the same context. Sexual acts
were never used in initiation of the behavioural
sequence of either individual in the ritualistic
context, but were commonly used by the initia-
tor in Steps | and 3 in a non-ritual context.
Warning acts are very rarely used in ritualistic
contexts, but common in the respondent’s
step 2, who often follows this with weaponry
use. The latter showed a highly significant
(P > 0.01) dependent sequence, in which non-
stationarity was particularly clear.

Therefore, while the acts preceding non-
ritualistic and ritualistic combat are quite
similar because the same investigative and
sexual acts are most common in precipitating
the combats, the sequence of acts is quite
different. The recognition of potential male-
male rivals is, however, evidently based on a
combination of this sequence and the very
probably important sexual scents (see Auffen-
berg, in press, for discussion).

Vogel’s (1979) study of wild Varanus salvator
showed that the winner in one ritualistic combat
between two adult males did not necessarily
remain dominant to the loser. These obser-
vations were thus at variance with those of
Honegger and Heusser (1969) on captives of

68

the same species, where dominance patterns
seemed quite permanent. In the present study
I found that dominance was only partly deter-
mined by size, for of the four adult males (A-D,
see Table 6), A=B=>-C>D, and the dominance
No.successful bouts/total bouts x 100
lO, interactions initiated

see Bergen 1977) for these individuals were
3.37,°:°1.83, 3.17,:, and .°9.52:., respectively.
Thus A was clearly the most dominant
individual, though his size equalled that of
B; B and C were approximately equal
socially, though the latter was smaller ; D was
the most subordinant and also the smallest.
Table 6 also shows, however, that dominance
shifts are common, especially between indi-
viduals of nearly equal size. The same indi-
viduals rarely fight more than once in the same
day. However, fights between the same indi-
viduals on succeeding days is common.

There is no evidence that winning leads to a
significantly high level of despotism in the
winner’s interactions with either the previous
loser or other cage mates. There is also no
evidence that winning or losing a bout signi-
ficantly changes the number of times that adult
female cage mates are courted. However,
females engage in longer courtship with winners
and frequently walk in front of them im-
mediately after combat is concluded. Losing
males frequently court females within 15
minutes after a bout, winning males tend to
court even sooner. Thus, winning a ritual bout
confers at least some advantage to the winner
(additional data and discussion in author’s
MS on V. bengalensis courtship, now in
preparation).

coefficient (

b

DISCUSSION

From the data presented above it is clear that
in Varanus bengalensis of ail ages and sexes fight
one another, but only females and subadults
seem intent on damaging the rival by using

COMBAT BEHAVIOUR IN V. BENGALENSIS

TABLE 6

SOCIOMETRIC MATRIX OF RITUALIZED COMBATS (N=61) IN FOUR MALE Varanus bengalensis
(A-D), SHOWING FREQUENT DOMINANCE SHIFTS AMONG COMBATANT PAIRS (REVERSALS
BELOW DIAGONAL).

Loser Totals
Winner ele A a lac Sela

B A C D Wins Losses
B a 25 6 2 33 13
A 10 8 3 21 DY
C 1 2 i 2. 4 14
D 2 0 0 2 gi
No. initiated 38 12 8 3

weaponry. A similar pattern has been noted
in the field for Varanus komodoensis
(Auffenberg 1978, in press), a species represent-
ing a distinctly different subgenus (Mertens
1957). This suggests that this pattern may be
characteristic of the family Varanidae. Young
V. bengalensis fight less than adults, but show a
greater proportion of stress reactions
(Auffenberg and Ganci, in press). Large adult
males show the least number of aggressive acts
and even in ritual combat are not as evidently
stressed as females and adolescents are during
their encounters.

The varanid familial characters of ritual
combat are bipedalism, brachial embrace, and
common lack of weaponry use. The reported
biting between ritually combative male
bengalensis by Deraniyagala (1957) is presumed
to be a misinterpretation, though biting is
clearly a part of this behavioural pattern in
Varanus gilleni (Murphy and Mitchell 1974).
It is apparently not part of the pattern in V.
salvator (Vogel 1977).

Visual signals in the form of ritualised dis-
plays are not employed by either of the two
potential rivals prior to ritualistic combat, or

prior to any type of combat, regardless of sex or
size. However, the very frequent use of tongue
flicking during the initial phases of combative
interaction among all ages and sexes suggests
that (1) pheromones are probably important
olfactory cues used to distinguish sex and sexual
maturity, and (2) they are probably surface
releaser types. Fecal sign-posting in and on
the periphery of the activity range of
V. komodoensis in the wild has also been re-
ported (Auffenberg 1978), but its importance
in other varanid species has not yet been
demonstrated. Vogel (1977) reported that in
V. salvator tongue flicking is a preliminary act
in about half the ritual encounters in the
wild.

The most common behavioural acts im-
mediately preceding both ritual and non-ritual
combat are of an epigamic type. Hierarchial
acts commonly lead to combat only in non-
ritualistic contexts, and are primarily important
in combat-mediation. Appeasement displays
serve a similar function for particularly the
smaller individuals (see Auffenberg 1978, and
Auffenberg and Ganci, in press) for they tend
to reduce aggression.

69

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Though minor, what occurs among adult
captive male Varanus bengalensis is based
mainly on size and less on ritualized combat
outcome. It is never based on the social
consequences of stereotyped modal action pat-
terns (see Barlow 1977). Subordinant males
are not excluded from courtship with available
females by dominant males, though there is a
suggestion of greater acceptance by females for
recently dominant males. This.is also sug-
gested in wild Varanus komodoensis. In the
latter species there may also be long-term pair
formation (Auffenberg, in press), but this needs
verification and may be an artifact of the
naturally low adult densities of this species in
the wild. |

Dominance shifts are common in similar-sized
male Varanus bengalensis, determined by rather
regular ritual combat before and during the
reproductive. In nature ritual combat in this
species is undoubtedly a form of territorial
aggression. In captivity (and undoubtedly in
the wild as well) this aggression system includes
submissive signals that help to keep the beaten
individual from suffering further damage. An
appeasement display, based largely on stress
reactions, is used by especially young V.
komodoensis when entering at least the feeding
territories of larger individuals. However, this
conciliatory system was not found to be con-
spicuously active under the high density captive
conditions in the present study. However,
that it exists in V. bengalensis is clear (Auffen-
berg and Ganci, in press), and that it is
functionally operative in nature is reasonably
certain. The territorial dominance witnessed
in V. komodoensis in the field probably changes
to the dominant aggression in captive V.
bengalensis, and which forms the basis of this
report. Special signals of either visual or
olfactory type are apparently not as important
in designating social rank as total size alone.
As in V. komodoensis (Auffenberg 1978, in
press), subordinates respond to large size by

70

moving out of the way or by performing
appeasement displays (Auffenberg and Ganci,
in press).

The head jerking reported by Lederer (1933)
in captive V. salvator, and by Vogel (1977) in
the wild for the same species, is apparently not
found in V. bengalensis. It may be an im-
portant visual signal in potential intraspecific
combat contexts in areas of sympatry in south-
eastern Asia. In V. salvator it is reported to
be part of the warning display system and is
only used in intraspecific contexts. However,
it is less common and probably reflects a lower
motivational level than lateral body compres-
sion, according to Vogel (1977).

A comparison of the available details of ritual
combat in both V. bengalensis and V. salvator
as reported by Vogel (1977) shows that they are
very similar, except that the proportionately
longer necks of salvator allow an ‘ entwining’
not possible in the short-necked bengalensis.
The ritualized combat of V. gilleni (Murphy and
Mitchell 1974, Carpenter et al. 1976) does
not include a bipedal phase and the body arch
segment of the combative sequence is greatly
exaggerated and stylized.

While V. gilleni seems to represent a some-
what different pattern in detail, it appears that
in general the varanid ritualistic combat pattern
is a test of strength. It is similar in its basic
components to that of snakes in that strength is
not determined by head butting or pushing,
or jaw fencing, etc., but by the opponents
trying to push one another to the substrate with
their bodies. A comparison of varanid and
snake display shows that both vertical and
horizontal tactics are included (= bipedal and
body arch in varanids). Weapons are ap-
parently never used in most species of both
groups.

However, much remains to be learned, for
the agonistic behaviours of only V. bengalensis,

COMBAT BEHAVIOUR IN V. BENGALENSIS

V. komodoensis, V. salvator, and V. gilleni are
known. These represent only a few of the
several subgenera recognized. Still to be ex-
plored are the behaviours of those species re-
presenting the highly specialized, arboreal

types, as the subgenera Dendrovaranus, Philip-
pinosaurus, Papusaurus, etc.

Table 7 summarizes the agonistic behavioural
acts of Varanus bengalensis and the contexts
in which they are performed.

TABLE 7

SUMMARY OF COMBATIVE BEHAVIOURAL ACTS OF Varanus bengalensis AND THE CONTEXTS IN
WHICH THEY ARE USED

arse:

Contexts
Behavioural Acts Ritualistic Non-ritualistic
High Stress Low Stress
Agonistic
Weaponry Use .
Bite No Yes No
Tail Slap No Yes No
Warning Cues
Tail Coil No Yes Sometimes
Hissing Sometimes Sometimes Sometimes
Lateral Compression No Yes Sometimes
Gape No Rare No
Combat Tactics
Bipedalism Yes Sometimes No
Brachial embrace Yes No No
Wrestling Yes No No
Body arching Yes No No
Snout thrust Yes No No
Dominant Cues
Head up Yes Sometimes Sometimes
Scratching Postcombat Sometimes Sometimes
Topping Postcombat Yes Yes
Subdominant Cues
Head down Postcombat Sometimes Sometimes
Walk away No Postcombat Postcombat
Ventral adpression Postcombat Sometimes Sometimes
Eyes closed Sometimes Sometimes Sometimes
Reproductive
Straddle (mount) Pre-postcombat Sometimes Sometimes
Chinning Pre-postcombat Sometimes Sometimes
Tail lift Pre-postcombat Sometimes Rare
Stress Reaction
Body high No Rare Sometimes
Gular extension Rare Yes Yes
Investigative
Tongue flicking Yes Yes Yes

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was made possible through the
support of the Florida State Museum, which
purchased most of the equipment used; the
New York Zoological Society, which provided

the greenhouse facilities and funds to support

field work in 1974 when some of the individuals
were captured ; and the United States Customs
for the use of individuals confiscated as the
result of illegal shipments.

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—_————, GILLINGHAM, J. C., Murpuy, J. B. and
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ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES FROM PAKISTAN:

T. J. ROBERTS?

Compared with the growing popularity of bird
watching as a hobby in neighbouring India and
the valuable contributions which have been
made in recent years by a new generation of
enthusiastic zoologists and naturalists, the
situation in Pakistan is still rather discouraging.
In the past thirty years there have been very iew
ornithologists working in this region and regret-
tably most published observations have
emanated from foreigners who have been tem-
porarily working in this country. Fortunately,
I know of two young Pakistani naturalists, both
of whom are currently taking degrees in wild-
life management and vertebrate ecology in the
U.S.A. and who will undoubtedly spread their
knowledge and enthusiasm after their return
to this country and it is to be hoped that there
will ensue interesting developments and fresh
contributions to our understanding of the bird
fauna of this region.

Meanwhile this note puts on record some of
my own more interesting observations during
the past year and to ‘keep the home fires
burning ° so to speak. :

Haliaeetus albicilla Whitetailed Sea Eagle.

This magnificent fish eagle is rare enough to
warrant continued recording of its occurrence
and I was interested to note the second sight
record for Nepal of this species by Gooders
(JBNHS 75 (3): 925-926). This description
of the distinctive tail patterns of a sub-adult,
coincides exactly with a detailed description
given by us, in a note submitted ten years ago

1 Accepted May, 1980.
2 Post Box 3311, Malir City Post Office, Karachi-23 ,
Pakistan.

73

about the occurrence of this eagle in Pakistan
(see Roberts & Savage JBNHS 66 (3) : 619-622).
I believe this pattern is associated with four
year old birds in the last year before they pro-
duce white tail feathers. On January 8th, 1980
a Sea Eagie was seen by myself and a group of
friends on Hadiero Lake (24° 50’ N, 67° 53’ E)
some sixty miles due east of Karachi. It
caught a large fish basking near the surface and
we watched it feeding on its prey on a nearby
bare stony hillock. When disturbed (by our
photographic efforts) it was mobbed by Black
Kites which were wheeling around in the vici-
nity. My companion Kent Forssgren, a pro-
fessional ornithologist from Sweden was
familiar with this species from his studies in the
Baltic, and though it had a completely dark-
brown tail he thought thatit was probably a
three year old male. It was not resighted on
subsequent visits to this lake. Ghauspur
Jheel in Jacobabad District (28° 09’ N, 69° 05’ E)
is the most likely locality in the whole of
Pakistan to encounter this eagle and in
November 1979 I also saw one immature speci-
men. The previous year during a visit to
Ghauspur in early February I had failed to sight
any Whitetailed Sea Eagle.

Chlidonias leucopterus Whitewinged Black Tern.

I recorded seeing individuals in breeding
plumage in the vicinity of Karachi in May
1977 (JBNHS 75 (1): 216-219) which was
apparently the first record for this region. I
can now add that in May 1978 and 1979 three
or four individuals of this beautiful little tern
have been observed by me, both in brackish
pools near the Karachi coast (Ghizri Creek)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

as well as at Haleji Reservoir some fifty miles
inland. It therefore appears to be a regular
spring passage migrant off the Karachi coast
and inland. I have always seen it in company
with larger numbers of Whiskered Terns
(Chlidonias hybridus) and 1 only attempted
identification from individuals already clearly
showing their breeding plumage.

Metopidius indicus Bronzewinged Jacana.

Again I was interested to note in the latest
issue of the Society's Journal, that Shri
Lalsinghbhai Raol records the first record of
this species near Jamnagar on the Saurashtra
peninsula (JBNHS 75 (3): 923). In the Sind
Gazetteer section covering the avifauna, which
was compiled by Kenneth Eates after over
thirty years of bird watching in the Province,
he noted (page 52) that it was strange that no
individual of this species had ever been sighted
even in lower Sind. It is also apparently
unknown from the Punjab. On February
14th, 1980 at Haleji Reservoir, (24° 49’ N,
67° 44’ E) three square mile lake which is now
preserved as a wildlife sanctuary, I encountered
a pair calmly feeding out in the open and not
more than 200 metres from the roadside
embankment. On March Ist they were still
there and joined by a third individual. I was
fortunate to be able to borrow a 1,000 mm
telephoto lens from a friend on the day when
they were encountered so was able to get a good
series of photographs. The bill is distinctly
heavier than that of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana
which was feeding nearby and of course the
latter species does not have a frontal shield
extending over the forecrown. The individuals
appeared to be all adults and to be mainly
feeding on small crustacea or aquatic insects as
I saw them peck at objects on the surface of
lotus lily leaves and even pull the leaves up in
their bills, but they made no attempt to eat
the leaf vegetation,

Monarcha azurea Monarch

Blacknaped
Flycatcher. |

A female suddenly arrived in my garden at
Malir, just north of Karachi on December 21st,
1979 and it stayed around for seven weeks until
February 10th 1980 affording many delightful
hours of watching. This flycatcher was re-
corded by C. B. Ticehurst (bis, Oct. 1922)
in his Birds of Sind as the ‘ merest vagrant °
in winter. He collected a single specimen in
February 1919. Jack Coles, a friend who
worked aS a newspaper correspondent in
Karachi during the 1960’s also found a female
with a nest in Malir in April 1971, but he never
saw the male and the nest was regrettably
robbed shortly thereafter. This is my first
observation in seven years of residence here but
obviously stray individuals must be regular
visitors. Our particular female had the habit
of retiring at dusk to the same roosting tree
and was particularly noisy at this time, hopping
about in the branches and uttering its rather
harsh wheezy calls.

Muscicapa rubeculoides Bluethroated Flycatcher.

This appears to be another first record for
Pakistan as far as I am aware. In volume
seven of Salim Ali’s HANDBOOK it is recorded
as occurring westwards up to the Chenab River
and is not even recorded for Kashmir.

In the Margaila Hills (33° 28’ N, 73° 03’ E)
which serve as a backdrop for the new capital
city of Islamabad, I heard a strange bird sing-
ing on the evening of May 26th 1979. This
was in a stony ravine with non-perennial pools
of water but in very thick thorny scrub includ-
ing Zizyphus mauritiana, Carissa opaca and
Woodfordia floribunda. Try as I might, and
even crawling on hands and knees I could not
get a glimpse of the singing bird. The next
evening I had to catch a plane back to Karachi
but a visit to the same spot was rewarded by
a clear view of a singing male in the lower

714

ORNITHOLOGICAL NOTES FROM PAKISTAN

branches of a Ficus higher up the same ravine.
Its song consisted of a rather continuous warble
reminiscent of a Hippolais. It may have been
only an odd male trying to establish a nesting
territory as [ did not find any trace of it during
a subsequent visit in July.

Cettia brunnifrons Rufouscapped Bush Warbler.

The western subspecies of this skulking little
warbler is recorded in Volume 8 of Salim Ali’s
HANDBOOK (page 17) as occurring as far west
as the Pir Panjal range in Kashmir but it is not
recorded for Pakistan. Perhaps the Murree
Hills across the Jhelum River from the Pir
Panjal, do not provide a sufficiently alpine
habitat as this species has never been noted
from these hills which are well worked ornitho-
logically. In the Kaghan Valley, of Hazara
District further west, there is a secluded valley
to the west of the Kunhar River, known as
Sharan Forest (34° 43’ N., 73° 20’ E.) and during
a visit to this area in 1978 I got a tantalizingly
fleeting glimpse of this bird but could not
identify it. On July 7th 1979, when visiting the
same area, I found this Bush Warbler to be
quite plentiful at the upper limit of the tree line
around 10,000 feet or higher, in both scrub-
willow and stunted Blue Pines. I got good
recordings of its cheery little song and found
that it was quite fearless of humans approaching
within twenty feet as it busily foraged amongst
the rocks and bushes. The bright rufous red
cap contrasts with its rather olive brown back
and wing coverts. There is a broad creamy
supercilium, a dark eye streak and the lower
mandible is yellow at the base. The throat
and breast are greyish white whilst the vent is
pale creamy fulvous. It is such a noisy little
bird, that I do not think it would have escaped
notice before, so that I suspect the Sharan
population may be a somewhat isolated one.
It shares its habitat at this elevation in Sharan
with the Wren (Troglodytes troglodytes) and the

75

Orange
cyanurus).

Flanked Bush Robin (Erithacus

Zoothera citrina Orangeheaded Ground Thrush.

Hugh Whistler in his notes on the birds of
Rawalpindi and the Murree Hills (/bis, January
1930, p. 91) merely lists this thrush as nesting
in the Murree Hills on the basis of an earlier
note published by Col. C. H. T. Marshall, who
found a nest in the Murree area in 1870. This
must be the only basis for the Murree Hills
being included in its distributional range in
Volume 9 of the HANDBOOK. Since I have
lived for short periods in the Murree Hills and
felt that I knew the region’s ornithology pretty
well, I had the temerity to write to the distin-
guished authors, (when Volume 9 was being
compiled) and suggested that Pakistan should
be deleted from the distributional range of this
thrush. But in late July 1978, I went up to
Islamabad particularly to try and sight the
Indian Pitta in the adjoining Margalla Hills
where it had been seen for the first time in
Pakistan by my young friend Kamal Islam (see
JBNHS 75 (3): 924-925), I was unable to find
the Pitta on that visit but did investigate an
obviously Turdine songster (all the thrush
species breeding in the Murree Hills are silent
by the end of July) which to my delight and
surprise turned out to be the Orangeheaded
Ground Thrush. I only encountered it in one
of the side ravines and at an elevation of about
1,600 feet and between 6 a.m. and 7 a.m. located
three singing males. This place is some thirty
miles away from Murree town and is eco-
logically in an area quite distinct from the
Murree Hills. I was able to get good record-
ings of their songs which continued for four
or five minutes without interruption with many
mimetic phrases from the Hawk Cuckoo
(Cuculus varius) and the Pied Crested Cuckoo
(Clamator jacobinus). They sang from the
lower branches of shady trees and allowed

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

reasonably close observation. I also saw them
again in 1979 and do not doubt that there is a
small monsoon season visiting population which
breeds here in Pakistan. Scores of previous
visits to the Margalla Hills earlier in the summer
or in winter have never produced any sightings
of this thrush.

Pitta brachyura Indian Pitta.

After the disappointment of failing to find
the Pitta first noticed in June 1978 (referred to
above), I again visited the same ravine in the
Margalla Hills in May 1979. At sunrise I was
rewarded by the unmistakable ‘ whit-wheear ’
call of this jewel-like bird from a rather dry

and exposed hillside. Later I found that at
least five or six pairs were haunting the thickets
on either side of a dry stream bed in the bottom
of the ravine. They were shy and furtive and
difficult to see even when heard calling from a
few feet away. I twice saw males in excited
courtship or aggressive flight chases. Their
wings make quite a loud whirring. I have no
doubt also that there is a small breeding colony
in this ravine and the fact that they have
escaped notice up to this time may largely be
due to the fact that they are confined to rather
impenetrable thorny thickets in one small valley.
They shared this habitat with Rustycheeked
Scimitar Babblers, Paradise Flyacatchers and
Plaintive Cuckoos.

REFERENCES

IsLAM, KAMAL (1978): Sighting of the Indian Pitta
(Pitta brachyura) in Pakistan. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 75 (3): 924-925.

Roserts, T. J. & SAVAGE, C. D. W. (1969): On the
Occurrence of Haliaeetus albicilla (Linnaeus) in West
Pakistan, ibid. 66 (3) : 619-622.

(1978): Unusual Ornithological Records
for Pakistan. ibid. 75 (1): 216-219.
ALI, SALIM & RIPLEY, S. DILLON (1973) : Handbook

ee ee es ee

of the Birds of India and Pakisan, Oxford University
Press, 1973, Vol. 8—p. 17, Vol. 9—p. 86.

SorLey, H. T. (1968): ‘The Gazetteer of West
Pakistan’, the Former Province of Sind, compiled by
Dr. H. T. Sorley, Government Press, Karachi.

TICEHURST, CLAUDE, B. (1922) : ‘ The Birds of Sind’,
Part Il. The Ibis, October, 1922.

WHISTLER, HucGH (1930): The Birds of the
Rawalpindi District, N.W. India. Ibis, January, 1930,
pp. 67-119 and April, 1930, pp. 247-279.

16

A CHECK-LIST AND SOME NOTES CONCERNING THE
MAMMALS OF THE LANGTANG NATIONAL PARK, NEPAL!

MICHAEL J. B. GREEN?

(With two plates and a map)

INTRODUCTION

The mammals of the Nepal Himalaya are a
mixture of species derived from the Oriental
(i.e. India and S.E. Asia) and Palaearctic
(ic. Eurasia excluding S.E. Asia) regions.
Caughley (1969) noted that there are fewer
mammalian species in the Himalaya of central
Nepal, for example the Langtang area, than to
the east and west. For instance, the red deer
occurs in Kashmir and Bhutan and_ the
Himalayan marmot occurs in west Nepal and
Sikkim but neither species are present in the
intervening range. Ibex, markhor, wild goat
and urial occur in the western Himalaya of
Ladakh, Kashmir and Kumaon but their distri-
butions stop short of Nepal. Similarly, the
distribution of the takin which occurs in the
Bhutan Himalaya does not extend into Nepal.
According to Caughley (1969) the paucity of
species in the central region of Nepal may be
‘the result of a forked post-pleistocene route
of dispersal from the north’.

In April 1976 the Langtang area was officially
established a national park. Encompassing
an area of about 1,710 sq km and extending
from just 32 km north of Kathmandu right up
to the Chinese (Tibetan) border, it is the largest
of Nepal’s national parks. Altitude varies
from 792 m to 7,245 m within which eight
vegetation zones, ranging from upper tropical
to upper alpine, are present (Dobremez ef al.
1974).

1 Accepted August 1979.

4 Department of Applied Biology, Pembroke Street,
Cambridge CB2 3DX, England.

Between April 1976 and May 1977 the Lang-
tang National Park was surveyed by the Durham
University Himalayan Expedition. Although
much of the fieldwork was confined to the
Langtang Valley, most of the other regions of
the park were visited except for the Yangri
Khola and the ‘restricted’ area to the north
of Langtang Himal. The following account of
the park’s mammals is based on the DUHE’s
work unless otherwise acknowledged.

CHECK-LIST

The mammals which occur in the park are
listed in Table 1, together with the altitudinal
range and local name (if known) for each
species. This check-list is incomplete because
the alleged presence of some species awaits
reliable confirmation. For example, the jackal
(Canis aureus) has not been reported but may
occur in the park. According to Fleming Jr
(pers. comm.) the distribution of this species
is extending northwards from the Terai into the
Himalayan foothills. The presence of the
jungle cat (Felis chaus) is likely but unconfirmed.
Fox (1974a) mentions that the great Tibetan
sheep or nayan (Ovis ammon hodgsoni) occurs
in the upper Lende Khoia in China (Tibet) and
that the presence of the wolf (Canis lupus) is
doubtful. All of these species are omitted
from the check-list. Also bats have been seen
in the park but no specimens have been caught
for specific identification.

There is only one reliable record for the
clouded leopard which was seen several years
ago north of Melamchigaon (Fleming Jr

lal

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

pers. comm.). Some evidence indicates that
the snow leopard occurs in the park. Near
Gosainkund at 3,900 m, Fox (1974b) saw spoor
which he attributed to snow leopard.

8 A goth is a temporary settlement which is used by
local people during the summer months when the alpine
pastures. are grazed by their livestock.

In June:

1977 Miller and Rice (pers. comm.) saw leopard

~ tracks at 4,540 m in the upper Langtang Valley,

about 4 km northeast of Langsisa goth®.
This animal may have been a visitor to the park
which had crossed a high pass from China
(Tibet). Reference to the other larger
mammals which occur in the park is made in
the mammal survey section.

TABLE |
CHECK-LIST OF MAMMALS WHICH OCCUR IN THE LANGTANG NATIONAL PARK,
NEPAL
Species Alt.range(m)
INSECTIVORA
* Soriculus caudatus
large clawed shrew ; chhuchundro ; re 2,000-=3,800
* Soriculus nigrescens 2,000-3,800
* Suncus murinus
grey musk shrew ; 2 : ? 1,800
CHIROPTERA
No records
PRIMATES
Macaca mulatta
rhesus macaque ; bandar ; priou 1,520-2,440
Presbytis entellus
common langur ; langur or lampuchare bandar ; praken 1,520-4,120

LAGOMORPHA

Ochotona roylei roylei

Himalayan mouse-hare or pika ; muse=- kharaya ; pakpu khonjin or poo-see

2,590-5,090

RODENTIA

Dremomys lokriah

orangebellied Himalayan squirrel ; lokharke ; shimbo or rham

* Callosciurus pygerythrus lokroides

hoarybellied Himalayan squirrel ; ? : i

* Rattus rattoides
house rat ; thulo musa ; ?

* Rattus eha eha
* Rattus niviventer niviventer

*® Mus musculus homourus
house mouse ; sano musa ; piezu
* Pitymys sikimensis
Sikkim vole ; 2 : ?
Hystrix indica
Indian porcupine ; dumsi ; beederee

waa

1,830-3,050
1,800

1,100-3,900
3,000-4,100
1,700-2,100

3,600
3,600-3,900

2,440

i NR SC A ERI tt Sn (ter

MAMMALS OF LANGTANG NATIONAL PARK

TABLE 1 (Continued)

a

Species

CARNIVORA
Vulpes vulpes
red fox ; rato phauro ; wohprhakpa or wamo

Cuon alpinus
wild dog or dhole ; jungeli/ban kukur ; parah

Selenarctos thibetanus
Himalayan black bear ; bhalu ; thom

Ailurus fulgens
red panda; hobrey or rato ba sano panda ; telekama

_ Mustela sibirica subhemachalana
Himalayan weasel ; daman or Himali weasel ; ringmu

\ Mustela altaica temon

pale-footed weasel ; ? : 2

Martes foina
beech/stone marten ; dhunge malsappro; kowar

Martes flavigula
Himalayan yellowthroated marten ; malsappro ; kukhauri or kowarken

Felis bengalensis
leopard-cat ; chituwa birala ; ie

Neofelis nebulosa
clouded leopard ; dhuwase chituwa ; ?

Panthera pardus
leopard ; chituwa ; sengen

Panthera uncia
snow leopard ; huen chituwa ; cerken

ARTIODACTYLA
Sus scrofa
Indian wild boar ; badel or banel ; pha

Moschus moschiferus moschiferus
Himalayan musk deer ; kasturi mriga ; lawa

Muntiacus muntjac
muntjac or barking deer ; ratuwa mriga ; kesha or showa

Nemorhaedus goral hodgsoni
brown goral ; ghoral ; reeda or reegu

Capricornis sumatraensis thar
serow ; thar ; yha
Hemitragus jemlahicus
Himalayan tahr ; jharal; nyang ghin

Notes: (i) Data are based on the records of DUHE (Borradaile et al. 1977), except for the asterisked species

which refer to Niethammer and Weisser (pers. comm.).

(ii) English, Nepalese (Mishra and Mierow 1976) and Tibetan names are given in sequence for each

species.

(iii) Altitudinal ranges are based on sightings of animals and on indirect evidence from tracks and

faeces.

79

Alt. range (m)

3,350-5,330
2,400-3,910
1,830-2,590
2,440-3,660
3,050-4,880
4,150-4,720
3,050-3,3810
1,830-4,000
2,590
?
1,520-3,050

3,900-4,540

1,830-3,260
3,000-4,330
2,290-3,050
1,680-3 350
2,590-3 ,660

2,740-5,200

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

MAMMAL SURVEY

Information concerning the park’s mammals
was obtained from members of the expedition
and tourists. As the park receives over 2,000
tourists per year (Borradaile et al. 1977),
notices were displayed along the major trekking
routes requesting visitors to report their sight-
ings of mammals to DUHE. Tourists were
also questioned whenever encountered by mem-
bers of the expedition. From these data which
are summarized in Table 2 it appears that, in
descending order, the pika, common langur
and orangebellied squirrel were the most fre-
quently seen mammals in the park. These
three species accounted for three quarters of
the total number of sightings. Such data
provide the visitor with a rough idea of which
species he is most likely to see if he visits the
Langtang National Park. However, the figures
do not truly reflect the relative abundance of
each species because they do not account for
the relative amount of time spent by the
observers in each species’ habitat. Information
of an anecdotal nature is given below for those
species which are listed in Table 2.

Rhesus macaque

There is some confusion about the distinc-
tion between the rhesus (M. mulatta) and
Assamese macaque (M. assamensis). Caughley
(1969) ‘saw a group of 16 rhesus monkeys
(between Manigaon and Ramche) that lacked
the rufous colouring on the hind quarters
characteristic of the Assam rhesus’ but he was
not convinced that this form was anything other
than a colour phase of the common rhesus.
In 1971 Fleming Jr (pers. comm.) identified
a group of about 16 Assamese macaques near
Bhargu but this species is not mentioned by
Fox (1974b). Until the issue is resolved by
' a detailed comparison of the two~ species,

reference here is only made to the rhesus

MOnkey 7

The distribution of the rhesus macaque over-
laps with the lower altitudinal range of the
common langur but the former is much less
common. Groups were seen near Dhunche,
Munga, Syabru, Syabrubensi and Timure and
in the lower Langtang Valley amidst a variety
of vegetation types, including mixed deciduous
and Pinus roxburghii forest and Euphorbia
royleana heath. They were not seen in culti-
vated fields but according to Caughley (1969)
they ‘ feed almost exclusively on crops when in
the vicinity of villages’. The mean group size
of 9.8 is underestimated because of the diffi-
culty of counting all the members of a grour
in forested habitat. A lone animal was only
once recorded, at 2,440 m near Chingtang ;
otherwise groups were seen between 1,520 m
and 2,130 m. Caughley (1969) observed rhesus
macaques ‘ at 3,800 m in winter when the snow-
line was then at 3,400 m.’

Common langur
Langurs were seen in temperate forests and

subalpine scrub in the Balephi, Ghatte,
Langtang, Melamchi, Phalung and _ Trisuli
Valleys. Solitary animals were seen on 42

(28°) occasions. Maximum group size was 50

‘but it should be mentioned that Fox (1974b)

once saw over 140 langurs in fields adjacent
to the Bhote Kosi, just outside the park’s
boundary. ei
In the Langtang Valley langurs were usually
seen between 1,520 m and 3,510 m. Repeated
sightings of one group, which numbered up to
46 animals, indicated that it ranged from below
Ghora Tabela (3,050 m) to Langtang Village
(3,510 m)—a distance of 17 km. Between July
and December the group was often seen around
Langtang Village but during the winter and
spring months it remained in the vicinity of
Ghora Tabela. A lone adult, which probably
originated from this group, was seen above
Pana goth on 28 September at 4,050 m, above
Nubmathang goth on 3 October at 4,020 m

80

PLATE [

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 78

Green

| Park

10na

Langtang Nati

°
°

| Park, Nepal.

Michael J. B. Green)

°
°

Langtang Lirung (7,245 m), the highest peak in the Langtang Nationa
(Photo

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 78
Green : Langtang National Park

A yearling tahr, probably a male owing to its slight ruff.
(Photos : Michael J.B. Green)

Il

MAMMALS OF LANGTANG NATIONAL PARK

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81

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

TABLE 2

MAMMALS SEEN BY THE DUHE AND TOURISTS IN THE LANGTANG NATIONAL PARK BETWEEN
APRIL 1976 AND MAy 1977

Observations Animals Group size
Species
No. hs No. Range Mean

Rhesus macaque 13 1.9 127 1-30 9.8
Common langur 153 22 1,490 1-50 9.7
Pika Le as Ai 303 44.0 311 1-3 1.0
Orangebellied Himalayan squirrel 64 9.3 69 1-2 1.1
Red fox - e 5) 0.7 5 1 1.0
Wild dog f. 1 0.2 4 4 “s
Himalayan black bea 11 1.6 13 1-2 12
Red panda 3 0.4 4 ‘1-2 1.3
Himalayan weasel 33 4.8 33 1 1.0
Pale-footed weasel .. 2D 0.3 2 1 1.0
Stone marten ae ae 2 0.3 2 1 ae
Himalayan yellow-throated marten 29 4.2 4l 1-3 1.4
Leopard-cat 1 0.2 1 1 a
Leopard 3 0.4 3 1 1.0
Indian wild boar 4 0.6 i 1-4 1.8
Himalayan musk deer 8 ha 8 1 1.0
Muntjac 12 ila7! 15 1-3 133
Brown goral 18 2.6 40 1-6 22
Serow 2 0.3 p 1 1.0
Himalayan tahr 22 3.2 296 1-40 §=13.5

TOTAL

and above Langsisa goth on 5 October at
4120 m. This last goth is 8 km east of
Langtang Village. Some individuals may,
_ therefore, range up to 1,070 m in altitude and
25 km in distance during the year.

The highest recorded sighting for the com-
mon langur is 4,270 m near Routang (Bishop
1977) which is also in the park. Here, accord-
ing to local reports, a group of at least 50
animals forage during the summer months
and then descend to 2,900 m for the winter.
However, not all langur groups migrate sea-
sonally. During a one year study of a group
of 32 langurs at Melamchigaon, the same home
range of 2.2 sq km was maintained within an
altitudinal range of 2,439 m to 3,050 m (Bishop
1975). Migratory behaviour is probably an

adaptive feature of those populations which
inhabit the higher altitudes to meet their food
requirements.

Langurs were seen eating Fagopyrum dibotrys
(wild buckwheat), Umbelliferaceae, leaves of
Rosa macrophylla and berries of R. sericea and
Hippophae salicifolia. Fields of barley, buck-
wheat and potatoes were raided and hay and
turnips, left by villagers to dry on rocks, were
also taken by langurs.

Pika

Above the tree level pikas were ubiquitous
among rocks, especially those comprising
moraines and walls. They were also present
in rocky habitat within subalpine and montane
forests. Pikas were most frequently encoun-

$2

MAMMALS OF LANGTANG NATIONAL PARK

tered between 2,590 m and 4,880 m and their
faeces were found as high as 5,090 m which
exceeds the altitudinal range of 3,400-4,300 m
recorded by Prater (1971). Sightings were
normally of solitary individuals (98%) but two
and three animals were seen together on six
and one occasion, respectively. Pikas were
seen scurrying among rocks, in between bouts
of feeding, or sunning themselves on rocks.
Undoubtedly the species is an important source
of food for martens, weasels, red fox and pro-
bably some raptors such as the golden eagle
(Aquila chrysaetus) and Eurasian kestrel (Falco
tinnunculus).

Squirrels

The orangebellied Himalayan squirrel is
common within the temperate forest zone.
Animals were seen singly and in twos on 59
and 5 occasions, respectively.

The presence of flying squirrels within the
park is not yet confirmed but one record comes
from nearby at Gatlang. Here some trekkers
reported seeing locals maltreat a female and
her young which had been caught. The most
likely species to occur in the park are Petaurista
elegans, P. magnifica and P. petaurista (Fleming
Jr, pers. comm.).

Red fox

Above the tree line the red fox is widespread ;
its tracks and faeces were often found here
along footpaths. Animals were seen in the
upper Langtang Valley on five occasions,
between 3,410 m and 4,970 m. Faeces were
found up to 5,330 m and always contained the
hair and bones of small rodents and on one
occasion the beak of a rose finch (Carpodacus sp.).

Wild dog

A pack of four dogs was seen in the forest
above Khangjima. Elsewhere in the Langtang
Valley livestock sometimes fall prey to this
species. In March 1977 two young yak were

83

killed at Buldagaon goth (3,910 m). These
calves had been ripped open at the belly which,
according to local people, is characteristic of
wild dog. North of Tarkeghyang spoor, pro-
bably that of wild dog, was found to contain
the hair of musk deer (Fleming Jr, pers.
comm.).

Bears

The Himalayan black bear was seen within
the temperate forests of the lower Langtang
Valley. Solitary animals were seen nine times
and groups of two twice. One trekker was
chased by a female, which was accompanied
by a cub, and every year several villagers are
mauled by bears. The species is still hunted
within the park on account of the damage
which it causes to crops.

A brown bear reputedly exists in the Melam-
chigaon area. According to Fleming Jr
(pers. comm.) this form is most unlikely to be
Ursus arctos. A brown phase, when the white
collar is absent, occurs in the Himalayan black
bear which could account for any confusion
between the two species.

Red panda

This inhabitant of the montane forest zone
is seldom encountered due to its nocturnal
habits. Its presence may be detected by a
distinctive call which is recognized by local
people. In the lower Langtang Valley two
solitary animals and one group of two were
sighted between 2,440 m and 3,050 m. The
faeces were easily identified on account of their
size (c. 18 x 35 mm), oval shape and dark
green colour. They were twice found at the
base of Abies spectabilis trees in the Langtang
and Trisuli Valleys, at 3,660 m and 3,200 m
respectively.

Weasels

The Himalayan weasel (M. sibirica subhema-
chalana), with its distinctive rufous coloured

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

pelage, dark muzzle and black-tipped tail, was
often seen in stone walls in the upper Langtang
Valley. Weasels in and around the expedition’s
house in Langtang Village accounted for 26 of
the 33 sightings. Animals were only ever
seen singly, indicating that they are solitary
hunters.

The pale-footed weasel (M. altaica temon),
which has a light brown body with a yellow
throat and belly and white paws, was seen
twice amidst alpine scrub and moraine at
4,150 m and 4,720 m, respectively.

Martens

The Himalayan yellowthroated marten was
seen in a diverse range of habitats which in-
cluded terraced fields and forest of the tem-
perate zone and cliffs and scrub of the subalpine
and alpine zones. Animals were seen as high
as 4,000 m which is above the upper altitudinal
limit cited by Prater (1971) who states that * In
the Himalayas they keep to forest limits and
are not found above the treeline.’ Out of 29
sightings, solitary animals were seen 18 times,
groups of two 10 times and a family of three
once. Such data indicate that animals often
hunt in pairs, reinforcing the particular view
held by local people that musk deer are chased
until exhausted by pairs of martens. Animals
were seen to be active at all times of the day and
once around mid-night. They were observed
more frequently on the ground (13 times) than
in trees (5 times). This is not a true reflection
of the amount of time which animals spend on
and above the ground because they are more
easily seen in the former habitat. Once a
marten was seen catching white-capped river
chats (Chaimarrornis leucocephalis) by the banks
of the Langtang Khola. Having caught one
bird in its mouth, the marten was then mobbed
by three other river chats. Distracted by
these mobbers, the marten briefly relinquished
its prey in order to chase and jump up after
them. Seconds later the prey was retrieved

but then, noticing the observer, the marten
dropped this and made a hasty retreat. The
river chat flew away, presumably unharmed.
The hair of musk deer, seeds of berries and
cuticle of insects have been found in the faeces
of martens.

The stone marten also occurs in the montane
and subalpine zones. Solitary animals were
seen twice amidst rocky habitat.

Leopards

In the lower Langtang Valley leopards were
seen in open rocky habitat at 1,520 m and
montane forest at 2,740 m. In the former
instance the leopard was watched on the cliffs
above Syabrubensi as it stalked towards where
four goral had been feeding. It then took fright
because of the excited crowd of spectators
which had gathered in the village just below.
Park guards saw a leopard in Ghatte Khola
and reported another being killed near Syabru
in March 1977. Leopard faeces were often
found up to 3,050 m elsewhere in the park
which indicates that the species is common.

The leopard-cat also occurs in the park. One
was seen in the upper Balephi Valley, east of
Chingtang Gompa.

Indian wild boar

Within temperate forests this species is comm-
on. Solitary animals were seen on three occa-
sions and a group of four once. In the Trisuli
Watershed area Caughley (1969) found animals
as high as 4,200 m. In view of the extensive
damage which this species causes to crops it is
often hunted.

Himalayan musk deer

Living in birch, rhododendron and fir forests
of the subalpine and alpine zones, the
Himalayan musk deer is rarely seen because of
its shy nature, crepuscular habits and low
population density. Animals were encountered

84

MAMMALS OF LANGTANG NATIONAL PARK

on seven occasions in the upper Langtang Valley
between 3,000 m and 4,100 m and once else-
where. Twice animals, which may have been
feeding, were disturbed around midnight. Fox
(1974a) estimated 20-30 animals on the south
side of the Langtang Khola, between Palpal
and Chhona.

Musk deer are generally solitary except
during the rut. Observations of a female,
which was repeatedly found within the same
area of about 200m x 400 m, suggest that the
home range is small (Fleming Jr, pers. comm.).
Animals defecate in certain places on a re-
peated basis but the role of such latrine sites is
uncertain. Natural predators include the
leopard, wild dog and Himalayan yellow-
throated marten. ;

It is a well-known fact that the species is
hunted for its musk which is used in medicines
and cosmetics and is worth about four times its
weight in gold. Musk deer populations have
been drastically reduced throughout the park
and poaching is still rife in the remoter areas.
Suitable habitat for the species comprises 6.5%
(111 sq km) of the park’s area. About one
fifth of this habitat was visited (e.g. Panch
Pokhari and the upper Langtang, Larke,
Melamchi and Balephi Valleys) of which 86%
was found to have been trapped within the last
three years. Trapping involves the construc-
tion of brush barricades, along which gates are
placed at intervals and set with sprung nooses
to ensnare the animal’s head or foot. From
100 to 600 gates may be in operation in a single
one kilometre section of valley. Such figures
provide some idea of the intense pressures
which musk deer face from poaching (Green
1978a).

Muntijac
Muntjac or barking deer occur in the
temperate forest zone. In forests animals

could be detected by their characteristic dog-
like bark but also they were often seen grazing

in clearings and cultivated fields. Along the
Bhote Kosi, lower Langtang and Balephi
Valleys animals were seen or heard on 15
occasions ; solitary individuals were seen eight
times and groups of two and three both once.

Brown goral

On the grassy cliffs above the Bhote Kosi
and lower Langtang Khola goral are common.
Group size numbered up to six but solitary
animals were seen on 10 (56%) occasions. A
young animal, about three months old, which
had been found ‘ abandoned ’ by some Tibetans
at Ghora Tabela was successfully reared on a
diet of rice, tsampa (roasted barley flour) and
milk.

Serow

Due to its preference for forest with impene-
trable stands of bamboo and its solitary nature
the serow is seldom seen. Two single animals
were sighted in the lower Langtang Valley.
Faeces, which can be readily distinguished from
those of tahr or sheep on account of their larger
size, were often found in birch, fir and
rhododendron forest up to 3,660 m.

Himalayan tahr

A detailed study of the Himalayan tahr was
made in the upper Langtang Valley (Green
1978b, 1979). Here, in the subalpine scrub and
alpine pastures, two populations of about 170
and 46 animals each ranged over areas of
7 sq km between 3,500 m and 4,600 m. Density
varied between 5 and 46 tahr per sq kim
depending on the habitat and the degree of
competition with livestock. Mean group SIZe
was 14.8, based on a total of 239 sightings.
This figure differs little from the mean of 13.5
which is separately derived from the observa-
tions of DUHE and visitors (Table 2). During
the thirteen month study period 77 was the
largest recorded group of tahr. Groups tended

85

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

to consist of adult males or adult females and
juveniles of both sexes, except in the rut when
groups of mixed sex and age categories predo-
minated. Adult females and juveniles main-
tained the same home ranges throughout the
year, migrating about 700 m vertically on a
daily basis. Adult males tended to range
laterally. The rut lasted from about November
until mid-February ; most mating probably
occurred in December. Young were born
between mid-June and mid-July.

In the lower Langtang Valley about 40 tahr
were seen near Buldagaon goth (Treunier,
pers. comm.) which suggests a total population
size of up to 300 tahr for the Langtang Valley.

Elsewhere in the park a group of 13 tahr
were seen on the cliffs above Saraswatikund
and 31 were sighted on the slopes above
Pemasol goth in the eastern headwaters of the
Balephi Khola. Also Fox (1974a) reported
that tahr occur in the vicinity of Rasuwa Garhi
and Ganesh Kund. The former is the border
post with China (Tibet) to which access is
restricted and, therefore, could not be surveyed.
The latter, a lake at 4,800 m, was visited but
no tahr were seen although their faeces were
evident.

More recent work has shown that the tahr is
exclusively neither a forest animal (Prater 1971)
nor an inhabitant of the subalpine zone bet-
ween 3,900 m and 5,200 m (Caughley 1969).
In the present study tahr were seen between
2,700 m and 5,000 m which, together with
Schaller’s (1973) observations of animals bet-
ween 2,500 m and 4,400 m, indicates that the
species occupies a wider altitudinal range
than was previously believed.

CONSERVATION

A national park such as Langtang, within
which there are a large number of residents,
poses particular problems because the conser-
vation of the wildlife must be reconciled with

86

the needs of the local people. In view of such
a dilemma it has been recommended that the
park should be zoned into areas of differing
conservation status (Borradaile et al. 1977).
Certain ° protected natural areas’ should be
set aside for the preservation of wildlife whereas
other ‘cultivated landscapes * should be desig-
nated for use by residents to meet local timber,
fuelwood, agricultural and pastoral require-
ments. ‘Protected natural areas’ amounting
to 673 sq km (about 40% of the park’s area)
have been proposed in order to ensure that a
representative sample of the park’s wildlife
will be completely protected from human
pressures.

In the case of the park’s mammals some five
species merit particular attention because their
status is ‘threatened’ according to the Red
Data Book (IUCN 1974). These are the wild
dog, leopard, clouded leopard, snow leopard
and the Himalayan musk deer.

Although hunting mostly ceased after the
park’s establishment, it still persists in the case
of certain species. However, a _ distinction
should be made between those species which are
killed because they pose a threat to crops,
livestock or human life and those which are
hunted for their meat, hide or other valuable
assets. The former is justifiable—the latter
must be curbed.

Species which fall into the first category
include the rhesus macaque, common langur,
Himalayan black bear, Indian wild boar and
muntjac, which raid and damage crops exten-
sively, and the wild dog and leopard which
occasionally prey on livestock. In the day-
time monkeys are the principal marauders.
For religious reasons they are never killed but
may be chased away from fields. At night
cultivations are vigilantly guarded from nearby
machans. Fires and noises are made to frighten
away bears in particular. However, such
measures may sometimes be inadequate and so
the authorised killing of persistent marauders

MAMMALS OF LANGTANG NATIONAL PARK

may be necessary within ‘cultivated land-
scapes’. Such action would be difficult to
justify in the case of wild dog or leopard in view
of their ‘threatened’ status. It would be in
the interests of good public relations for the
park authorities to consider either a scheme of
compensation to local people for livestock
killed by these predators or to trap them for
relocation elsewhere in the park.

The only species to fall within the second
category is the Himalayan musk deer. Poach-
ing for musk has already been discussed.
Unless effective measures are taken to curb
such illicit activities, populations will cease to
be large enough for breeding to be viable and
the species will become extinct, not only in
Nepal but throughout the Himalaya.

Apart from hunting, most mammalian species
are adversely affected wherever their habitat
is utilized by man. For instance, the brown
goral, Himalayan tahr and serow compete with
livestock for fodder. Fortunately, from a
conservation viewpoint, certain areas are too

precipitous to be reached by domestic animals
but are accessible to these more agile wild
ungulates.

Generally speaking, provided that sufficient
habitat can be conserved and poaching is stop-
ped, no specific measures need to be taken to
preserve the mammalian fauna because it will
look after itself.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Permission to work in the Langtang National
Park as a member of the Durham University
Himalayan Expedition was granted by His
Majesty’s Government of Nepal. This work
greatly benefited from the information pro-
vided by other members of the expedition and
from visitors to the park. Dr R. L. Fleming
Jr and Dr C. F. Weisser are especially thanked
for access to their data and also Daphne
M. Hills of the British Museum (Natural
History) for taxonomic assistance.

REFERENCES

BisHop, N. H. (1975): Social behaviour of Langur
monkeys (Presbytis entellus) in a high altitude forest.
D. Phil. thesis. Univ. of California, Berkeley.

(1977): Langurs living at high altitudes.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 518-520,

CAUGHLEY, G. (1969) : Wildlife and recreation in the
Trisuli Watershed and other areas in Nepal. HMG/
FAO/UNDP Trisuli Watershed Development Project.
Project Report No. 6, Kathmandu.

DOoBREMEZ, J. F., JEsT, C., TOFFIN, G., VARTANIAN,
M. C. AND VIGNY, F. (1974) ; Carte écologique du népal
région kathmandu-everest 1/250,000. Centre national
de la recherche scientifique, Paris.

BORRADAILE, L. J., GREEN, M. J. B., Moon, L. C.,
ROBINSON, P. J. AND TalT, A. (1977): Langtang National
Park Management Plan 1977-1982. HMG/UNDP/
FAO Project NEP/72/002. Field Document No. 7,
Kathmandu.

Fox, J. L. (1974a): Some ecological notes on the
proposed Langtang National Park. HMG/UNDP/FAO
National Parks & Wildlife Conservation Project,
Kathmandu (unpublished).

=e (1974b): Anecological survey of the proposed

87

Langtang National Park. HMG/UNDP/FAO National
Parks & Wildlife Conservation Project, Kathmandu
(unpublished).

GREEN, M. J. B. (1978a): Himalayan musk deer
(Moschus moschiferus moschiferus). In Threatened
deer. Proceedings of the Working Meeting of the
IUCN Survival Service Commission, Deer Specialist
Group. IUCN, Morges.

——(1978b): The ecology and feeding behaviour
of the Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus). M.Sc.
thesis. Univ. of Durham.

(1979): Tahr in a Nepal National Park.
Oryx 15: 140-144.

IUCN (1974) : Red Data Book : Volume 1 Mammalia.
IUCN, Morges.

MisuHRA, H. R. AND MIEROw, D. (1976): Wild animals
of Nepal. Ratna Pustak Bhandar, Kathmandu.

PraTER, S. H. (1971): The book of Indian animals.
Third (revised) edition. Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.

SCHALLER, G. B. (1973): Observations on Himalayan
tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus). J. Bombay nat. Hist
Soc. 70: 1-24,

NARORA RESERVOIR, U.P.,—A POTENTIAL BIRD SANCTUARY ?

ASAD RAFI RAHMANI 2

Northern India receives the major influx of
migratory ducks but bird sanctuaries are few
in this part of the country. With large-scale
draining of jheels and swamps, the ducks now
flock to the over-crowded Ghana Bird Sanctuary
(Rajasthan), in the newly established Priya-
darshani Bird Sanctuary (Uttar Pradesh) and
in Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary (Haryana). There
are still many swamps and reservoirs which if
properly protected, could become ideal refuges
for water birds. One such place is near Narora
in Uttar Pradesh.

Narora (28° 15’N, 78° 23’E) in Bulandshahr
district of Uttar Pradesh is the site of India’s
fourth atomic power plant. It lies on the main
migratory route of the birds of Palaearctic
region. Due to damming of the river Ganga,
a huge reservoir is formed. During winter and
summer, when the water level is low, large
number of islands appear in the reservoir which
provide safe resting places for the ducks.
Moreover, on both sides of the reservoir, many
lakes and jheels are present where the aquatic
birds feed. Terns, lapwings and Indian skim-
mer nest during the summer months on the
small islands unmolested.

I have surveyed the reservoir, from Narora
to Rajghat, a distance of seven kilometres.
The reservoir was visited on 16-vil-78, 27-vili-78,
17-xii-78, 6-vi-79, 18-vii-79, 19-viii-79, 23-xii-79,
13-i-80 and 3-ii-80. The area could be roughly
divided into the following three zones :

(a) Riverine zone: As the reservoir is
located in the Ganges, the area provides a
typical habitat for all the riverine birds of

' Accepted March 1980.
2 Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University,

Aligarh, India. Present address : Research Biologist,
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay-400 023.

northern India. Twenty-five islands, ranging
from 1/2 acre to 20 acres, are present from
Narora to Rajghat. Except for the one main
island which is never submerged, all the re-
maining islands are transitory and _ their
appearance or disappearance as well as size,
depends greatly on the water level of the
reservoir. In addition to these elongated
islands, innumerable number of small islands
also arise when the water level is extremely low.

Human disturbance in the reservoir is mini-
mum, save for the daily water level readings
taken by the U.P. Hydel Department, so the
birds find a congenial habitat and during winter,
hundreds of ducks and waders make their home
in this reservoir. Circumstantial evidence
suggests that the River tern and the Indian
skimmer breed on these islands. The sur-
rounding water around the islands is generally
shallow in which spoonbill, painted and black-
necked storks, sandpipers, black-winged stilt,
curlew, egrets, tufted pochard, shoveller, pintail,
gadwall, etc., find food. Bar-headed and grey-
lag geese, Brahminy duck and cormorant rest
on the sand banks. In deeper parts of the
reservoir, tufted pochard, white-eye pochard,
shoveller and wigeon are very common. In a
five-square kilometre area upto 1,000 were
counted on 23-xi1-79.

(6) Marshes and jheels: Yo check
erosion and siltation, ‘bunds’ of stone are
erected on either side of the elongated reservoir.
Near these ‘ bunds’, water which has over-
flowed in monsoon months, accumulates result-
ing in marshes and jheels. Teals, pintail,
coot, purple moorhen, pheasant-tailed jacana,
bronzewinged jacana, painted and blacknecked
storks, openbilled stork, sarus crane, spotbill,

88

NARORA RESERVOIR

cormorants (large and little), grey heron,
dabchick, whitebreasted waterhen, three species
of kingfisher and sandpipers are found in these
jheels. In the thick reedy beds, ashywren-
warbler, red munia and streaked weaverbird
were identified.

In the absence of suitable trees, painted
stork, spoonbill, cormorants and egrets do not
breed in Narora. However, pheasant-tailed
jacana, sarus crane, Indian moorhen, coot,
Whitebreasted waterhen, dabchick, red munia
and streaked weaverbird regularly breed here.

(c) Open fields: The marshes gradually
graduate into cultivated and uncultivated fields
which harbour different species of birds, mostly
the common ones. Noteworthy species are:
grey and black partridges, quails, whitethroated

munia, stone curlew, blackbellied finch lark,
pied bushchat, collared bushchat, and red-
Start.

Among the birds of prey, the Pallas’s
fishing eagle is rather common around the
jheels, while the blackwinged kite can be seen
hovering over grasslands in search of prey.
Redheaded merlin, kestrel and tawny eagle were
also seen once each.

In addition to the above-mentioned
birds, all the birds of the Indian plains and
marshes are found in Narora. I have identified
120 species—both resident and migratory.
Important ones are listed below. Rare vagrant
migrants are the great crested grebe and the
common shelduck. Only one specimen of
each species was observed.

LIST OF SOME IMPORTANT BIRDS OBSERVED BETWEEN NARORA AND RAJGHAT

(Based on counts in winter)

Species

1. Barheaded Goose
(Anser indicus)

2. Greylag Goose
(Anser anser )

3. Brahminy duck
(Tadorna ferruginea)

4. Common shelduck
(Tadorna tadorna)

5. Tufted pochard ..
(Aythya fuligula)

6. Wigeon os
(Anas penelope)

7. White-eyed pochard
(Aythya nyroca)

8. Gadwall
(Anas strepera)
9. Pintail..

(Anas acuta)

10. Shoveller ve
(Anas clypeata)

Year and approximate number Status

1978 1979 1980
30 45 28 Uncommon
zie 5 — Rare
180 260 196 Common
ae 1 — Rare
oh + + Very Common
ae a }- Very Common
afk + 970 Very Common
+ + 1,700 Very Common
_— + 78 Common
i dis -|- Very Common

89

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

LIsT OF SOME IMPORTANT BIRDS OBSERVED BETWEEN NARORA AND RAJGHAT (Continued)

90

Species Year and approximate number Status
1978 1979 1980
11. Combduck : — 11 — Uncommon
(Sarkidiornis melanotos)
12. Spotbill 28 — 36 Uncommon
(Anas poecilorh nena)
13. Spoonbill : * * 76 Common
(Platalea leucorodia)
14. Little cormorant 68 & 80 Common
(Phalacrocorax niger)
15. Large cormorant — 74 29 Uncommon
(Phalacrocorax carbo)
16. Darter — 38 46 Uncommon
(Anhinga rufa)
17. Blacknecked stork — 32 54 Common
(Xenorhynchus asiaticus) :
18. Painted stork : “+ -/- + Common
(Ibis leucocephalus)
19. Openbilled stork — 69 34 Common
(Anastomus oscitans)
20. Whitebreasted waterhen + + + Very Common
(Amaurornis phoenicurus)
21. Purple moorhen aie ot ai Very Common
(Porphyrio porphyrio)
22.. Coot “IP ais ais Very Common
(Fulica atra)
23. Pheasant-tailed jacana ae 4. Common
(Hydrophasianus ere
24. Blackwinged stilt . Ae aft ‘Common
(Himantopus himantopus)
25. Avocet — 6 15 Uncommon
(Recurvirostra avosetta)
26. Curlew.. — — 5 Rare
: (Numenius arquata)
27. Redshank * 120 156 Common
(Tringa totanus)
28. Pallas’s fishing eagle 3 * 7 Comparatively
(Haliaetus leucoryphus) common
29. Blackwinged kite .. — — 5 Rare
(Elanus caeruleus)
30. Kestrel. . — 1 — Rare
(Falco tinnunculus)
— = Notseen
* <= Probably present
+ = Seen but not counted. Very common.

NARORA RESERVOIR

POTENTIALITIES OF THE NARORA RESERVOIR

AS A BIRD SANCTUARY

The main reservoir and the adjoining marshes

in Narora have great potentiality for develop-
ment into a bird sanctuary. Following are
some of the reasons which could attract both
the birds and the tourists to Narora.

1G

The place is well connected by road with
Delhi, Bulandshahr, Moradabad, and
Aligarh.

The Uttar Pradesh Tourism Development
Corporation has plans to develop the area
into a picnic spot. The Corporation has
established a beautiful Gazel Restaurant
which provides a panoramic view of the
reservoir. Rest houses of the U.P. Hydel
Department are easily available for over-
night stay. Moreover, due to the fast develop-
ing township of workers and engineers of
the Narora atomic power plant, hotels and
‘dharamshalas’ have appeared which provide
all the necessary facilities for boarding and
lodging. A bird sanctuary will greatly
enhance the attraction of the place.

Thus, the infra-structure, which eats up
most of the capital of any such project,
is already present in Narora, so, expendi-
ture on this account will be small.

Due to the deep water and absence of any
private motorboat, it is very difficult for
hunters to reach the islands, therefore,
poaching is minimum. However, engineers
in government motorboats sometimes
manage to kill a few ducks. Declaring
the area into a sanctuary can easily curb
this activity. As Narora is a prohibited
zone and armed men guard the barrage,
outside poachers do not visit the reservoir,

Dr. Salim Ali, who visited Narora
with me in December 1978, called it a
‘natural sanctuary’. He suggested to the

91

official of the U.P. Forest Department
and to the Regional Tourist Officer, that
‘all efforts should be made to protect this
place from destruction.’

Fishing is the only commercial exploitation
which is allowed in the Narora reservoir.
And this activity does least damage to the
birds because fishing is mostly done in the
deeper parts of the reservoir where the birds
generally do not feed. Thus fishermen
and birds do not compete with each other.
(This needs further confirmation).

Due to transitory nature of the islands,
cultivation is not possible on them, except
in summer (watermelons is grown on a
few big islands). Human pressure on the
nearby marshes and jheels is minimum and
most of them remain permanently occupied
by birds. There is no village on the left
side of the reservoir where most of the
marshes are present. Thus, acquiring the
surrounding land, especially on the left side,
for a bird sanctuary would have negligible
economic impact on the cultivators.

Rajghat and even Narora have religious
importance. Thousands of pilgrims come
every year to bathe in the Holy Ganga.
Most of the temple priests and other in-
habitants to whom I talked want this place
to be declared a shooting-free zone.

Uttar Pradesh does not have any riverine
bird sanctuary. The Narora Bird Sanc-
tuary will greatly increase the tourist
attraction of the State.

Additionally, this reservoir can also become
a congenial habitat for the highly en-
dangered gharial (Gavialis gangeticus). It
has deep pools full of fish and undisturbed
sand banks where these reptiles can lay
eggs. Four years ago, the fishermen caught
a five-foot mugger (Crocodylus palustris)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

from this reservoir. (This mugger now
lives in the Crocodile Rehabilitation Centre
in Kukrail near Lucknow). This proves
that the habitat for crocodiles in the Narora
reservoir has not altered very much and
with proper protection these reptiles could
be easily re-introduced.

8. India’s fourth atomic power plant is fast
coming up, three kilometres downward of
Narora. This plant will increase the
importance of the town.

CONCLUSIONS

All the necessary infra-structure and facilities
which are required for a bird sanctuary are
already available in Narora. With a mini-
mum expenditure, the Narora reservior could

additionally become an excellent tourist attrac-
tion. In my latest visit (13-ii-80) I found that
the population of birds has slightly increased
since some restriction was placed on shooting.
Decline in flight-distance of the wigeon,
shoveller, tufted pochard and brahminy duck
also proves that poaching is decreasing. With
a little more imaginative planning and neces-
sary protection, the Narora reservoir could
become a haven for wildfowl.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

[ am grateful to Shri R. Prasad, regional
tourist officer, Ghaziabad, for providing faci-
lities during Dr. Salim Ali’s visit. Thanks are
also due to Shri O. P. Malik, wildlife warden,
Meerut-Agra region, for encouragement during
this work.

TAXONOMIC REVIEW OF HODGSON’S GIANT FLYING
SQUIRREL, PETAURISTA MAGNIFICUS (HODGSON)
[SCIURIDAE: RODENTIA], WITH DESCRIPTION
OF A NEW SUBSPECIES FROM DARJEELING DISTRICT,
WEST BENGAL, INDIA?

R. K. GHOSE AND S. S. SAHA?

(With three text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The taxonomic status of the giant flying
squirrels with prominent yellow shoulder patch,
Sciuropterus magnificus Hodgson, 1836, and
Sciuropterus nobilis Gray, 1842, have been the
subject of some controversy since the publi-
cation of the ‘ Catalogue of the Mammalia in
the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal ’
by Blyth (1863), who treated them as con-
specific. Subsequently, Jerdon (1874),
Anderson (1878), Sclater (1891), Blanford
(1891), Robinson and Kloss (1918), Ellerman
(1940, 1947, 1949 and 1963), Ellerman and
Morrison-Scott (1951, 1966) and Chakraborty
(1975), followed Blyth (1863). Wroughton
(1911, 1919), however, accepted S. nobilis Gray
as a distinct species, but treated S. magnificus
Hodgson as a subspecies of Petaurista albi-
venter (Gray).

During the last few years fresh material of
giant flying squirrels has been collected by the
Zoological Survey of India parties from
Darjeeling District, West Bengal, and Bhutan,
both in winter and summer seasons. These
specimens offered an opportunity to us to study
the subject afresh and evaluate the taxonomic
status of the two flying squirrels. The result
of this study has been presented in this paper.

1 Accepted May 1979.
2 Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta-700 016.

8, Lindsay Street,

93

Opportunity has also been taken to describe
a hitherto unknown subspecies of Petaurista
magnificus (Hodgson).

All measurements have been expressed in
millimetres. The colour names given with
initial capital letters in the text have been
recognized according to Ridgway’s (1912)
nomenclature.

RESUME OF THE TAXONOMY OF Sciuropterus
magnificus HODGSON, 1836, Sciuropterus
nobilis GRAY, 1842 AND Sciuropterus
chrysothrix HopGson, 1844

The giant flying squirrels, originally described
as Sciuropterus magnificus Hodgson, 1836,
Sciuropterus nobilis Gray, 1842, and Sciuropterus
chrysothrix Hodgson, 1844, were studied by
Blyth (1847) and Horsfield (1851). They how-
ever, used the generic name Preromys, and re-
tained Pteromys magnificus (Hodgson) and
Pteromys nobilis (Gray) as distinct species, with
Sciuropterus chrysothrix Hodgson as a synonym
of P. nobilis. Although the paper of Hodgson
(1844) giving accurate accounts of the new
species, Sciuropterus chrysothrix and S. senex,
was sent to the Editors of the Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal much earlier in 1842
(long before Gray’s), due to delay in printing
(of the colour plate), it came out as late as 1844
with the following note by Blyth : ‘ The truth

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

is, both of them are species already described ;
viz. the Pteromys nobilis and P. caniceps of
Gray, and it would not be creditable to the
Journal that they should be published under
Mr. Hodgson’s new names’. Despite that
note, Blyth (1863) in his subsequent publication
himself synonymized Sciuropterus nobilis Gray
and Sciuropterus chrysothrix Hodgson with
Pteromys magnificus (Hodgson), with their
status designated as ‘ variety’ in his catalogue.
Jerdon (1874), Anderson (1878), Sclatar (1891)
and Blanford (1891) also treated them in a
similar manner. The last-named author, how-
ever, emphasized on the presence or absence of
the middorsal strips, and thought that S. nobilis
was the summer garb and P. magnificus, the
winter garb of Pteromys magnificus (Hodgson).

It was Wroughton (1911) who used Link’s
generic name Petaurista for the giant flying
squirrels, and correctly emphasizing on the
presence of a distinct saddle unlike in any of
the giant flying squirrels, considered Petaurista
nobilis (Gray) as a distinct species. He, how-
ever, left Sciuropterus magnificus Hodgson
under Petaurista albiventer (Gray) as a
subspecies.

Robinson and Kloss (1918), emphasizing
on the dorsal stripe, reverted to Blyth’s (1863)
taxonomy of the group. They had with them
‘nobilis’ form with and without any dorsal
stripe, thus nullifying its importance as the
diagnostic character of S. — chrysothrix
[ = Petaurista nobilis (Gray)| as stated by
Hodgson (1844). They also attributed the
prior name P. magnificus (Hodgson), to the
two available forms. Ellerman (1947) and
Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951, 1966)
followed Robinson and Kloss’s taxonomic
treatment. Although, Ellerman (1963) ad-
mitted that ‘ nobilis’ is strikingly distinct from
all other Petaurista, and ‘ magnificus’ is not so
striking, but with the scanty material (available
to him), he concluded that the two forms were
seasonal variants, despite the fact that he had

both summer and winter collections of both of
them. Based on a study of the additional
material recently obtained from Bhutan in
Summer and winter, Chakraborty (1975) con-
cluded that P. magnificus is a distinct species
with a constant pelage colour, and that P. nobilis
and P. chrysothrix are nothing but its synonyms.
Petaurista magnificus differs from all other
species of the genus by having a constant dark
maroon saddle on the back even in the sub-
adult stage, which may sometimes be partly or
fully divided down the spine by a yellowish
buff line.

The following points may be summarized
from the extant literature :—

Since the publication of Blyth’s (1863)
* Catalogue’, except Wroughton (1911, 1919),
all other authors attributed undue importance
to the middorsal stripe. They overlooked the
basic colour pattern and also the original
descriptions. Additional material of P. nobilis
with or without the stripe, perhaps, put them in

a dilemma. Blanford (1891) and his followers
considered the two _ species as _ seasonal
dimorphs. But Robinson and Kloss (1918),

Ellerman (1947, 1963) and Chakraborty (1975),
who had various forms of P. nobilis from
different seasons, with or without the middorsal
stripe, curiously overlooked the fact that
seasonal change cannot be attributed to the two
forms, and they maintained the traditional
concepts about the two species. And this was
perhaps due to a mislabelled specimen (skin
and skull) of P. nobilis designated (by Robinson
and Kloss 1918) as a paratype of S. magnificus
now in the collection of the Zoological Survey
of India (Reg. No. 9728).

Robinson and Kloss (1918) said that the
‘Co-types’ of Petaurista magnificus were in
the British Museum and the Indian Museum.
But in Sclater’s (1891) catalogue of the collec-
tion in the Indian Museum, the skin marked
‘a’ did not have any skull. This specimen

94

HODGSON’S GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL

has been registered as ZSI. Reg. No. 9728:
skin and skull, after the collection of the Indian
Museum was received by the Zoological Survey
of India in 1916.

On examination of the alleged ‘ Co-type ’—
skin and skull, furnished with an additional
label by Robinson himself and written in red
ink ‘ probably a paratype of the species’ (=P.
magnificus), we found that the skull was typical
of P. albiventer and certainly did not belong to
the skin, and that the skin was that of P. nobilis
with a distinct maroon saddle and the middorsal
stripe broken at places. Moreover, Hodgson’s
specimen with the middorsal stripe, that was
presented to the India Museum, London, was
taken from Darjeeling, which cannot be the type-
specimen of S. magnificus, whose type-locality
is Nepal. This particular specimen belongs to
the material of Hodgson’s S. chrysothrix from
Darjeeling, and on the basis of which Gray’s
S. nobilis was established. Wroughton’s (1911,
1919) assertion that S. magnificus was a sub-
species of P. albiventer (Gray) was due to his
reliance on the basic colour pattern, namely,
grizzled upper surface. But he failed to appre-
ciate the distinct shoulder patch as an important
character which isolates P. magnificus and
P. nobilis from the rest of the species under
the genus.

A reference to the original descriptions of the
three species, namely, S. magnificus, S. nobilis
and S§. chrysothrix will show that the description
were amply clear about their distinct colour-
patterns (see also Text-fig. 1).

TAXONOMIC ACCOUNT
Order Rodentia
Family SCIURIDAE
Subfamily PETAURISTINAE
Petaurista nobilis (Gray)

Sciuropterus nobilis Gray, 1842, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist.,
10 : 263. Darjeeling.

Sciuropterus chrysothrix Hodgson, 1844, J. Asiat. Soc.
Beng., 13: 67. Nepal.

For diagnosis see key (p. 101).

Petaurista nobilis nobilis (Gray)

Material examined : West Bengal ; Darjeeling
District : 73, 492 ; Ghoombhanjang (alt. c 2117 m),
15-16 June 1974, 25-26 Feb. 1975 and 27-29 Mar.
1975; 26, 22: Selimbong (alt. c 2250°m),
20-24 Mar. 1975, coll. R. K. Ghose. 1 unsexed :
no other data, don. W. Rutledge, 12: no
other data, don. Zoological Garden, Alipore.

2 unsexed (1 juv.): no otherdata, don.
L. Mandelli.

Diagnosis: Fully agrees with the clear
description of §Hodgson’s Sciuropterous

chrysothrix (Text-fig. 1A).

External measurements: 93: Head and
body, 347-420 ; tail, 378-490 ; hind foot, 70.5-
77.5; ear, 40-45. 692: Head and body, 368-
410; tail, 439-510; hind foot, 72-80; ear,
39-46.

Skull (Text-fig. 2) measurements : See Table |.

Distribution: Known from the hills of
Nepal, Sikkim and West Bengal (Darjeeling
District ).

Remarks: In one male (from Selimbong),
one female (unknown locality), 2 unsexed and
1 juv. (1 ad. and 1 juv. from Sikkim and the
other from unknown locality) the middorsal
stripe and the blob on the forehead are absent,
only a Buff-Yellow to Orange-Buff streak is
present on the neck. In two females (from
Ghoombhanjang) the dorsal stripe is obsolete
and the blob on the forehead is ill defined.
The middorsal stripe is of the same colour as the
shoulder patch. The stripe is generally distinct,
but occasionally broken at places, or obsolete,
or absent altogether. The colour of the limbs,
like that of the parachute, is Orange-Rufous.
Sometimes the manus and/or the pes are black.

95

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

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(Gray); B. Petaurista magnificus magnificus (Hodgson), and C. Petaurista magnificus hodgsoni
subsq. nov.

96

HODGSON’S GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

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HODGSON’S GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL

Three pairs of mammae (1 thoracic and 2
abdominal). One female collected in June
1974 was lactating. In two other females
taken on 15 June 1974 and 26 February 1975,
single embryos were found in the right horn of
the uterus of both of them.

Petaurista nobilis singhei Saha

Petaurista nobilis singhei Saha, 1977, Proc. zool. Soc.,
Calcutta, 28 (1975) : 27-29. Bhutan.

Material examined: Bhutan: 14,42 (8°
bearing ZSI Reg. No. 19643 is holotype) :
Gomchu (alt. c 2286 m), Gomchu Valley, 28 Mar.
1966 and 25 to 27 Dec. 1973; 1g, 19: Paro (alt.
c 2440 m), Paro Valley, 14 Feb. 1969; 19:
Mithangarh (alt. c 1676 m), Diya Valley, 7 May
1966 ; all collected by B. Biswas and are the
material of the type-series.

Diagnosis: Larger in size. Deeper and
richer in coloration than the nominate sub-
species. Pelage thicker, woolly and _ glossy.
Saddle rich Maroon. Shoulder patch extends
along the side of body and rich Orange-Buff.
Parachute Ochraceous-Salmon. Middorsal stripe
usually absent, but when present, obsolete
or broken at places. Blob on forehead bright
Orange-Buff and invariably present.

External measurements: 23: Head and
body, 414-490 ; tail, 495-510 ; hind foot, 80-81 ;
ear, 46-51. 62 (including the holotype) :
Head and body, 414-487 ; tail, 464-590 ; hind
foot, 79-85 ; ear, 45-51.

Skull measurements: 143: Occipitonasal
length, 72.0; palate, 37.8; toothrow, 17.9;
nasal, 20.4; frontal length, 30.1; orbit, 18.6,
bulla, 13.1. 69 (including holotype type):
Occipitonasal length, 75.5-79.8 ; palate, 38.5-
42.7; toothrow, 17.3-18.5; nasal, 21.7-24.3;
frontal length, 29.0-31.7; orbit, 18.8-20.1 ;
bulla, 12.7-13:2.

Distribution :
in Bhutan.

So far known it is widespread

99

Petaurista magnificus (Hodgson)

Sciuropterus magnificus Hodgson, 1836, J. Asiat. Soc.
Beng., 5: 231. Nepal.

For diagnosis see key (p. 101).

Petaurista magnificus magnificus (Hodgson)

Material examined: Nepal: 13, 19:
Sathen Hills, Gorkha, 14 and 15 Jan. 1923,

coll. N. A. Baptista.
Diagnosis : Upper surface with shades of
reddish chestnut and _ whitish _ grizzling.

Shoulder patch confined to pectorals, Saturn
Red with golden hue (Text-fig. 1B). Under-
surface Orange-Buff to Chestnut Orange.

External measurements: 13: Head and
body, 370; tail, 470; hind foot, 74; ear, 43.
12: Head and body, 385 ; tail, 480 ; hind foot,
16 > ear, 42.

Skull measurements : See Table 1.

Distribution: Hills of Nepal. Replaced by
the following subspecies in Darjeeling District
of West Bengal inthe east. Its alleged occurrence
in Assam, particularly to the south of the
Brahmaputra, is obviously due to confusion
with P. albiventer.

Petaurista magnificus hodgsoni subsp. nov.

Material: Holotype: 1¢ (ZSI. Reg. No.
20110); Ghoombhanjang (alt. c 2117 m),
Darjeeling District, West Bengal, India ; 30 Mar.
1975; coll. R. K. Ghose. Deposited in the
National Zoological Collection, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta.

External measurements (holotype): Head and
body, 359 ; tail, 415 ; hind foot, 72 ; ear, 41.5.

Skull (Text-fig. 3) measurements (holotype) :
Occipitonasal 65, condylobasal 60.8, palate
34.1, diastema 13.5, nasal 19.5, bullae 11.2,
toothrow 15.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

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Fig. 3. Skull and lower jaw of Petaurista magnificus hodgsoni subsp. nov.: A. dorsal view of skull ;
B. ventral view of skull; C. lateral view of skull; D. lower jaw in lateral view.

HODGSON’S GIANT FLYING SQUIRREL

Description : Upper surface chestnut mixed
with some black hairs. Shoulder patch Cream-
Buff to Colonial Buff. Limbs and parachute
lighter than back and coloured Burnt Sienna.
Tail Capuchin Orange to Xanthine Orange
with a black tip (Text-fig. 1C), Undersurface
Apricot Buff.

Distribution: So far known only from the

type locality.

Remarks : Petaurista m. hodgsoni is smaller
in size than P. m. magnificus. Although it is
smaller in other cranial measurements, the
interorbital bridge is wider than that of the

nominate subspecies, and the skull is more
rounded in overall aspect. Larger proportions
of ear to head and body 12.5% (against 9.9-
11.6%), and condylobasal 93.5% (against 91.1-
91.3%), cranial width 49.3% (against 46.1-
46.6%), postorbital width 28% (against 23.2-
24.8%), and maxillary width 26.6 % (against 24.8-
25%) to occipitonasal length (Table 1) together
with the strikingly different coat colour in P. m.
hodgsoni warrants its separation from the
nominate subspecies.

The new subspecies is named after the late
Mr. B. H. Hodgson who is aptly known as the
father of Indian vertebrate zoology. |

Key To THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES OF P. magnificus AND P. nobilis

1. Shoulder patch confined to pectorals.
uniformly coloured

Rest of upper surface more or less

P. magnificus (2)

Shoulder patch extends beyond pectorals along sides of body, isolating a dis-

tinct saddle ..

i)

Colour in general darker.
Buff. Under surface Apricot Buff ..

3. Saddle maroon. Usually a middorsal stripe present.
Parachute Orange-Rufous.

Buff to Flesh-Ochre.
sides of body Buff-Yellow to Orange-Buff

Saddle rich glossy maroon.
Ochraceous-Salmon. Parachute
including sides of body rich Orange-Buff,

Upper surface chestnut.

Middle stripe usually absent.
deep Orange-Rufous.

P. nobilis (3)

Colour in general bright. Upper surface reddish chestnut, grizzled with whitish.
Shoulder patch bright golden yellow. Under surface ochraceous

P.m. magnificus

Shoulder patch Cream-
P. m. hodgsoni

Under surface Salmon-
Shoulder patch and
P. n. nobilis

Under surface
Shoulder patch
; P. n. singhei

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of
India for according facilities to undertake this
work, and to Dr. B. Biswas for his guidance
and useful suggestions. Thanks are also due to
our colleagues Sarvashri D. K. Ghosal, R. N.

101

Mookherjee, T. P. Bhattacharya and C. K.
Misra for their valuable assistance in the field
and to the departmental artists Sarvashri A. K.
Mondal and M. Sengupta for their assistance
in preparing the text-figures.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, J. (1878): Anatomical and Zoological
Researches. Comprising an account of the zoological
results of the two expeditions of western Yunnan in 1868
and 1875. 1 (text). Bernard Quaritch, London.

BLANFORD, W. T. (1891) : The fauna of British India,
Mammalia, Taylor and Francis, London.

BLyTH, E. (1847): Supplementary report by the
Curator, Zoological Department, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng.,
16 : 869-878.

(1863) : Catalogue of the Mammalia in the
Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Bengal
Ptg. Co. Ltd., Calcutta.

CHAKRABORTY, S. (1975): On a collection of
mammals from Bhutan. Ree. zool. Surv. India, 68:
1-20.

ELLERMAN, J. R. (1940): The families and genera of
living rodents. 1. British Museum, London.

——_—— (1947): A key to the Rodentia inhabiting
India, Ceylon and Burma based on collection in the
British Museum. J. Mammal, 28 : 249-279.

(1949) : The families and genera of living
Rodents. 3 (1). British Museum, London.
— (1963): The fauna of India- including
Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon. Mammalia, 3 (Rodentia)
(1). Govt. of India, Delhi.
AND Morrison-ScoTr, T. C. S. (1951):
Checklist of the Palaearctic and Indian Mammals.
Ist edition. British Museum, London.

— and ———— (1966): Checklist of the Pala-
earctic and Indian Mammals. 2nd edition. British
Museum, London.

Hopcson, B. H. (1836): Synoptical description of
sundry new animals, enumerated in the catalogue of
the Nepalese mammals. J. Asiat. Soc. Beng., 5 : 231.

———— (1844): Summary description of two new
species of flying squirrel. J. Asiat. Soc. Beng., 13:
67-68.

HOoRsFIELD, T. (1851) : A catalogue of the Mammalia
in the Museum of the Hon. East-India Company. J. & H.
Cox, London.

JERDON, T. C. S. (1874): The mammals of India.
John Weldon, London.

Ripcway, R. (1912) : Color standards and color
nomenclature. Pub. by the author, Washington, D. C.

ROBINSON, H. C. AND KLoss, C. B. (1918): A nomial
list of the Sciuridae of the Oriental Region with a list
of specimens in the collection of the Zoological Survey
of India. Rec. Indian Mus., 15: 171-254.

SAHA, S. S. (1977): A new subspecies of the flying
squirrel, Petaurista nobilis (Gray), from Bhutan. Proc.
zool. Soc., Calcutta, 28 (1975): 27-29.

SCLATER, W. L. (1891) : Catalogue of Mammalia in
the Indian Museum, Calcutta, Part 2. Trustees of
the Indian Museum, Calcutta.

WROUGHTON, R. C. (1911) : Oriental flying squirrels

of the ‘ Pteromys’ group. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,
20 : 1012-1023.

(1919) : Summary of the results from the
Indian Mammal Survey of the Bombay Natural History
Society. Part 3 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 26 : 338-379.

102

SOME NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR WEST BENGAL
FROM JALPAIGURI DISTRICT !

J. K. SIKDAR?

Jalpaiguri district has a rectangular shape, the
length being from west to east and it lies at the
foot of the hills south of Kalimpong division
of Darjeeling district and the western part of
Bhutan. The district is bounded on the east
by Assam and on the south by Coochbehar
district and Bangladesh. It is mainly a plain
tract with the exception of Buxaduar hills which
are the only mountainous tract and faces
north.

The area, though visited by a number of
botanists from time to time, has not yet been
well explored and the floristic data specifically
required for this district, is almost negligible
in literature so far published.

Eight exploration trips to twenty different
forest ranges under four forest divisions includ-
ing the cultivated lands, waste lands, marshy
areas, etc., were undertaken during the year
1975 to 1977 and about 1100 species collected
and identified. On the basis of recent investi-
gations on the flora of Jalpaiguri district, I
found a good number of plants not reported
previously from West Bengal (Prain 1903 &
1903a, 1905; Culshaw 1950; Mukerjee 1965 ;
Bennet 1966; Matthew 1966: Dutta &
Majumdar 1966; Vuppuluri Sharma 1969;
Guha Bakshi & Naskar 1969 and others) and
thus form new records for the state. A list
of such plants with short diagnostic characters,
flowering & fruiting, distributional notes, eco-
logical features, etc. is given below. The
herbarium sheets of the specimens examined are
deposited in the Central National Herbarium
(CAL).

1 Accepted November 1979.
2 Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of
India, Howrah-711 103.

RUBIACEAE

Hedyotis macrophylla Wall. in Wight & Arn.,
Prodr. 408. 1834; FBI. 3:54. 1880.

An erect to suberect annual herb, young
stem -- soft, 4—angled; leaves opposite,
pale-green, ovate-elliptic, acuminate, nerves
distinct ; flowers white in sessile axillary cymes ;
cocci dehiscing ventrally, the top not protruded
between the calyx-teeth.

Fl. & frt.: Sept.-Oct.

Rare, usually growing as weed in waste land
or among grass in rather sandy gravel soil
along forest paths.

Distributed in Burma, Nicobar Islands and
Assam. Prain (1903) and subsequent workers
have not reported it from West Bengal and also
there is not a single collection of this species
in Herb. CAL from West Bengal. Hence, it is
a new record for the state.

Specimen examined: Jalpaiguri district :
Titi, -+- 200 m (Madarihat range), Sikdar 681.

Hedyotis monocephala R. Br. ex Wall. in
Hook. f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 3:63. 1880.

A prostrate or straggling stout herb with
grooved branches ; leaves 2-3.5 cm long, sessile,
elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate, glabrous on both
surfaces ; stipules variable with recurved teeth ;
flowers in terminal capitate cymes.

Fl. & frt.: Jan.-Feb.

Rare, in swampy areas associated with
Veronica anagallis, Cotula hemisphaerica and
Gnaphalium luteo-album Linn. ssp. affine etc.
This taxon can be easily identified by its sessile
terminal capitate cymes, dark-brown leaves
when dry and obscure nerves on the leaves,

103

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Distributed in Assam and Burma. Prain
(1903) and later workers, have not reported
this taxon from West Bengal and there is not a
single collection from the State in Herb. CAL.
Hence a new record for West Bengal.

Specimen examined: Jalpaiguri district:
Chilapata (Chilapata range), Sikdar 4300.

ACANTHACEAE

Strobilanthes anisophyllus T. Anders in Cat.
Pl. Hort. Bot. Calc. 43. 1861, and in Journ.
Linn. Soc. 9 : 478. 1867 ; FBI. 4 : 462. 1884.

Erect undershrub, less than a metre in height ;
leaves very unequal, nearly alternate,
lanceolate-acuminate, narrowed into the
petiole, margin serrated ; bracts elliptic-obtuse ;
bracteoles shorter than the bracts; flowers
2-2.5 cm long, bluish or pale-purple in cymose
heads.

Fl.: Nov.

Rare, restricted to the lower hills from 800 to
1000 m altitude, often growing on exposed
slopes or rocky plateaus among grass, Selagi-
nellas, Begonia gigantea and _ Dicliptera
roxburghiana.

A new record for West Bengal, previously
known to occur in Assam, Meghalaya (Khasi
hills) and in Nagaland. There is not a single
collection of this taxon from West Bengal in
Herb. CAL.

Specimens examined: Jalpaiguri district :
way to Buxaduars, + 900 m (Buxaduar range),
Sikdar 932 ; Buxaduar, + 1000 m Sikdar 968.

LAMIACEAE

Pogostemon auricularius (L.) Hassk. in
Tijdsch. Nat. Geschied (ed. Hoeven & de
Vriese), 10: 127. 1843 ; El-Gazzar & Watson in
Taxon 16 (3): 187. 1967. Dysophylla auricularia
(L.) BL, Bijdr. 825. 1826; FBI. 4: 638. 1885.
Mentha auricularia L., Mant, Pl. 81. 1767.

Erect densely hairy annual branched herb
with opposite leaves and pinkish-white flowers
in dense terminal spikes; corolla tube with
hairy lobes.

Fi. & frt.: Nov.-May.

Grows in open moist areas among grass,
in shady moist soil along forest paths and
often in the forest associated with Hygrophila
salicifolia, Phyllanthus urinaria, Ischaemum spp.
etc. A very pretty herb when in full bloom.
Rare.

Distributed in Sikkim, Assam, Maharashtra
(Poona), South India and East Bengal. Prain
(1903) recorded this species from Chittagong
(Bangladesh) only. However, this taxon is
not so far reported earlier from the State
except the deposition of two. old sheets in
Herb. CAL without valid record from the
localities as stated on the herbarium sheets.
It is interesting to record its distribution in
West Bengal after 87 years.

Specimens examined: Jalpaiguri district :
Central Moraghat (Moraghat range), Sikdar
415 ;§Poro forest (Nimati range), Sikdar 757;
Mahakalguri, Alipurduar, E.A. Heawood 52
(21st Sept. 1891). Darjeeling district : Siliguri,
Clarke 26464B (31.5.1875).

Pogostemon elsholtzioides Benth. in DC.,
Prodr. 12: 153. 1848; FBI. 4: 634. 1885.

Erect bushy, branched, small shrub, stem
brownish to pink-red ; leaves 5-9.5 x 1.2-2.5 cm,
lanceolate, long-acuminate, glabrous, petiole
short ; flowers pinkish with aromatic scent,
in separate whorls forming interrupted upto
9cm long spikes, often with purple tinge ; pice
whitish hoary.

Fl. > Nov:

Occasional, restricted to the Buxaduar hills
upto + 1200 m altitude, growing in dry rocky-
gravel situations along the valleys in association
with Lantana camara var. aculeata. \t is an
attractive plant when in full bloom. :

104

NEW PLANT RECORDS

Distributed in Bhutan and Meghalaya (Khasi
hills). Mukerjee (1940) recorded this species
from Assam and Bhutan only. After Mukerjee,
it has not been reported from West Bengal.

Specimens examined: Jalpaiguri district :
Buxaduar, -+ 950 m (Buxaduar range), Sikdar
926 and + 1050 m, Sikdar 970.

POLYGONACEAE

Persicaria viscosa (Ham. ex D. Don) Nakai
in Rigakkai 24: 300. 1926; Hara, Fl. E. Him.
24. 1971. Polygonum viscosum Ham. ex D.
Don, Prodr. Fl. Nepal 71. 1825; FBI. 5: 36.
1886.

A slender annual with ascending soft hollow
stem covered with spreading bristly hairs and
bearing bright red flowers in long terminal
racemes,

Fi. : Feb.-Apr.

Rare. Seen growing in moist soil on high
ground by the side of a rice field. Flower
colour persists even after drying.

Distributed in Assam, Tripura, Meghalayas
Sikkim and Nepal. Hara (/.c.) reported it
from Kathmundu, 1400 m. Prain (1903)
recorded it from Chittagong (Bangladesh) only.
There are only two specimens in Calcutta
Herbarium (CAL) collected by C. R. Das
(1959) and A. K. Dutta (1965) from Jalpaiguri
and Burdwan respectively without its valid
record from West Bengal. Since then it has
not been reported from West Bengal again.
So the recent collection of the plant by the
author from northern Bengal is a valid record
of its distribution in West Bengal.

Specimens examined: Jalpaiguri district :
Chilapata, side of paddy field (Chilapata
range), Sikdar 4396; Rajabhatkhawa, (Raja-
bhatkhawa range), C. R. Das 11. Burdwan
district ; Bhedia, A, K, Dutta 691.

ved Tad. > 12 156.

MyRISTICACEAE

Knema erratica (Hook. f. et Thoms.)
J. Sinclair in Gard. Bull. Singapore 18 : 205.
1961. Myristica erratica Hook. f. et Thoms.,
1855. M. longifolia Wall.
ex Bi. var. erratica Hook. f. et Thoms., FI. Brit.
Ind. 5: 110. 1886.

Small to moderate-sized tree, twigs with
conspicuous striations and furrows; leaves
20-28 x 3.0-5.0 cm, narrowly oblong = or
oblong-lanceolate, glabrous above, lower sur-
face stellate hairy when young; male flowers
brown-tomentose, split down to half way into
the perianth lobes; fruit ellipsoid, densely
covered with brownish tomentum.

Fle 86 frit. :

Rare. Growing wild along the hillslopes in
somewhat shady situations. It is often con-
fused with K. linifolia (Roxb.) Warb. but differs
in shape and size of the flowers, bark and leaf-
characters.

This taxon is reported so far in India from
Sikkim, Assam, Manipur and Meghalaya.
Prain (1903), however, recorded it from
Chittagong (Bangladesh) only. This is the first
report of the plant from West Bengal.

Jan.-May.

Specimens examined: Jalpaiguri district :
Way to Buxaduar, -: 600 m (Buxaduar range),
Sikdar 4594.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Ciaoxylon longipetiolatum Kurz in Journ.
Asit. Soc. Beng. 42 (2) : 244. 1873 ; FBI. 5: 413.
1887.

A stout shrub up to 3 m high, stem appressed-
pubescent ; leaves large, elliptic to ovate-
oblong with acute-obtuse base, membranous,
crenate-serrate or undulate, penninerved,
slightly pubescent below; flowers white in
hispid racemes ; capsule deeply 3-lobed, hirsute
with soft prickles.

105

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Fl. & frt.: Feb.-Aug. Specimen examined: Jalpaiguri district :
Rare. Grows luxuriantly along the margin North Rajabhatkhawa (Rajabhatkhawa range),
of the evergreen forests preferably in cold-shady Sikdar 6997.
localities together with Leea gigantea and
Viburnum colebrookianum only in the eastern
ranges of the Jalpaiguri district. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
J. D. Hooker (1887) included this plant as
under imperfectly known species and mentioned I wish to express my grateful thanks to the

only Andaman Islands as the locality in India. Director, Botanical Survey of India and the
Further studies shows that it was also reported Deputy Director, Central National Herbarium
from Assam and Meghalaya and there is for all necessary facilities for these studies and
deposition of 4-sheets of this species in Herb. to Dr. R. S. Rao, Prof. & Head, Department
ASSAM. On the basis of a recent enquiry, this of Botany, Andhra University for encourage-
taxon does not occur in Andaman Islands. ment and guidance. My grateful thanks are
Hence the appearance of this plant in West due to Dr. R. B. Ghosh, Central National
Bengal for the first time is of botanical interest. Herbarium for going through the manuscript.

REFERENCES

BENNET, S. S. R. (1966): Two plant records for MUKERIEE, S. K. (1965): A sketch of the vegetation
West Bengal. Indian For. 92: 227. of Jalpaiguri District of West Bengal. ibid. 7: 134-137.
CuLsHAW, J. C. (1950): Some West Bengal Plants. Prain, D. (1903): Bengal Plants. Calcutta.

J. Bombay. nat. Hist. Soc. 49 : 188-196. :
: ———— (1903a): Flora of Sundaribuns. Rec. Bot.
DutTTA, S.C. AND MAJUMDAR, N.C. (1966): Flora of Surv. India 2 (4) 1 231-270.

Calcutta and vicinity. Bull. bot. soc. Bengal 20 : 16-120.

Guna Baksul, D.N. AND Naskar, A. K. (1969): A ———— (1905): The vegtation of the districts of
sketch flora of Chiruti in district Murshidabad. Bull, Hughli-Howrah and 24-Pargunnahs. ibid. 3 (2):
Bot. Soc. Bengal 23 : 171-176. 143-339.

MATTHEW, K. M. (1966) : A preliminary list of plants VUPPULURI SHARMA, S. (1969): Some interesting
from Kurseong. Bull. bot. Surv. India 8 : 158-168. Plants from West Bengal. Indian For. 95: 311-313.

106

MOVEMENTS OF BANDICOTA BENGALENSIS AND
NESOKIA INDICA IN RICE FIELDS IN SIND!

G. W. FuLK,? A. C. Smet? AND
A. R. KHOKHAR‘4

(With a text-figure)

Data on the movements of four adults of Bandicota bengalensis and two adults of Nesokia indica
were gathered with radio telemetry equipment in rice fields shortly before and after harvest. Before harvest,
a male Bandicota had a large home range (105 metres in diameter) enclosing the ranges of two or
more females whose burrows he occasionally visited. Female Bandicota had ranges 22 and 30 metres in

diameter. Two Bandicota moved away in response to the harvest operations, one moving 590 metres, the

other 240 metres. Both moved to unharvested fields.

No animal stayed in its home field more than two

days after the harvest. Both Nesokia showed a pattern of shifting their home ranges every week or two to

an adjacent, but non-overlapping area.

The Bandicoot Rat, Bandicota bengalensis, is
well adapted to exploit an ephemeral and
localized supply of abundant food, such as a
ricefield (Fulk et al. 1981 ; Chakraborty 1977).
Studies of the movements of Bandicota are of
special interest since wild populations of this
species do not usually live in the same place
year around and individuals must move great
distances to find new food sources. Frantz
(1973) found that the pattern of movements
in Bandicoot Rats in Calcutta was such that it
enabled individuals to find quickly godowns
recently filled with grain.

Earlier (Fulk et al. 1979) we reported on the
movements of Bandicota bengalensis in a fallow
field. We found that many of the animals
moved long distances (up to 640 metres), not
as part of their daily routine, but rather as a
shifting of the home site. Here, we report on
another study of the movements of Bandicota,

1 Accepted April 1979.

2 C/o. New England College of Optometry, 424
Beacon Street, Boston, Mass. U.S.A. 02115.

8 FAO Associate Expert, P.O. Box 69, Ambon,
Maluku, Indonesia.

4 Vertebrate Pest Control Centre, P.O. Box 8401,
University Campus, Karachi - 32 (Pakistan).

this one carried out in a rice field shortly before
and after harvest, undertaken in order to con-
firm the previous results and to learn how the
pattern of movements might be affected by the
different environmental conditions.

We also used this opportunity to follow the
movements of Nesokia indica, a common but
rarely studied rice field rodent in Sind.

METHODS

Seven rodents (3 Nesokia and 4 Bandicota)
were live trapped between 25 and 29 September
1978 in a rice farm (24°40’N-60°50’E) in Badin
District, Sind Province, Pakistan. At this time,
the crop was flowering. These animals were
fitted with radio transmitters (AVM Instrument
Company, Champaign, Ill., U.S.A.) and re-
leased at their points of capture after a 24-hour
recovery period. Two additional Bandicota
were caught and fitted with transmitters in
October.

We used a vehicle-mounted antenna which
could pick up the signal from a distance of
500 metres when the animal was on the surface,
but only from 100 to 200 metres when the

107

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

animal was in a burrow. All final fixes (deter-
minations of an animal’s location) were made
by approaching the animal with a hand-held
antenna.

Starting on | October, we made eight trips
to the farm and followed the animals on 21
mornings and evenings in October and 8 morn-
ings and evenings in November. Fixes were
made at hourly intervals from sunset to mid-
night or later. Whether the rat was inside or
outside a burrow was recorded for each fix.
Whenever a signal could not be received, traps
were set around the last location site and the
surroundings were searched with the vehicle-
mounted antenna. More than four square
kilometres had been thoroughly searched by
the end of the study.

Fluorescent tubes were fixed to some trans-
mitter collars as suggested by Taylor (personal
communication) in order to permit sighting of

rats at night. This technique failed, probably
because of the dense cover of vegetation.

RESULTS

Signals from one Bandicota were never
received. Little data on two other animals
(one Bandicota and one Nesokia) were gathered
since their transmitters were found on the
ground 25 and 52 metres from the release points
soon after release. These animals were pro-
bably killed by predators. Both of the trans-
mitters had tooth marks and one was found
near pieces of fur and meat. We had live-
trapped a mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus)
in these fields.

Data from the remaining animals are sum-
marized in Table 1 and presented below.
Figure | shows the home ranges and long
distance movements made by some animals.

TABLE 1

SUMMARY OF RADIO-TELEMETRY STUDY OF Bandicota bengalensis AND Nesokia indica IN RICE FIELDS

Animal Long Observed
Ss a ee ee ee Days Distance Range
No Species Sex Weight Followed Movement Length Remarks
(Grams) (Metres) (Metres)
1 N. indica M 140 4 — 11 Transmitter found
2 N. indica M 145 27 — 37 Disappeared
7 N.indica M 104 14 — 18 Disappeared
4 B. bengalensis F 180 11 — 22 Disappeared
5 B. bengalensis F 148 Di 45 30 Disappeared
6 B. bengalensis M 280 — — Transmitter found
8 B. bengalensis M 140 a = Disappeared
9 B. bengalensis M 250 23 240 105 Disappeared
10 B. bengalensis F 200 30? 590 2

Transmitter found |

MOVEMENTS OF B. BENGALENSIS AND N. INDICA

coded Ne a
oper: 34

t——} 25 meters

2 2 2

Fig. 1. Map of farm where movements of two Nesokia indica (aumbers 2 & 7) and four Bandicota bengalensis
(females 4, 5 & 10 and male 9) were followed with radio telemetry. The entire farm was divided into rice fields,
but separate fields are shown here only for part of the farm.

109

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

NUMBER 2, Nesokia indica, SCROTAL MALE,
145 GRAMS.

On 2 and 3 October, this animal was located
13 times, mostly in its burrow, but sometimes
moving on the surface in the rice or along the
bund. Between 4 and 20 October, it shifted
its home range and frequented two new burrow
systems (38 fixes). Although close by, it did
not appear in the former home range. Between
22 and 25 October, it again changed its home
range (18 fixes) to a field about 45-50 metres
away from the original home. The reason for
these shifts are not known.

The Observed Range Lengths (ORL) for
these three home ranges were 37, 35 and 22
metres. On the night of 25 October, this rat
disappeared. These fields were harvested two
days later.

- NuMBER 7, Nesokia indica, SCROTAL MALE, 104
GRAMS.

Between | and 4 October, this rat was located
14 times in a small area. From 8 to 12 October,
it was located 25 times in another area, nearby
but not overlapping with the previous area.
No disturbance apparent to us caused this shift.
On the night of 16 October, this animal could
not be located.

NUMBER 4, Bandicota bengalensis, PERFORATE
FEMALE, 120 GRAMS.

This female was located 22 times between
1 and 9 October and was very active. She
frequently crossed the width of the field, a
distance of 19 metres, in a few minutes.
During the day, we saw runways and damage
in the field near her home burrow. During
the night of 9 October this animal disappeared.

NuMBER 5, Bandicota bengalensis, PERFORATE
FEMALE, 148 GRAMS.

The home range of this female was adjacent
but exclusive to the range of animal Number 4.

Most of the 58 fixes for Number 5 were in the
home burrow, but sometimes this animal moved
on the surface, one evening as far as 45 metres
away, considerably beyond her previously
established home range. On the night of
25 October, it disappeared and was not found
again. Two days later, the fields around its
burrow were harvested.

NuMBER 9, Bandicota bengalensis, SCROTAL

MALE, 250 GRAMS.

This animal was located 34 times between
11 and 24 October. It was very active and
travelled distances up to 50 to 60 metres in a
few minutes. Its total home range comprised
an area of 0.68 hectares. In this area, 5 burrow
systems were visited 2 to 6 times each. One
of these systems was used in the daytime and
was situated at the edge of the home range.
Out of the 4 other burrow systems, two were
known to contain an adult female and juveniles.
While the harvest operations were going on,
this animal limited its movements to the un-
harvested parts of its range. On the evening
of 24 October, a few days after the harvest of
all fields within its home range, it moved to
unharvested fields 240 metres away. Here, it
established a new home range of about 0.2
hectares and remained there between 20 October
and 3 November (9 fixes). When we checked
on 14 November, the fields had been harvested
and this rat had disappeared.

NuMBER 10, Bandicota bengalensis, FEMALE,
200 GRAMS.

This animal was released on 22 October.
Several juveniles were also captured near the
home burrow of this animal which had enlarged
teats. Male Number 9 visited this burrow at
least three times. On 23 and 25 October, this
female was located 12 times, always inside her
burrow. Two days after the harvest of the
fields around her burrow, she moved away.
On 30 October, after considerable searching, we

110

MOVEMENTS OF B. BENGALENSIS AND N. INDICA

TABLE 2

PER CENT OF TOTAL RADIO-TELEMETRY FIXES THAT WERE ON THE SURFACE AS OPPOSED TO IN A BURRGW
FOR 6 RODENTSIN RICE FIELDS. VERTICAL LINES CONNECT VALUES THAT ARE NOT DIFFERENT AT P=> .05

Se er eres srr, +e

Individuals

ae Ne ee a ss ns ete ee nr ms ee a

——

Total % on
Animal Number Fixes Surface
Bandicota male 49 82
Bandicota female De 64
Bandicotafemale 10 16 31
Bandicota female 5 77 14
Nesokia male iD, 68 21
Nesokia male 7 34 15

located this animal in a burrow in the middle of
an unharvested field 590 metres away from the
previous burrow. On 1 November, this field
was harvested; and on the evening of 2
November, the female moved about 60 metres
to a neighbouring, partly-harvested field. It
stayed there only a few hours and by the next
morning had moved about 100 metres to a
burrow in a grassy bund. On the way, it had
crossed several open fields. It stayed in this
burrow, apparently without moving. We dug
out this burrow on 26 November and found
the radio transmitter without the animal.
Probably it had been eaten by a predator.

Surface Activity

Two bandicoots, male Number 9 and female
Number 4, were more likely to be found on
the surface than the other animals (Table 2).
Overall, 43° of the Bandicota fixes were on
the surface compared to only 19% of the
Nesokia fixes.

DISCUSSION

Only three of nine transmitters were re-
covered. Transmitter break down, caused

111

Species Totals

ee es a 8 ps ny SE EE re

Total %o ON
Species Fixes Surface
Bandicota bengalensis 164 43
Nesokia indica 102 19

either by predation or battery failure, could
have accounted for some of the remaining six.
However, we feel that most of these animals
moved outside of our searching range. That
bandicoot rats can and do move considerable
distances was shown by female Number 10,
which moved a straight-line distance of 590
metres, and male Number 9, which moved
240 metres. This result is similar to our earlier
study in which several bandicoots moved long
distances (Fulk et al. 1979).

The animals fitted with the three transmitters
that were found were almost surely killed by
predators. The two that were found soon after
release had fluorescent tubes fixed to their
collars. Perhaps these tubes made animals
more susceptible to nocturnal predators.

Movements of two bandicoots were definitely
affected by the harvest operation, while two others
(Nesokia 2 and Bandicota 5) may have been
affected. No animal remained in its home field
for more than a few days after harvest. This
is somewhat surprising in light of our past
experience (Fulk et al. 1981) that Bandicota
may remain abundant in rice fields after harvest,
especially if rats store rice underground. We

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

inspected several burrow openings after the
harvest in this study and found no evidence
(scattered rice pannicles) that rats had stored
rice. We excavated one burrow, that of Bandi-
cota Number 10, and found no stored rice.
Why Bandicota stores rice underground on
some occasions and not on others is unknown.
We did feel that rat density had been unusually
low in these fields.

In our previous study (Fulk ez al. 1979) as
in this study, we observed that a male Bandicota
had a large home range encompassing ranges
of two or more females.

The data we gathered on Nesokia showed
that some individual Nesokia may be as active
on the surface as some Bandicota are, at least
near the time of harvest. This corresponds
well to our finding (Fulk et al. 1981) that
Nesokia does eat rice grain at this time, but ts

in contrast to the opinion of Wagle (1927) that
Nesokia indica was * quite innocent of damaging
the rice crop’.

We observed in both individuals of Nesokia
indica a pattern of shifting the home range to
an adjacent but non-overlapping area. One
can only speculate as to the cause of this
behaviour. Perhaps Nesokia moves to a new
area when its principal food, roots of certain
grasses and sedges, becomes locally exhausted.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was done in behalf of the
Vertebrate Pest Control Centre, a joint project
of the Agriculture Research Council of the
Pakistan Government and the Food and Agri-
culture Organization of the United Nations.

REFERENCES

CHAKRABORTY, S. (1977): Field observations on the
biology and ecology of the lesser bandicoot rat, Bandicota
bengalensis (Gray), in West Bengal. In All India
Rodent Seminar 1975. Ahmedabad, p. 102-109.
Krishnamurthi, K., Chaturvedi, G. C. and Prakash, I.
(Eds.) Rodent Control Proj., Sidhpur.

FRANTZ, S. C. (1973) Behavioral ecology of the lesser
bandicoot rat, Bandicota bengalensis (Gray) in Calcutta.
The John Hopkins Univ., Ph.D., 1973, Zoology.

FULK, G. W., SMIET, A. C. AND KHOKHAR, A. R.

(1979): Movements of Bandicota bengalensis (Gray,
1873) and Tatera indica (Hardwicke, 1807) as revealed
by radio telemetry. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76 (3):
457-462.

———— , LATHIYA, S. B. AND KHOoKHAR, A. R.
(1981): Rice field rats of lower Sind: abundance,
reproduction and diet. /. zool. 193.

WAGLE, P. V. (1927): The rice rats of lower Sind
and their control. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32:
330-338.

12

PLANT EXPLORATION IN RALAM VALLEY,
KUMAON, HIMALAYAS!

P. C. PANT AND B. D. NAITHAN??

Observations on the vegetation of Ralam Valley and Ralam glacier, in the vicinity of Tibetan border with
enumeration and short notes of 145 species from collections upto an altitude cf 4800 m in eastern Kumaon

are recorded.

INTRODUCTION

A sound policy on resources development and
environmental management in the Himalayan
region has become very necessary. The role
of Himalayan forests in controlling soil erosion
and silting of rivers, streams and irrigation
canals down in the plains is well known.
Therefore up-to-date data on plant life of the
whole of the Himalayan region is of utmost
importance. Keeping in view, this aspect the
findings of a botanical exploration to Ralam
Valley are being presented here.

Topography: Ralam valley is in Malla
Johar region of Pithoragarh district in the in-
terior of Eastern Kumaon, Himalayas stretching
in a system of mountains with gorges, river
valleys and glaciers in altitudinal range of
1200 m to 4800 m above mean sea level. Malla
Johar extends from the Tibetan border down the
Gori valley as far as its junction with the Ralam
river. Almost all the villages of Malla Johar
lie within the narrow gorge of Gori river.
Milam is the northernmost village, Laspa is
further south and to the east of Laspa is Ralam,
a side valley through which flows the Ralam
river. Malla Johar is a snow covered moun-
tainous and glacial range. The rising chain of
peaks separates Johar from Darma_ which
culminates in Panchachuli. The horizon to the
south-west is dominated by the superb mass of

- 1 Accepted September 1979.
2 Botanical Survey of India, 3, Laxmi Road, Dehra
Dun (U.P.).

Nanda Devi and Nandakot. Inhabitants of
the valley move down to their winter season
abode or encampments during colder months
due to the heavy snow fall in the region.

Ralam valley can be approached by crossing
the Gori river either at Lilam and trekking
through Bui Pato-Saba Odiyar or by crossing
Gori river near Burphu and trekking through
Tola-Sumdu-Bazarganga. The former route
is short but very difficult. The entry to the
Ralam valley through the latter route is com-
paratively easier and this was followed during
the year 1969 when we explored in Ralam valley
under the auspices of Botanical Survey of India,
Northern Circle, Dehra Dun. The collections
cited in this paper are deposited in the
herbarium of Botanical Survey of India, Dehra
Dun (BSD).

Geology: Malla Johar contains Permian
and Mesozoic rocks of the Tethys Himalaya
lying in the region of Kiogor and Chitichun
on the Tibetan frontier of Kumaon, embedded
with huge masses of sediments consisting mostly
of limestones of varying sizes from ordinary
boulders to blocks of the dimensions of an
entire hill mass.

The foreign transported blocks on _ the
Tibetan frontier of Kumaon are known as
exotic blocks of Johar, these exotic blocks are
pink, red and white limestones of all ages from
Permian to the Cretaceous.

Climate and rainfall: Climate in Ralam
valley is austere and very close to that of Tibet.

113

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

More than 50% of the precipitation falls as
snow in winter months and precipitation is less
than 10”. Air is excessively dry during day
time when strong south wind prevails. Re-
garding temperature in western Himalayan
region it is on record that for every 180 m rise,
there is a variation of approximately 1°C.

Vegetation: Descending from Martoli and
crossing Gori river, Burphu village (3000 m)
is reached, which is an important halting place
on the way to Ralam Valley. The vegetation
around Burphu was scanty, where the dry moun-
tain slopes support shrubby Juniperus spp.
which are the principal source of fuel wood for
the inhabitants of Burphu. The herbaceous
components around Burphu consist of Prunella
vulgaris, Origanum vulgare, Euphrasia spp.,
Pedicularis spp., Swertia sp., Gentiana sp.,
yellow flowered Taraxacum sp. and white
flowered Anaphalis sp., Axyris amaranthoides
and highly aromatic Artemisia stricta were
very common on dry sandy soil and also as
weeds of the cultivated level land of Burphu.

Trekking eastwards from Burphu towards
Ralam Valley the narrow path leads to Tola, a
small village consisting of some 4-5 houses at a
distance of about 8 kms from Burphu. The
section between Burphu-Tola, was somewhat
dry with scanty vegetation. An _ interesting
feature of this section was the shrubby associa-
tion of Rosa sericea-Ribes grossularia in addition
to other shrubby growth of Cotoneaster spp.,
Berberis sp. and Juniperus communis distri-
buted in the region. Beyond Tola the vege-
tation was in herbal form which included
Taraxacum sp., Geranium sp., Senecio ligularia,
Polygonum chinense, Stellaria sp. and Adeno-
_caulon bicolor on moist shady habitats and along
streams. On mountain slopes and_ rock
crevices Micromeria biflora, Taraxacum sp.,
Plantago sp. and Stellaria sp. were common
up to Sumdu, another small village. A little
distance after Sumdu the path ascends from

2900 m to 5200 m over the vast and rich meadow
of Bazarganga pass facing the important
Himalayan peaks of Nandakot, Nandaghunti,
Trisuli and the Haldar ranges.

The vast meadow of Bazarganga was covered
with clumps of Danthonia cachemyriana and
other herbaceous elements like Gentiana
venusta, Swertia cuneata, Plantago brachyphylla,
Elsholtzia eriostachya, Rumex dentatus, Oxyria
digyna, Taraxacum officinale, Senecio chrysan-
themoides, Aster sp., Impatiens sp. and Sibaldia
parviflora in shades of blue, yellow and pink
coloured flowers thus forming thick matting of
the Bazarganga. At few exposed patches
where snow has melted the pretty pinkish-white,
flowered herb, Arenaria glanduligera was of
rare occurrence in the region.

Among. shrubs’ Gaultheria trichophylla,
Rhododendron campanulatum, R. anthopogon
and Salix lindleyana were common. Ascend-
ing further towards Bazarganga Pass the above
pattern of herbaceous vegetation was replaced
by another set of alpine herbs such as Aconitum
violaceum, Delphinium cashmirianum, FPicro-
rhiza kurooa, Pedicularis rhinanthoides, P.
porrecta, Aletris pauciflora, Saussurea gramini-
folia, Polygonum affine, Goodyera fusca,
Heracleum brunonis and Guldenstaedtia hima-
laica. The stout rhizomatic herb Rheum
moorcroftiana on mountain slopes was quite
rare in the area.

Of the tree vegetation, Betula utilis formed
a community with Rhododendron campanulatum
till reaching the snow line, thence crossing the
Bazarganga Pass 4800 m and trekking through
the kneedeep, snow clad valley, some of the
typical alpine herbs met within the terrain were
Saussurea obvallata, S. taraxicifolia, S. kun-
thiana, Jurinea macrocephala, Parnassia lax-
amannii, Orchis latifolia and Macrotomia
benthamii etc.

Proceeding towards Ralam village, an in-
teresting vegetational feature of the area consists
of a community of Jurinea macrocephala—

114

PLANT EXPLORATION IN RALAM VALLEY

Anaphalis sp. intermixed with elements like
Morina coulteriana, Potentilla argyrophylla,
Codonopsis ovata, Delphinium sp., Polygonum
spp. and Allium stracheyi amidst clumps of
Danthonia cachemyriana.

Ralam village situated at 4000 m consists of
about 30 houses. Inhabitants of Ralam are
known as ‘ Ralamwals’ in the region. The
land at Ralam is quite fertile, where Fagopyrum
tataricum, Eleusine coracana, Lepidium sativum,
Brassica tournefortii and very tasty high altitude
variety of Solanum tuberosum were the main
items of cultivation of the ‘ Ralamwals’.

Elsholtzia densa, Capsella bursa—pastoris
and Carduus onopordioides were observed as
common weeds of the cultivated fields around
Ralam village. Near some houses plants of
Saussurea lappa *‘ Kuth’ were also planted as
it has a high repute in the indigenous system
of medicine. Nardostachys jatamansii, Orchis
latifolia and Allium spp. are exploited in large
quantities by the villagers for selling down in
the plains.

Sorbus aucuparia, Rhododendron campa-
nulatum, Juniperus communis and Betula utilis
constitute the shrubby and tree vegetation res-
pectively around Ralam. Proceeding towards
Ralam glacier at a distance of about 5 km from
the village of Ralam, the following three types
of herbaceous communities were recognised.

!. Potentilla atrosanguinea—Rumex nepa-
lensis sheltering Capsella bursa-pasteris,
Nepeta spicata and Astragalus sp.

2. Potentilla atrosanguinea—Anaphalis sp.
with Delphinium vestitum, Senecio chry-
santhemoides and Arenaria sp.

3. Potentilla atrosanguinea—Jurinea macro-

| cephala with Nepeta spicata, Del-
phinium vestitum, Anaphalis sp. an
Cotoneaster sp. ,

The meadows on way to Ralam glacier con-
sist of thick clumps of Danthonia cachemyriana
in addition to Phleum alpinum and Juncus
himalensis. The noteworthy herbs of these
meadows were chiefly the members of Gentina-
ceae and Scrophulariaceae such as Gentiana
pedunculata, G. stipitata, Swertia cuneata, S.
ciliata, Pedicularis mollis, P. brunoniana, P.
hoffmeisteri and Euphrasia spp. respectively.
Other herbaceous associates were Geranium
pratense, Phlomis bracteosa, Impatiens gigantea,
Cynanthus lobatus, C. linifolius, Codonopsis
ovata, Allium wallichii, A. stracheyi, Nomocharis
nana, Hypericum monanthemum, Galium aparine,
Dubyaea_ hispida, Helinium — grandiflorum,
Lactuca violaefolia, Astragallus candolleanus
and Trigonella emodi. |

Of the shrubby growth Berberis jaschkeana,
Juniperus communis and Cotoneaster sp. were of
stray occurrence in the area.

In glacial moraine the herbaceous species
were Pedicularis brunoniana, Senecio chrysan-
themoides, §. kunthianus, Dubyaea hispida,
Anaphalis cuneifolia, Origanum vulgare and
Nepeta spicata. Amidst rocky boulders
Christolea himalayensis with pinkish white
flowers was an interesting crucifer of rare
occurrence in the glacial region.

The last part explored was a particularly
tough terrain, more so during the rainy season,
between Ralam and Saba Odiyar having pockets
of forests and long stretches of meadows. The
forests were dominated by trees of Rhododen-
dron arboreum, Syringa emodi, Aesculus indica,
Hippophae salicifolia, Acer sp. and with shrubs
of Rhododendron lepidotum, Arundinaria spathi-
flora, Ribes sp. and Rosa sp.

Undergrowth on meadows was comprised of
herbaceous elements of Asteracea, Gentianaceae
and Scrophulariaceae members, a_ striking
element in this section during the season was
the tall Liliaceous herb—Lilium giganteum, with
fragrant white flowers, the hollow stem of
which is used by village-folk for making flutes,

HS

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Circaester agrestis near Saba Odiyar under rock
crevices, Utricularia kumaonense amidst moss
carpet from the environs of Pilti bridge and
Christolea himalayensis from the glacial region
are some of the interesting collections of the
present visit to Ralam valley.

ENUMERATION OF PLANTS
GYMNOSPERMS

CUPRESSACEAE

1. Juniperus communis L.

Stunted woody shrub on rocky habitats,
fruiting. On way to Tola 3000 m, common,
39649.

2. J. wallichiana Hook.f. et Thom. ex Parl

Large erect woody shrub on rocks and
meadows with male cones. On way to Tola
3500 m, common, 39647.

DICOTYLEDONS
RANUNCULACEAE

3. Aconitum deinorrhizam Holmes ex Stapf

Tall erect herb with sky blue flowers, in
Betula-Rhododendron forest. On way to Saba
Odiyar 2500 m, rare, 39760.

4. A. violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf

= Small’ erect herb with ‘blue
Bazarganga slope—Ralam valley,
common, 39659.

flowers.
4000 m,

5. Delphinium cashmirianum Royle

Medium sized erect herb with blue flowers,
On way to Bazarganga Dhura 4500 m, common,
39660.

6. D. vestitum Wall. ex Roxb.

Medium sized erect herb with violet flowers
growing on meadows. On way to Ralam
glacier 4500 m, common, 39704.

7. Ranunculus hirtellus Royle

Tall erect herb with yellow flowers near moist
places in Betula-Rhododendron forest. On way
to Saba Odiyar 2800 m, common, 39758.

8. Thalictrum foliolosum DC.

Tali erect herb with fruits and white flowers
in Aluus-Rhododendron forest. On way to
Bui 1500 m, common, 39599.

MENISPERMACEAE

9. Stephania glabra (Roxb.) Miers

An extensive climber with fruits in Alnus-
Rhododendron forest. On way to Bui 1500 m,
common, 39587.

BEBERIDACEAE

10. Berberis jaschkeana Schneid.

Large shrub with red fruits, intermixed with
Rhododendron campanulatum. Ralam__ valley
4000 m, common, 39749.

BRASSICACEAE

11. Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.

Small erect herb with white flowers. On
way to Ralam glacier 4200 m, common, 39712.

12. Christolea himalayensis (Camb.) Jafri

Small herb with thick root stock, flowers
white with pinkish tinge, growing on glacial
soil. Ralam glacier 4300 m, rare, 39684.

13. Thlaspi arvense L.

Herb with fruits growing as a weed of culti-
vated fields. Ralam 4000 m, common, 39723.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

14. Arenaria glanduligera Edgew.

Small hairy herb with white flowers tinged
with pink. On way to Bazarganga 4500 m,
frequent, 39674.

116

PLANT EXPLORATION IN RALAM VALLEY

15. A. serpyllifolia L.

Prostrate weak herb with fruits. On way
to Ralam glacier 4500 m, common, 39719.

16. Stellaria semivestita Edgew. et Hook.f.

Prostrate herb with white flowers in Alnus-
Rhododendron forest. On way to Bui 1500 m,
rare 39592.

HyYPERICACEAE

17. Hypericum monanthemum Hk.f. & Th.
ex Dyer

Small erect herb with fruits on rocky habitats.
Ralam valley 4000 m, rare, 39738.

GERANIACEAE

18. Geranium pratense L.

Large trailing herb with fruits and pink
flowers, growing on meadows and rocky habi-
tats. On way to Ralam glacier 4500 m, com-
mon, 39700.

BALSAMINACEAE

19. Impatiens gigantea Edgew.

Tall erect herb with pink flowers.
4000 m, common, 39745.

Ralam

20. I. scabrida DC.

Tall erect hairy herb with yellow flowers,
on way to Bui 2800 m, common, 39593.

VITACEAE

21. Vitis jacquemontii Parker

An extensive climber, fruiting. On way to
Bui 1500 m, common, 39582.

ANACARDIACEAE

22. Rhus wallichii Hook. f.

Small tree with green fruits.
2000 m, occasional, 39577.

On way to Bui

FABACEAE

23. Astragalus candolleanus Royle ex Benth.

Small tufted woody herb on meadows and
moraine, fruits hairy. On way to Ralam glacier
4500 m, common, 39699.

24. Desmodium tiliaefolium G. Don

Tall shrub in Aesculus-Acer forest. Fruit-
ing. Saba Odiyar 2500 m, common, 39770.

25. Guldenstaedtia himalaica Baker

Small prostrate herb as undergrowth of
Rhododendron campanulatum, on rocky habi-
tats and on grassy slopes. Smali hairy fruit-
ing pods. On way to Bazarganga slope 4000 m,
common, 39670.

26. Indigofera habepetala Bth. ex Baker

Tall shrub in Acer-Aesculus forest.
Saba Odiyar 2500 m, common, 39766.

Fruiting.

27. I. heterantha Wall. ex Brandis

Woody shrub in Al/nus-Rhododendron forest
with fruits and pink flowers. On way to Bui
1500 m, common, 39591.

28. Parochaetus communis Hamilton ex D.Don

Small erect herb on moist rocky habitats,
flowers blue. On way to Bui 1500 m, common,
39580.

29. Smithia ciliata Royle

Small tufted herb along bridle path, on open
places, flowers bluish white. Around Bui
1500 m, rare, 39583.

30. Trigonella emodi Benth.

Prostrate herb amidst rock boulders. On
way to Ralam glacier 4000 m, common, 39714.

31. Vigna capensis Walp

Large climber upon Xanthoxylum sp. with
rose pink flowers. On way to Bui 1800 m,
rare, 39581,

417

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

CAESALPINIACEAE

32. Cassia leschenaultiana DC.

Tall erect herb with fruits and yellow flowers.
On way to Bui 1500 m, rare, 39588.

ROSACEAE

33. Cotoneaster sp.

Tall erect shrub on rocky habitats with pink
coloured fruits. On way to Tola 3200 m,
common, 39651.

34. Cotoneaster sp.

Large prostrate shrub on rocks, fruits red.
Ralam 4000 m, common, 39750.

35. Cotoneaster sp.

Tall erect shrub with dull pink coloured
fruits on rocky habitats. On way to Tola
3200 m, common, 39653.

36. Potentilla ambigua Camb.

Small tufted herb with yellow flowers on
glacial soil. Ralam glacier 4500 m, common,
39687.

37. P. argyrophylia Wall. ex Lehm.

Tall erect herb on moraines and open
meadows, fruits. On way to Ralam glacier
4500 m, common, 39716.

38. Rosa macrophylla Lindl.

Tall erect prickly shrub with orange coloured,
prickled fruits. On way to Tola 3200 m, com-
mon, 39654.

39. R. sericea Lindl.

Tall erect prickly shrub with red orbicular
fruits. On way to Tola 3200 m, common, 39650.

40. Sorbus aucuparia L.

Tall erect shrub on meadow slopes, with
fruits in association with Rhododendron sp.
On way to Bazarganga Dhura 3800 m, 39652.

41. S. cuspidata (Spach) Hedlund —s

Big tree in Betula-Rhododendron forest, fruit-
ing. On way to Saba Odiyar 2500-3000 m,
occasional 39763.

SAXIFRAGACEAE

42. Deutzia staminea R. Brown ex Wallich

Large shrub in Alnus-Rhododendron forest,
fruiting. On way to Bui 1500 m, occasional,
39585. ,

43. Parnassia laxmanii Pallas ex Schultes

Medium sized erect herb on meadow and
rocky habitats, flowers white. Ralam valley
4000 m, common, 39736.

44. Philadelphus tomentosus Wall. ex Royle

Small shrub with fruits in Acer-Aesculus
forest. Saba Odiyar 2500 m, common, 39768.

45. Saxifraga fimbriata Wall.

Small erect herb with yellow flowers amidst
moss on rocky habitats. Ralam valley 4000 m,
occasional, 39735.

46. S. flagellaris Willd.

Small flagellate erect herb, with yellow
flowers. On way to Bui 1500 m, rare, 39579.

47. S.. diversifolia Wall.
(D. Don) Engl.

Small erect herb with yellow flowers on big
boulders. Bui 1500 m, occasional, 39586.

var. parnassifolia

CRASSULACEAE

48. Sedum heterodontum Hook.f. & Thoms.

Succulent herb with yellow flowers amidst
boulders. Ralam 4000 m, occasional, 39721.

49, S. hookeri Balakr.

Small erect herb with red fruits on rocks and
meadow. Ralam valley 4000 m, rare, 39741, .

118

PLANT EXPLORATION IN RALAM VALLEY

50. SS. trullipetalum Hook.f. & Thoms. ©

Small prostrate fleshy herb with yellow
flowers. Bazarganga 5000 m, common, 39679.

APIACEAE

51. Bupleurum longicaule Wall. ex DC.

Tall erect herb on meadow, fruiting. On
way to Ralam Glacier 4500 m, common, 39683.

52. Cortia depressa (Don) Norman

Small herb with thick root stock flowers
white. Bazarganga slope—Ralam valley
3750 m, common, 39751.

53. Heracleum brunonis Benth.

Medium sized erect herb as an undergrowth
of Rhododendron campanulatum and on open
meadows, fiowers white. Bazarganga slope—
Ralam valley 4000 m, common, 39669.

54. Trachydium roylei Lindl.

Small prostrate herb on moraine and meadow
with blackish green fruits. On way to
Bazarganga Dhura—Ralam valley 4000 m, com-
mon, 39667.

CORNACEAE

55. Cornus macrophyllus Wall.
Small tree in Alnus-Rhododendron forest, with
fruits. On way to Bui 1500 m, rare, 39584.

RUBIACEAE

56. Galium aparine L.

Trailing herb with hispid fruits, growing as
a weed of Solanum tuberosum and Fagopyrum
tataricum cultivations. Ralam 4000 m, com-
mon, 39720.

ASTERACEAE

57. Anaphalis contorta Hook.f.

Small erect herb with white flowers, heads
on rocky habitats and meadows. On way to
Ralam glacier 4000 m, common, 39694,

119

58. A. cuneifolia Hook.f. !

Erect herb, with white flower heads on rocky
habitats and in glacial region. Ralam 4500 m,
common, 39710.

59. A nepalensis (Sprengel) Hand.-Maz.

Small erect herb with white flower heads.
Bazarganga slopes 3800 m, common, 39657.

60. Anaphalis sp.

Medium sized erect herb with white flower
heads. On way to Ralam 4200 m, common,
39715.

61. Artemisia nilagirica (CL.) Pamp.

Medium-tall, erect herb with dark brown-
pink flower heads on rocks and meadows.
On way to Ralam glacier 3000 m, common,
39697.

62. A. stricta Edgew. |

Small erect herb on meadow with brownish
green flower heads. Ralam valley 4000 m,
common, 39728.

63. Aster stracheyi Hook. f.

Erect herb with runners, flower heads dark
pink. On way to Tola, Ralam glacier 3000-
4500 m, common, 39646 and 39707.

64. Carduus onopordioides Fish ex Bieb.

Tall erect prickly herb, on waste land with
pink flower heads. Ralam 4000 m, common,
80729.

65. Cicerbita cyanea (D. Don) Beauverd

Tall erect herb in Betula-Rhododendron forest,
fruiting. Saba Odiyar 3000 m, common, 39756.

66. Dubyaea hispida DC.

Medium sized erect, hispid herb with yellow
flower heads on open grasslands and glacial
region. On way to Ralam 4500 m, common,
39702.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

67. Erigeron multiradiatus Benth.

Small-medium sized erect herb with pink
violet flower heads on rocky habitats and open
grasslands. Ralam 4000 m, common, 39725.

68. Inula grandiflora Willd.

Small hispid erect herb with yellow flower
heads on moist rocky habitats. Ralam valley
4000 m, rare, 39739.

69. Jurinea macrocephala (DC.) Benth.

Robust herb with small pink flower heads
on open meadows. On way to Ralam glacier
4500 m, 39698.

70. Lactuca brunoniana (Wall. ex DC.) Clarke

Tall erect herb with light pink flower heads
in Acer-Aesculus forest. Saba Odiyar 2500 m,
common, 39769.

71. LL. violaefolia (Decne) Cl.

Tall erect herb with violet flower heads
along bridle path. Ralam 4000 m, common,
39726.

72. Leontopodium himalayanum DC.

Medium sized erect woolly herb with fruiting
achenes and flower heads on rocky habitats
and meadows. Ralam 4000 m, common, 39688.

73. Saussurea denticulata Wall.

Erect shrub with pale white flower heads
in Acer-Aesculus forest. Saba Odiyar 2500 m,
common, 39767.

74. SS. graminifolia Wall. ex Hook.f.

Small woolly herb with white woolly flower
heads on moraine. Bazarganga slope—Ralam
valley 4000 m, common, 39663.

75. SS. hypoleuca Spreng ex DC.

Tall erect herb with pinkish flower heads on
rocky habitats and meadows. On way to
Ralam Glacier 4000 m, occasional, 39695.

76. S. kuntheana Cl.

Small tufted herb, with pink flower heads
on moraines. Bazarganga slope—Ralam valley
4000 m, common, 39677.

77. §S. obvallata (DC.) Clarke

Robust erect herb, with brown coloured
flower heads on moraine. Bazarganga slope—
Ralam valley 4000 m, common, 39752.

78. S. taraxicifolia Wall. ex DC.

Small tufted herb with pinkish sessile flower
heads. Bazarganga slopes—Ralam valley
4000 m, common, 39678.

79. Senecio chrysanthemoides DC.

Tall erect herb with yellow flower heads on
open meadows and moraine. On way to Ralam
glacier 4500 m, common, 39706.

80. S. graciliflorus DC.

Tall erect herb in Betula-Rhododendron forest.
Flower heads yellow. On way to Saba Odiyar
3000 m, common, 39757.

81. S. kunthianus Wall. ex DC.

Tall erect herb with yellow heads.
4500 m, common, 39708.

Ralam

82. S. ligularia Hook.f.

Tall erect herb in Betula-Rhododendron forest.
Flower heads yellow. On way to Saba Odiyar
3000 m, occasional, 39755.

83. Taraxacum officinale Weber

Herb on meadows with yellow flower heads.
Bazarganga 4500 m, common, 39774.

CAMPANULACEAE

84. Codonopsis ovata Benth.

A trailing herb on meadows with green fruits.
Ralam valley 4000 m, rare, 39740, |

120

PLANT EXPLORATION IN RALAM VALLEY

85. Cynanthus linifolias Wall. ex H.f. & Th.

Prostrate herb with blue flowers on rocks and
meadows. On way to Ralam glacier 4000 m,
common, 39701.

86. C. lobatus Wall. ex Benth.

Large trailing herb with blue flowers on
meadows. Ralam valley 4000 m, common,
39746.

ERICACEAE

87. Gaultheria trichophyila Royle

Weak trailing herb with blue coloured fruits
over moist rocks. Bazarganga slopes 4000 m,
common, 39668.

88. Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don

Small stunted shrub on meadows intermixed
with Cassiope sp. fruiting. Bazarganga 4000 m,
common, 39775.

89. R. campanulatum D. Don

Large shrub with fruits. Bazarganga—
Ralam valley 4000 m, common, 39676.

90. R. lepidotum Wall. ex Don

Small woody shrub on rocky habitat, fruits.
On way to Saba Odiyar 3000 m, common,
39753.

PRIMULACEAE

91. Androsace lanuginosa Wall.

Small tufted herb with fruits on rocky habitat.
On way to Saba Odiyar 4000 m, common,
39754.

OLEACEAE

92. Syringa emodi Wall. ex G. Don

Tall erect shrub in Betula- Rhododendron
forest, fruiting. On way to Saba Odiyar
3000 m, common, 39764.

GENTIANACEAE

93. Gentiana detonsa Friest

Medium sized erect herb on meadows, fruit-
ing. Ralam valley 4000 m, rare, 39743.

94, G. pedunculata Royle ex G. Don

Small erect herb with light blue flowers in
moist habitats of meadows. On way to Ralam
glacier 4000 m, common, 39691.

95. G. stipitata Edgew.

Small tufted herb with bluish green flowers.
On way to Tola Ralam glacier 3000-4500 m,
occasional, 39648, 39696.

96. G. venusta (Don) Griseb.
Small erect herb with blue flowers on

meadows. Bazarganga slopes 3800 m, com-
mon, 39656.

97. Swertia ciliata (D. Don) B. L. Burtt

Tall erect herb with white pink coloured
flowers on meadows. Ralam glacier 4500 m,
common, 39682.

98. S. cuneata Wall. ex D. Don

Tall erect herb with fruits and bluish white
coloured flowers on meadows. On way to
Bazarganga—Ralam valley 3800-4000 m, com-
mon, 39658, 39734.

BORAGINACEAE

99. Cynoglossum glochidiatum Wall. ex Bth.

Small herb with sky blue flowers on rocky
habitats. On way to Bui 2000 m, common,
39578.

100. Hackelia uncinata (Royle ex Bth.) C. E. C.
Fisher.
Tall erect herb with sky blue flowers in

Betula-Rhododendron forest. On way to Saba
Odiyar 2500 m, common, 39759.

121

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 78

101. Macrotomia benthami (G. Don) DC.
Tall erect herb in Betula-Rhododendron
forest, fruiting. On way to Saba Odiyar

3000 m, common, 39761.

SCHOPHULARIACEAE

102. Euphrasia densiflora Pennell

Small erect herb with white flowers on
meadows. On way to Ralam glacier 4000 m,
common, 39681.

103. Pedicularis brunoniana Wall.

Small erect herb on meadows with pink
flowers. Ralam 4000 m, common, 39686,
39705.

104. P. hoffmeisteri Klotz

Stout erect herb with fruits and yellow
coloured flowers on meadows and moraine.
On way to Ralam glacier 4000 m, common,
39717.

105. P. mollis Wall. ex Benth.

Small erect herb on meadows and moraine,
fruiting. On way to Ralam glacier 4500 m,
common, 39690.

106. P. porrecta Wall. ex Benth.

Small erect herb with red fruits on meadows.
Bazarganga slope—Ralam valley 4000 m,
common, 39664.

107. BP. rhinanthoides Schrenk

Small erect herb with pink flowers on
meadows. On way to Bazarganga, 4000 m,
common, 39671.

108. Picrorhiza kurreca Royle ex Benth.

Small prostrate herb on moist rocks in
moraine, fruiting. Bazarganga slope—Ralam
valley 4000 m, common, 39662.

122

LENTIBULARIACEAE

109. Utricularia kumaonense Oliver

Minute herb with white flowers in moist
habitat. Near Pilti bridge (Saba Odiyar)
3000 m, rare, 39773.

LAMIACEAE

110. Elsholtzia ciliata (Thunb.) Hyland

Small erect herb, with white flowers in Alnus-
Rhododendron forest. On way to Bui 1500 m,
rare, 39589.

111. E. densa Benth.

Herb as a common weed of Solanum tube-
rosum & Fagopyram tataricum cultivation, flowers
violet coloured. Ralam 4000 m, common,
39722.

112. KE. eriostachya Benth.

Medium sized erect herb with greenish pink
flowers on rocky habitats. Bazarganga slope
3800 m, common, 39661.

113. Nepeta laevigata (Don) Hand.-Maz. |

Tall erect herb on open meadows and
moraines with dark pink coloured flowers. On
way to Ralam glacier 4500 m, common, 39709.

114. Origanum vulgare L.

Medium sized erect herb on meadows.
Flowers pink. On way to Ralam glacier
4500 m, common, 39713.

115. Phlonis bracteosa Royle ex Benth.

Tall erect herb with fruits on meadows.
Ralam 4000 m, common, 39727.

PLANTAGINACEAE

116. Plantago himalaica Pilger

Small erect herb on meadows, fruiting.
Bazarganga slope 4000 m, common, 39666,

PLANT EXPLORATION IN RALAM VALLEY

POLYGONACEAE _

117. Bistorta vaccinifolia (Wall.) Greene

Large procumbent herb with pink flowers
on rocky habitats. On way to Ralam glacier
4000 m, common, 39693.

118. Persicaria nepalensis (Meissn.) H. Gross

Tall erect herb on rocky habitats in Quercus-
Rhododendron forest. Flowers greenish white.
Ralam 4000 m, common, 39744.

119. P. polystachya (Wall. ex Meissn.) H.
Gross

Tall erect herb along cultivated fields.
Flowers white. Ralam 4000 m, common,
39724.

120. Polygonum affine D. Don

Trailing herb with pink flowers amidst
boulders. On way to Bazarganga 4500 m,
common, 39672.

121. P. glaciale Hook.f.

Small prostrate herb with white flowers on
rocky habitats in shade. Ralam valley 4000 m,
common, 39733.

122. Rheum moorcroftianum Royle

Rhizomatous herb on moist places, flowers
red. Bazarganga slopes, 4000 m, rare, 39680.

123. Rumex acetosa L.

Tall erect herb on meadows and moraine,
fruiting. On way to Ralam 4000 m, common,
39718.

124. R. nepalensis Spreng
Tall erect herb, fruiting. Ralam 4000 m,
common, 39730.

CHLORANTHACEAE

125. Circaester agrestis Maxim

Small erect herb on moist places in rock
crevices occasionally in association with

Leucanthus sp. fruiting. Shamboo Odiyar,
2500 m, abundant, 39633. :

URTICACEAE

126. Pilea racemosa (Royle) Tuyama

Large herb with rose pink flowers. On way
to Bui 3000 m, occasional, 38581.

SALICACEAE

127. Salix lindleyana Wall. ex Anders

Large prostrate shrub on rocky habitats and
amidst boulders, fruits green. Bazarganga
slope 4500 m, common, 39675.

MONOCOTYLEDONS
ORCHIDACEAE

128. Goodyera fusca Hook.f.

Terrestrial, erect fleshy herb amidst the
clumps of Rhododendron sp. and Gaultheria
sp. flowers greenish white. Bazarganga 4000 m,
rare, 39665.

129. WHerminium monorchis R. Br.

Terrestrial herb on meadows, fruiting, Ralam
valley 4000 m, common, 39732.

130. Orchis latifolia L.

Terrestrial herb on moist places, fruiting.
Ralam valley 4000 m, common, 39731.

ZINZIBERACEAE

131. Globba racemosa Smith

Tall erect herb in Alnus-Rhododendron forest,
flowers yellow. On way to Bui 1500 m,
common, 39590.

HAEMODORACEAE

132. Aletris pauciflora (Klotzsch) Hand.-Maz.

Small erect herb on meadows with brownish
white flower. Bazarganga slope 3800 m, 39655.

123

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

LILIACEAE

133, Allium stracheyi Baker

Small erect herb, with light pink flowers.
Ralam valley 4000 m, common, 39737. —

134. A. wallichii Kunth.

Tall erect herb with pink flowers on meadows.
On way to Ralam glacier 4500 m, occasional,
39685.

135. Lilium giganteum Wall.

Tall unbranched herb with hollow stem in
Acer-Aesculus forest, fruiting. Near Lungrani
2500 m, common, 39771.

136. Nomocharis nana (Klotzsch) E. H. Wilson

Small erect herb on meadows,
Ralam valley 4000 m, rare, 39742.

fruiting.

JUNCACEAE

137. Juncus himalensis K. & G.

Tall erect herb with brown fruiting spikes.
Ralam valley 4000 m, common, 39748.

CYPERACEAE

138. Scirpus setaceus L.

Small erect tufted herb on meadows with
dark brown fruiting spikes. On way to Ralam
4500 m, common, 39703.

POACEAE

139. Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin.

Tall erect herb with flowering spikes in
Alnus-Rhododendron forest. On way to Bui
1500 m, common, 39595.

140. Danthonia cachemyriana Jaub. et Spach.

Tall erect grass with fruiting spikes on
meadows. On way to Ralam glacier, on way

to Saba Odiyar 3000-4500 m, common, 39711,
39762.

141. Deyeuxia sp.

An erect grass with brown fruiting spikes
on open slopes. On way to Ralam glacier
3200 m, common, 39692.

142. Phieum alpinum L.

Tall erect grass with dull violet spikes on
moist rocks. Ralam valley 4000 m, common,
39747.

143. Saccharum spontaneum L.

Tall erect grass, with silvery white fruiting
spikes along bridle path. On way to Bui
1500 m, common, 39594.

FERNS
PTERIDACEAE

144. Pteris cretica L.

Fern with sori amidst boulders. On way to
Bui 1500 m, rare, 39596. |

CRYPTOGRAMACEAE

145. Cryptogramme crispa R. Br.

Fern with sori on rocky habitat and shade.
Bazarganga 4000 m, common, 39673.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are greatly indebted to Dr. M. A. Rau,
Retired Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of
India, Northern Circle, Dehra Dun for his
constant encouragement in studying the plants
of Ralam valley and help in the preparation of
this paper.

124

SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF THE AXIS DEER DURING THE DRY SEASON
IN GUINDY SANCTUARY, MADRAS'

SHINGO MIURA?

(With three text-figures)

The social behaviour of the axis deer is described. Axis deer exhibit a biomodal pattern in diurnal activity,
changing their grouping behaviour and vegetative use. Several separate elements are identified in buck-buck

and doe-buck interactions respectively.
they establish territory.
cervids.

Although the axis deer Axis axis can generally
be found in moist and dry deciduous forests,
practically throughout peninsular India (Prater
1971), the eco-ethological study made by Schaller
(1967) was only for Kanha population, in
Central India. I had an opportunity to visit
Guindy Sanctuary, South India from 29th
February to 2nd April, 1977 and was able to
gather quantitative data concerning grouping
and rutting behaviour of the axis deer. The
purpose of this study is to describe social
behaviour and to determine the social system
of the axis deer during the dry season as it
compared to other populations and to other
cervids.

STUDY AREA AND METHOD

Guindy Sanctuary covers an area of 302 ha
of flat terrain and is located at the out-
skirts of Madras City, Tamil Nadu. This
small sanctuary is rich in wildlife, e.g. axis
deer, blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), bonnet
macaque (Macaca radiata), and common
mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi).

According to a direct census carried out by
the Madras Wildlife Warden in May of 1976,
the population of deer and blackbuck was

1 Accepted August 1979.
2 Laboratory of Biology, Hyogo deg of Medicine,
Nishinomiya, Hyogo, Japan.

Axis deer make no attempt to form a harem group, nor do
Brief comparisons are made between social behaviour of axis and certain other

1360 animals (density ; 4.5 animals/ha.) and
740 animals (2.4 animals/ha.) respectively.
These densities are considerably higher than
other populations (see; Sharatchandra and
Gadgil 1977).

I roughly divided the vegetation of this area
into three types as follows: (1) deciduous
thorny forest dominated by Acacia planifrons,
Acacia leucophloea, Acacia javanica, Azadi-
rachta indica and Derris glabra (covering
with 44% of the area), (2) mixed forest with
Ficus bengalensis, Atlantia monosperma, and
Glycosmis pentaphylla (33°), and (3) grass-
land (23%). Due to overbrowsing by ungu-
lates, some malformed palatable plants, such
as Plugia leucophrus, Carissa spinarum, and
Randia spp. occurred in the area.

More than 250 hrs. of direct observations on
the deer were made along standardized routes in
the area. Use of 9 x 35 binoculars facilitated the
identification of sex, size, and behavioural acts
of the deer. Antlered bucks were classified
into five antler classes as ‘ spikes’, less than
40 cm, 41-50 cm, 51-60 cm, and more than
61 cm. Social interactions and _ behavioural
acts were recorded in field note on a minute-
by-minute basis, noting sex, antler class, and
when possible, known animals. More than 30
animals of both sexes were recognized as indi-
viduals by antler configuration, and by distinc-
tive marks such as natural notches at ear

125

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

margins and scars in various regions. Some
individuals were recorded as many as 25 times.
Based upon the description by Hardin et al.
(1977), I observed whether the deer formed
a group or not. The deer were regarded
as a herd when they were within view of one
another and responding to each other during
the entire period of observation. However, some
Cases, were not considered as a group as even
though they were adjacent to one another,
they went their separate ways after brief
interactions.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Out of a total number of 6318 individuals, 3789
(60.0%) were adult or juvenile does, 1425
(22.6 °%) were bucks including yearlings and 1101
(17.4%) fawns. The buck to doe ratio, based on
above data, was 35.0: 100.0. Most bucks (82.2 %)
were with hard antlers, 17.2 per cent were in
velvet, and the rest had shed their antlers.

GROUP SIZE AND COMPOSITION

Out of 2424 total observation records, 880
(36.3 %) were of single animals and 1546 (63.7 %)
were groups of two or more or herds. The
overall average group size was 2.83 (range ;
1-37 animals). The distribution of herd sizes
is skewed toward small groups, with 85.6 per cent
of all groups containing fewer than four deer.
The percentage of all deer seen in groups of
various sizes, however, is considerably larger in
larger groups: 44 per cent of all deer were
in groups of five or more.

Doe groups, consisting only of females with
or without fawns, were observed more frequently
than mixed and buck only groups. Strong
social ties appeared to exist between does, and
between doe and fawn. Most(89.3 %) of the 1526
sightings of groups numbering two or three
were doe groups. Although the composition
of groups of more than four was: generally

126

mixed (56.7%), the frequency of doe groups ob-
served should not be ignored (39.9%). Few buck
groups consisting of males only were seen
during this period: most bucks were seen

either as solitary (26.0% of all bucks) or as

members of a mixed group (63.0%).

DIURNAL RHYTHMS

_ Diurnal rhythms of the axis were examined
from 0600 to 1900 hrs from three points of view:
vegetative use, basic activities, and grouping
behaviour.

Percentages of deer observed in the three
vegetation types to every one hour are presented
in Fig. 1A. This indicates a certain pattern of
diurnal vegetative use of the deer. In the grass-
land which is characterized by an open habitat
rich in food for grazing, there were two peaks ;
in the early morning between 0600 and 0700 hrs
and in the evening between 1600 and 1700 hrs,
and there was one lull in the daytime
between 1100 and 1200 hrs. The Deciduous
forest which was dominant in the area and
was characterized by relatively open habitat
poor in food, was consistently used to some
degree during all of the observations, but this
was rather used frequently during the midday.
Use of mixed forest, which was characterized
by closed habitat and relatively rich in food
for browsing, was the inverse of the use of
grassland. There was one peak at midday of
1100-1200 hrs. These changes of vegetative use
may be closely related with their diurnal
activities.

I divide here the acts of the animals into four
basic categories ; resting (lying on the ground),
feeding (grazing and/or browsing), moving, and
others (grooming, suckling, drinking, and social
acts etc.). Percentages of these acts to every
one hour are shown in Fig. 1B. Axis exhibit a
biomodal activity pattern. There were two peaks
and one lull in feeding. The morning peak
between 0600 and 0700 hrs, 89 per cent of animals

SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF AXIS DEER |

PERCENTAGE OF AXIS OBSERVED
- |
Oo

0600 1200 1900
TIME IN HOURS

DECIDUOUS THORNY
FOREST

MIXED FOREST
J GRASSLAND

Fig. 1A. Percentages of the axis deer observed in three vegetation types per hour in Guindy Sanctuary.

127

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

2
oO

mms 1AtuauUnONNOOOE PHTAONNT) H
CERES
|
Bert Se it

50

PERCENTAGE OF AXIS OBSERVED

0600

1200

1900

TIME:IN HOURS

FEEDING — [/] RESTING
MOVING

Fig. 1B. Percentages of four basic acts of the axis deer observed per hour in Guindy Sanctuary.

were engaged in feeding, and during the evening
peak between 1700 and 1800hrs, 78 percent. The
per cent of feeding was apparently inversely
proportional to resting. The lull of feeding was
coincident with the peak of resting. Moving
was consistently observed all the time with
slight increases before and after the peaks of
feeding. It was noticeable that the two peaks for
feeding synchronized with the peaks for the use of
the grassland and the peak for resting was also

roughly coincident with the peak for the use of
the mixed forest. Diurnal changes of their acti-
vities may deeply influence grouping behaviour.

Percentages of various group sizes observed
every hour including average group size observed
every hour are presented in Fig. 1C. Single
animal and groups of two animals were
observed all the time with ranges of 21-49 per
cent, and 20-42 per cent respectively. But, both
occurred more frequently in the daytime between

128

SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF AXIS DEER

50

PERCENTAGE OF GROUP OBSERVED |

Q600

1200

Zz
Mm
aU
pa
@
_ ™m
©
“TT
@
U
Q
Cc
U
1W
N
mM

1900

TIME IN HOURS

[| SINGLE ANIMAL
GROUP OF 2

Fig. 1C. Frequencies of various sizes of groups
in Guindy Sanctuary.

0900 and 1600 hrs than in the early morning
and in the evening. On the contrary, groups of
3-10 animals occurred more frequently in the
early morning and in the evening than during
the daytime. Out of 72 total sightings of large
sized groups of more than 11 animals, only
seven were seen during the daytime between
0900 and 1600 hrs. The largest group of

GROUP OF 3
GROUP OF 4-10
GROUP OF MORE THAN

observed per hour, including average sizes of groups,

37 animals were engaged in grazing and moving
in the grassland between 1608 and 1619 hrs,
Changes of the average size of the groups shows
a ‘V’ shape curve, which indicates that larger
gathering tended to occur more often in the
morning and in the evening than during midday.
Thus, it is reasonable to infer that after the early
morning the animals split up their organization

129

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

into smaller groups or solitary, and in the
evening they reorganized and formed into larger
groups, while changing their activities and use
of vegetation.

My observations after 1900 hrs indicate that
almost all members (85.6%) rested, and they
should be regarded as the roosting groups.
Similar large roosting groups were also observed
for Sika deer at Nara Park, Japan (Miura 1975).
It is evident that the larger groups observed in
the evening were in the process of forming
roosting aggregations, and the larger groups
in the morning were the breaking up of these
roosting aggregations.

STABILITY OF KNOWN INDIVIDUALS

The organization of the axis deer is charac-
terized not by fixed but a rather flexible system
that changes from morning till night with rela-
tion to their diurnal activities. To illustrate
this aspect of the social organization I tabulated
all observations of some of known individuals
sighted frequently. Five selected examples
of these records are given in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1 gives data on 47 total sightings of
three does. Two (Fl and F2) of them were
considered as mothers rearing newborns (11 and
12) respectively from suckling behaviour. The
mothers were seen in various group sizes num-
bering 1 to 34 individuals. There was no evi-
dence indicating a firm bond between them and
other adult or juvenile individuals except their
fawns. Of the 33 total sightings of the mothers,
they were seen 20 times with their fawns.
Of the 11 occasions they were in groups of two
animals, they almost always (90.9%) associated
with their fawns. The data on mothers, there-
fore, indicate that the family bond, composed of
a doe and her fawns must be regarded as a
very stable unit (Graf and Nichols 1966,
Schaller 1967, Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972),
F9 was also seen in various sized groups of

1-34 animals. Does associated more often
with other adult or juvenile does than with
bucks, although there did not seem to exist any
special ties between does.

Table 2 lists 38 total sightings of two antlered
bucks (M1 and M9). They were seen in
various group sizes ranging 1-30, and also in
two types of groups ; buck groups and mixed
esroups. They were seen with mixed groups for
68.4 per cent of the observation, and with buck
groups for 10.3 per cent of the observations.
While they often herded with other known
bucks (M6 and M14), no special contacts
between them were observed : the organization
among bucks became very weak once they were
in rut. Presumably, they happened to join
same associations is search of does in oestrus.

Normally the relation between buck and doe
was transitory: the buck would try to sniff
at her perineal region and then move away
indifferently from her, unless she was in heat,
and this contact usually lasted only a few seconds.
But, if she was in heat, the buck would attempt
to follow or to remain with her tenaciously,
probably until mating was over. F9 was
accompanied at least three days by M28 and
other bucks. When she was in heat on the 22nd
of March, M28 showed sexual interest towards
her and escorted her throughout the observa-
tion. The next day, after they were seen in a
large association, she separated from this
association and entered the forest and was
followed by three bucks including M28.
Copulation probably occurred on this day.
Afterwards, she was not followed by any of
the bucks including M28, though they were
observed twice in the same association.

The family bond appears to be the basic unit
of the group and all other kinds of groups or
aggregations observed may be made up of
several family parties and solitaries which may
come together temporarily, an observation
which agrees with those of Graf and Nichols
(1966) and Schaller (1967). Thus, although

130

SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF AXIS DEER

TABLE 1

GROUPING BEHAVIOUR AND COMPOSITION : ALL OBSERVATIONS OF Fl, F2, AND F9. FIGURES IN
PARENTHESES INDICATE INDIVIDUAL NUMBER OF KNOWN ANIMALS

Fl

ry
nN

ry
\o

WOANIAMNBRWNHNK

a
NK OUOAYAMWRWNHN—

WNMADAUAWHE

Juvenile

Date Adult Juvenile Adult females Group

bucks bucks females or fawns size
9/3 1 (11) 2
10/3 1 1 (11) 3
11/3 1 1 3
12/3 1 2 2 (11) 6
13/3 1
14/3 1
15/3 2 (11) 3
16/3 1 3 (11) 5
17/3 1 (11) 2
18/3 2 2 (11) 5
19/3 1 2 p 6
20/3 1 (11) 2
24/3 1 1 3
25/3 1 (1) 2
26/3 1 2
Dis 1 2 4
28/3 1 1 (1) 3
29/3 1 2
30/3 3 1 5 2 (11) 12
31/3 1 (11) 2
1/4 GED) 2
11/3 1
12/3 2 2 (12) 5
1/73 1 2 22 6
19/3 1 (12) 2
20/3 1 (12) 2
22/3 1 (12) 2
25/3 i 1 3
26/3 3 1 13 (F9) 16 (12) 34
27/3 1 1 5
28/3 2 m2 5 2 (a2) 12
29/3 2 2 (12) 5
30/3 1 1 3
14/3 4 5 10
15/3 1 2
19/3 2 3
20/3 1
21/3 11 it 23
22/3 1 (M28) 4 6 12
DSS 3 (M28, M25) 13 11 28
24/3 1 (M28) 12 11 DS
25/3 1 (M29) 1 1 4
26/3 3 (M25, M28, M29) 1 13 (F2) 16 34
27/3 1 1 3
28/3 1 Z
29/3 1 2
I 2

30/3

131

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

TABLE 2

GROUPING BEHAVIOUR AND COMPOSITION : ALL OBSERVATIONS OF MI AND M9. FIGURES IN
PARENTHESES INDICATE INDIVIDUAL NUMBERS OF KNOWN ANIMALS

Bae OS ACR UN A a Juvenile
No. Date Aduit Juvenile Adult females Group
bucks bucks females or fawns size
M 1
1 8/3 2 2 3
2 9/3 2 (M11, M26) 1 4
3 10/3300 1 2
4 11/3 1 4 6
5 13/3 2 (M6, M7) 2 2 7
6 14/3 1
7 15/3 1 (M11) 2 4
8 16/3 1 (M11) 2
9 20/3 1
10 22/3 3 2 6
11 23/3 1 (M6) 3 5 10
12 24/3 1 1 3
13 25/3 1 (M6) 2 1 5
14 26/3 1 (M6) 3 2 7
15 27/3 3 (M8) 2 8 (F6) 5 19
M9
1 8/3 2 (M3, M18) 1 4
2 9/3 4 (M10, M11) 3 4 13
3 10/3 4 (M10, M11) 2 1 8
4 11/3 7 (M10, M14, M18) 1 4 (F8) 4 17
5 12/3 1 1 2 5
6 13/3 1
7 14/3 6 (M3, M13, M14, M18, M27) 1 3 16
8 15/3 3 1 5
9 16/3 1
10 17/3 5 (M14, M18, M22, M27) 4 4 14
il 18/3 5 (M14, M22, M27) 1 6(F5,F8) 6 19
12 19/3 1 1 3
13 20/3 1 4 1 7
14 22/3 11 (M2, M3, M14, M27) 1 10 (F5) 7] 30
15 23/3 1 1 3
16 24/3 5 (M15) 9 7 22
17 25/3 3 (M14) 4 1 9
18 26/3 1
19 27/4 1
207 288 | 3 (F8) 2 i
21 29/3 | 1
22 30/3 1 2
23 31/3 1

132

“SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF AXIS DEER ~

grouping behaviour of the axis deer_is, indeed,
highly developed, the basic social trend seems
to closely resemble that of other species of
deer (ex; Linsdale and Tomich 1953,
Severinghous and Cheatum 1956, Ito 1969).

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS

The number of behaviour patterns used by
different antler class bucks are summarized in
Table 3.

Buck-buck interactions

Head-up display (Schaller 1967): This
aggressive act is common among many cervids
though different terms have been used (Strusaker
1966, Geist 1966, Miura 1976, Kucera 1978).
This display is a rapid lifting of the head and
the muzzle with the showing of incisors and

was often accompanied by a snort. This was
used by bucks toward other bucks and does.
Nineteen of the 20 head-up displays (95.0%)
were given by bucks of the greater than 50 cm
antler class.

Thrashing and pawing: Bucks often used
their antlers to violently thrash small shrubs.
Thrashing was often performed in conjunction
with pawing of the forefoot. These behavioural
acts were not only used as an aggressive threat
between bucks signaling readiness to fight, but
also performed spontaneously without contact
with other bucks where an agonistic context
was not evident. The former case was observed
71 times. In 14% of the cases when the bucks
confronting each other were within 1-5 m, and
lasted from 5 to 30 sec. In 63.4% instances
it was given by a buck when others approached

TABLE 3

NUMBER OF BEHAVIOUR PATTERNS USED BY DIFFERENT ANTLER CLASS BUCKS

Behaviour Patterns
More than

61cm

-Head-up display Ds 13 6
Head-down display ue 3 2
Thrashing bush with antler ae 52 25
Pawing by forefoot a 29 18
Rubbing antler aii 12 4
Rubbing forehead ae ae 8 3
Rubbing preorbital gland ie 9 2
Rubbing neck ead 3 1
Sparring aggressively 7 8
Sparring plav te ve 21 17
Chasing Dee 4 a
Circling ee 9 2
Parallel walk es 6 Ny
Flehmen se 21 8
Sniffing or muzzling 4 74 37
Following female és 69 29
Erection penis a 41 6
Mounting ~ Sh 23.

Copulation se 3

60-51 cm _

Antler Class

ne ee ne es ee i ee ta i a en a rr es rs rrr an ar mn es en rm ts re ee

Less than

50-41 cm | 40cm Spikes Total
1 20
ats 5
8 2 87
4 1 55
1 1 18
1 12
11

1 1 6
16

fl 9 4 62
4

2 1 14
6

3) 2 2 36
9 3 1 124
6 1 105
47

23

3°

433

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

him within 10 m, and the rest were when other
animals were 11-40 m away. The latter cases
occurred fewer times (16 occasions). This act was
performed by all antler class bucks, excepting
yearlings during this period, however when
frequency was correlated with antler class, the
larger antlered bucks did it more frequently.

Wallowing was completely absent in the axis
deer during the study.

Rubbing: A buck would occasionally rub
his antlers, preorbital gland, or other regions of
his face. The rubbing was accompanied by an
erection of his penis and the expulsion of urine.
This act was often interspersed in the thrashing
and pawing sequence and was also performed
in two contexts ; agonistic threat or not. Bucks
performed this act without agonistic context in
44.4% of the observation.

Sparring: This act is typical of fighting
among almost all ungulates. In this category
of sparring encounters between two bucks in
which they face each other with heads lowered,
two bucks with antlers in contact, and two
bucks pushing and occasionally clashing their
antlers are included. This act, however,
apparently involved different levels of aggres-
Sive intent; ritualized and actual fight.
Ritualized sparring matches had less aggres-
siveness and appeared as if they were playing
with each others antlers, and was accompanied
by grunts. Most participants in these matches
were of different antler classes. Only four
out of 31 matches observed involved equal
size class, whereas 53.6% were of bucks one
antler class apart, 28.6% of two classes apart,
10.8% of three classes apart. The greatest
disparity involved two separate matches between
a 65 cm antler class buck and a 30 cm buck.
These matches were usually terminated when
one of the participants turned and moved away
and most of them showed no obvious victor.
These matches lasted from 5 to 300 sec. with
an average of 55.7 sec.

Actual fights were much less frequent and
more violent than rirualized one, and usually
of shorter duration (X = 7.2 sec., N = 8).
The loser ran away, and was chased by the
victor. Seven of 16 participants in eight fights
were of the greater than 61 cm antler class, the
rest were of 51-60 cm class. Six of eight fights
involved equal size class, and twice involved
one class apart.

Chasing: Chasing was very rare in axis
deer during the study, I observed such act only
4 times, all of which were preceded by
actual fight and were performed by bucks of the
greater than 61 cm antler class. Such scarcity
of this act may be related to the fact that bucks
make no attempt to establish and defend a
territory.

Circling and parallel walk : These acts were
observed 10 times, and almost always preceded
an actual fight. In all of them one buck
approached another, thrashing or rubbing its
antlers on vegetation. The second buck would
respond by thrashing or rubbing and thetwo
would approach closer and continue to thrash.
When near each other the animals would

circle slowly around one another, or both

would walk parallel within 1 to 10 m in the
‘crouch’ posture (Cowan and Geist 1961).
Self-grooming or grazing displacement acts
were also observed during such encounters.

Doe-buck interactions

Flehmen: This is a highly stereotyped act in
many ungulates (Dagg and Taub 1970), and its
frequency might be correlated with the rut. Most
of them were accompanied by sniffing or lick-
ing doe’s urine. 53 per cent of flehmens occurred
during or just after urination by a doe, and the
rest occurred after sniffing ground with fresh
urine. Flehmen was observed in all classes of
bucks, but was most commonly seen bucks of
greater than 50 cm antler classes (80.5%). Spike
and the less than 40 cm antler class bucks

134

SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF AXIS DEER

performed only twice respectively (11.2%).
Mean duration of flehmen was 21 sec. (N = 36)
with range of 10-30 sec.

Sniffing or muzzling: A buck would sniff
or muzzle at the perineal region of does when-
ever he entered a group containing does or
encountered a doe. The larger bucks sniffed
significantly more often than the smaller bucks.
A total of 124 sniffings observed, 59.7 per cent
were performed by bucks of greater than 61 cm
antler class, 29.8 per cent were 51-60 cm, 7.26
per cent 41-50 cm, 2.42 per cent less than 40 cm.

Following: After sniffing, bucks often
followed or attempted to remain with a doe
as she moved about. This acts resembles
‘tending’ described by McHugh (1958) for
American bison. Although bucks of all antler
classes, excepting spikes followed does, the
frequency was significantly related to antler
class. Following was performed by bucks of
more than 51 cm antler classes in 93.3 per cent
of the observations.

Following of does was usually performed
by a single buck (95.0%), and he tried to prevent
others from doing so by aggressive acts, such
as head-up display, snorting, pawing, or
thrashing, but on five occasions several bucks
(2-5 animals) were seen following a doe. On
_ these occasions, they rushed at a doe at full speed
and they struggled for the doe by clashing with
each other. It was my impression that such
difference of following by bucks might be depen-
dent on the state of receptivity of the doe, and
the doe followed by several bucks seemed to be
in oestrus or approaching it.

Bucks of axis deer never showed ‘ herding
behaviour’ described by Struhsaker (1967) for the
elk, Lincoln et al. (1970) for the red deer, and
Miura (1976) for the sika deer, in which they
make an attempt to collect and retain a number
of does. Bucks moved over a wide range and
joined many groups, apparently in search of
receptive does. When a buck entered a group

containing does, he showed courtship behaviour
toward a doe individually, and then he followed
and tended her if she was in heat. Asa result of
such acts, they generally left the group and formed
a temporary pair (tending bond ; McHugh 1958)
until copulation was completed. Thus, there
was no indication of a tendency by bucks to
form or defend ‘harem’ group. Rather,
tending bond system is accepted in axis deer.

Mounting and copulation: If a doe stopped
moving and did not try to escape from sniffing
by a buck while being followed, the buck would
mount, straddling the doe’s back with his hind-
legs on the ground. Multiple mounts occurred
during all three copulations observed, the
number of mounts were three, five, and 15
respectively. All of them were performed by
bucks of greater than 60 cm antler class.
Copulation involved one thrust of a successful
mount with the buck’s feet leaving ground,
the loin pushing forward, and throwing back
his head fora moment. She was often forced
several metres forward by his movement.
Following copulation, tending by the buck
ceased.

Diurnal variations of social interactions

The data on diurnal variations in frequencies
of buck-buck and doe-buck interactions are
summarized in Fig. 2. This figure demon-
strates that there are two obvious peaks of two
interactions respectively, one in the morning
(0600-0700 hrs.) and one in the late afternoon.
The afternoon peak of buck-buck interaction
occurred earlier than that of doe-buck interac-
tion. In spite of a slight lag of the peaks, the
frequencies of two interactions which showed
a biomodal pattern were very closely similar
to each other.

Vocalization

Bucks would emit a variety of sounds for
example, bellows (Schaller 1967), moans, barks,

135

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

3.0%
n ie
\
\
\ |
a 2.05 \ \ :
= ees _~ Buck-buck interactions
: @ \
alee _Doe-buck interactions
id \
= \
2B) : oo
z 1.0 e--— re \
en \ / a
\ / ~
\
Peedi , *
ne, K
a ee « ; / .
yc: HN
“=-@--4 §& .

6-7 7-8 8-9 9-1010-11 11-12 12-1313-14 14-15 1546 1617 1718 18-19
TIME IN HOURS

Fig. 2.

grunts and snorts. Bellows were the most com-
mon sound in this period and were emitted only
by adult bucks. 98.0 per cent of the observations
were emitted by the 51cm antler class bucks.
Every instance of this vocalization was recorded
and diurnal variation was examined (Fig. 3).
This sound could be heard at any time of the
day, but most often in the morning and in the
evening. The impression was gained that the
frequency of this vocalization was deeply in-
fluenced by the number of buck-buck or doe-
buck interactions.

Number of buck-buck and doe-buck interactions per hour of the axis deer in Guindy Sanctuary.

Moans were also emitted only by adult bucks
of greater than 50 cm antler class. Perhaps a
production of this sound might be closely
related to dominance rank among bucks. On
14 occasions mixed groups containing several
known bucks of greater than 50 cm antler class
were observed occupying the same areas at
different times, only one of the bucks usually
emits this sound, and he frequently showed
sexual behaviour toward the does. This buck
appeared to be the dominant among them
according=to the observations on aggressive

136°

SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF AXIS DEER |.

6-7 7-8 B-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 1314 1415 1546 1647 17-18 1819 19:20
: TIME IN HOURS

20
a
a
O
B
i 10
fea)
Zz
x)
Zz

Fig. 3.

interactions. Other bucks seemed to be

tolerated being in the group unless they adver-
tised themselves by emitting this sound. Other
vocalizations could not be recorded
quantitatively.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Iam greatly indebted to Mr. T. Jeyadev, Chief
Conservator of Forest, Madras, Mr. V. M.

Number of bellows per hour of the axis deer in Guindy Sanctuary.

Narasimhan, Wildlife Warden, Madras, and
Mr. K. S. Krishnan, Superintendent of Guindy
Park for assistance in many ways for my field-
work. I extend thanks to Dr. K. Y. Salih and
Mr. A. Batcha, University of Cochin for advice
and criticism of the manuscript. I would also
like to thank Dr. V. Krishnamurthy, Forest
Veterinary Officer, Madras and Mr. T. Unni-
krishnan, Forest Range Officer, Madras for
their advice throughout the study.

137

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

REFERENCES

Cowan, I. MctT. & GEIST, V. (1961): Aggressive
behaviour in deer of the genus Odocoileus. J. Mamm.
42 (4): 522-526.

Daaa, A. I. & TAuB, A. (1970) : Flehmen. Mammalia
34 (4) : 686-695.

EISENBERG, J. F. & LOCKHART, M. (1972): An
ecological Reconnaissance of Wilpattu National Park,
Sri Lanka. Smithsonian Contributions to zoology No. 101,
pp. 118.

GEIST, V. (1966): Some ethological observations on
North American Cervids. Zool. Beitrage 12 (2) : 219-251.

GRAF, W. & NICHOLS, L. (1966): The Axis deer in
Hawaii. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63 (3): 629-734.

HARDIN, J. W. Sitvy, N. J. & KLimstTra, W. D.
(1976): Group size and composition of the Florida
key deer. J. Wildl. Manage. 40 (3) : 454-463.

ITo, T. (1969) : Ecological studies on the Japanese
deer on the Kinkazan Island. I. The distribution and
population structure. Bull. Mar. Biol. Stat. Asamushi
No. 13 : 57-62.

Kucera, T. E. (1978) : Social behaviour and breeding
system of the desert mule deer. J. Mamm. 59 (3): 463-476.

LINCOLN, G. A. YOUNGSON, R. W. & SHORT, R. V.
(1970) : The social and sexual behaviour of the red deer
stag. J. Reprod. Fert. Suppl. No. 11 : 71-103.

LINSDALE, J. M. & TomIcu, P. Q. (1953): A herd of
mule deer. Univ. California Press. pp. 576.

McHuaGu, T.(1958): Social behaviour of the American
buffalo. Zoologica 43 (1) : 1-40.

MIuRA, S. (1975): Ecological studies on Sika deer
in Nara Park with reference to spartial structure.
Annual Report of Nara Deer Research Association
No. 2: 47-61. (In Japanese with English summary).
(1976): Sociological studies on Sika deer
in Nara Park with referene to individual distribution
and behaviour. Annual Report of Nara Deer Research
Association No. 3:3-41. (In Japanese with English
summary).

PRATER, S. H. (1971) : The Book of Indian Animals.
Bombay (Third ed.) pp. 324.

SCHALLER, G. B. (1967): The Deer and the Tiger.
Chicago, pp. 370.

SEVERINGHAUS, C. W., & CHEATUM, E. L. (1956):
Life and times of the white-tailed deer. In TAYLOR
W. P. (Ed.) The deer of North America, 57-186. The
Wildlife Manage. Instit., Washington.

SHARATCHANDRA, H. C. & GADGIL, M. (1975): A
year of Bandipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72 (3):
623-647. |

STRUHSAKER, T. (1967): Behaviour of elk (Cervus
canadensis) during the rut. Z. Tierpsychol. 24 (1):
80-114.

138

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

STUDIES ON SPIDERS OF THE GENUS LUTICA MARX
(FAMILY-ZODARIIDAE) FROM INDIA!

B. K. TIKADER?

(With ten text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The family Zodariidae consists of a small
number of rare and inconspicuous, ground
dwelling forms. Simon (1905, 1906) and Gravely
(1921) have described some species of this
family from India. Very recently Tikader &
Patel (1975) and Tikader & Malhotra (1976)
described some new species of the genera
Storena and Lutica of the family Zodartidae
from India.

I have provided a key to species and illus-
trated epigyne and internal genitalia of two
known species of the genus Lutica and des-
cribed a new species in this paper. Type speci-
mens of new species are deposited in the
National Collections of Zoological Survey of
India, Calcutta.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Lutica MARX.

1. Dorsal side of abdomen uniform deep brown
RING OLOUE ic aso ote ate eae ncolle ica ae aes a's) wi 2

Dorsal side of abdomen uniform brownish red in
EUG NT ea ee ee see Lisp) wheres 6 Hs L. deccanensis

2. Anterior middle eyes encircled by deep brown
patches. Epigyne V-shaped.......... L. bengalensis

Anterior area of eyes encircled by black patches.
Epigyne not V-shaped................ L. poonaensis

4 Accepted August 1980.

2 Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional
Station, Poona-411005. Present address: Director,
Zoological Survey of India, 34, Chittaranjan Avenue,
Calcutta-700 012.

Lutica deccanensis Tikader & Malhotra
(Figs. 1-2)

1976. Lutica deccanensis Tikader & Malhotra,
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 72 (3): 794.

Specimens examined: 2 99, Flower garden,
Poona University compound, Poona, Maha-
rashtra, India. Coll. B. K. Tikader, 28.4.80.

Distribution: Poona (Type-locality), Maha-
rashtra, India.

Remarks : 1 have studied the type as well as
other specimens and have given illustrations of
epigyne as well as internal genitalia which were
not given in the original description.

Lutica bengalensis Tikader & Patel
(Figs. 3-4)

1975. Lutica bengalensis Tikader & Patel,
Bull. Brit. Arach. Soc., 3 (5) : 138.

Specimens examined: 3 99, Flower garden,
Poona University compound, Poona, Maha-
rashtra, India. Coll. B. K. Tikader, 4-2-1980.

Distribution : India: Calcutta (Type-locality)
West Bengal, Poona, Maharashtra.

Remarks: J have studied the type as well
as other specimens. I have given illustrations
of epigyne as well as internal genitalia which
was not provided in the original descriptions.

Lutica poonaensis sp. nov.
(Figs. 5-10)

General: Cephalothorax and legs greenish-
brown, abdomen deep brown to dark. Total

139

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

length 3.60 mm. Cephalothorax 1.50 mm _ long,

1.20 mm wide; abdomen 2.10 mm _ long,
1.50 mm wide.

Cephalothorax : Longer than wide, cephalic
region slightly high and light brown. Eyes

pearly white except anterior medians. Anterior-
row straight or slightly procurved, anterior
medians conspicuously larger than others and
encircled by deep brown to dark patches.
Posterior row strongly procurved and posterior
medians widely separated and closer to adja-
Legs

cent laterals. Lateral eyes contiguous.

long and moderately strong, clothed with fine
hairs. Legs formula 4132. Sternum _heart-
shaped, pointed behind, clothed with fine hairs.
Labium and maxillae as in text-fig..6. Male
palp as in text-fig. 8.

Abdomen: Oval, nearly elliptical in shape,
slightly overlapping cephalothorax in front.
Dorsal side uniform deep brown to dark colour
but ventral side uniform pale colour. Anterior
pair of spinnerets conspicuously long and other
two pairs not developed properly. Epigyne as in
text-fig. 9. Internal genitalia as in text-fig. 10.

eee ee é
PQXiat 24 y

Fics. 1-2. Lutica deccanensis Tikader & Malhotra. 1. Epigyne; 2. Internal genitalia.
. 3-4. Lutica bengalensis Tikader & Patel. 3. Epigyne ; 4. -Internal genitalia.

140

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

eo.

io WAR tpl d)

Fics. 5-10. Lutica poonaensis sp. nov.

5. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted ; 6. Maxillae and labium; 7. Spinnerets; 8. Male palp;
9. Epigyne; 10. Internal genitalia.

141

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Holotype : One female, internal genitalia in
a microvial along with holotype, paratype
six females, allotype four males in spirit.

Type-locality: Flower garden, Poona Uni-
versity compound, Poona, Maharashtra, India.
Coll. B. K. Tikader, 28-3-1980.

This species resembles Lutica bengalensis
Tikader and Patel but is separated as follows :
(1) Cephalic region more brown to dark
than the cephalic region of L. bengalensis.

(2) Epigyne and internal genitalia also
structurally different.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to Shri P. W. Garde and Shri
D. J. Kamble, Artists of this station for prepa-
ration of illustrations and to Dr. Animesh Bal,
for assisting in various ways during the prepa-
ration of the manuscript.

REFERENCES

GRAVELY, F. H. (1921): The spiders and scorpions
of Barkuda Island. Rec. Indian Mus., 22 : 400-421.

SIMON, E. (1905) : Voyage de M. Maurica Maindron
dans 1° Inde Meridional, Arachnides. Ann. Soc. Ent.
Fr., 74 : 160-180.

TIKADER, B. K. AND PATEL, B. H. (1975) : Studies on
some rare spiders of the family Zodariidae from
India. Bull. Arach. Soc., London 3 (5) : 137-139.

———-— AND MALHoTRA, M. S. (1976): A new
species of spider of the genus Lutica (Family Zodariidae)
from India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 72 (3) : 794-796.

142

A NEW SPECIES OF OPHIORRHIZA (RUBIACEAE) FROM INDIA!

J. K. SIKDAR AND G. G. MaItTr’

(With six text-figures)

Ophiorrhiza seshagiriana sp. nov.

O. heterostylae Dunn affinis, sed _ differt
habitu erecto, cymis cum ramulis racemi-
formibus, pedicellis brevioribus, calycis lobis
triangulari-ovatis, glabris, corollae tubo cylin-
drico non bulboso, antherarum lobisque
brevioribus.

Ophiorrhiza seshagiriana sp. nov.

Plant erect, herb to undershrub, Stem woody,
glabrous, younger part pruinose. Leaves in
unequal opposite pair, lanceolate, 5-11 x
1.5-3 cm, base acute, either equal or unequal
ends, apex narrowly acuminate, entire, gla-
brous, greyish beneath, secondary nerves 5-9
pairs ; petiole 5-8 mm long, glabrous. Stipules
subulate-linear from a broad base, 3 mm

long, caducous. Cyme mostly terminal, rarely

axillary, 1.5-3.5 cm across, with short raceme-
like branches having 5-10 flowers; lateral
peduncle pruinose. Flowers 5-merous, 10-11 mm
long, tubular with reflexed lobes at blooming,
glabrous, white; pedicel short, about 1 mm
long, pruinose ; bracts and bracteoles subulate-
linear, 1-2 mm _ long, persistent in fruit. Calyx
cupular, 1.2-1.3 mm _ long, 5-ribbed, lobes
triangular-ovate, acute, glabrous. Corolla tubu-
lar, tube 5-6 mm long, cylindric, non-bulbous,
glabrous, hairy within above anther lobes

1 Accepted November 1980.

4 Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey
of India, Howrah-711 103.

upto throat, hairs about 1 mm long; lobes
linear-oblong, 4-4.5 mm _ long, veins conspi-
cuous, apex keeled inside, pruinose within
but glabrous outside. Stamens 5, introse,
filament attached 2 mm above from the base,
about 0.7 mm _ long, anthers linear-oblong,
about 1.2 mm_ long, yellowish. Ovary 2-
celled, style extrose, filiform, 7-8 mm_ long,
hairy towards base ; stigma clavate, 0.4 mm,
bilobed. Capsule (immature) obcordate,
about 3.5 x 2.8 mm, compressed, divaricate,
glabrous. Seeds not found. (Figs. 1-6).

Flowering time : May.

West Bengal: Jalpaiguri district, Buxaduar
Forest Range, on the way to Sinchu from
Buxaduar, + 1800 m, 16.5.1976, J. K. Sikdar
4681 A (Holotype) and J. K. Sikdar 4681 B-E,
(Isotypes) deposited at CAL.

Grows in shady moist situations along rocky
forest paths.

It is related to O. heterostyla Dunn but
can be differentiated by its erect habit, cymes
with short raceme-like branches, shorter pedicel,
triangular-ovate, glabrous calyx lobes, cylindric
non-bulbous corolla tube and shorter anther
lobes.

This taxon is very easily recognisable by the
presence of reflexed corolla lobes at blooming
which is also seen in O. heterostyla Dunn, the
only other representative of Indian Ophior-

rhiza. In O. heterostyla Dunn heterostylous

143

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vel, 78

gor s

as Fics.. 1-6: Ophiorrhiza seshagiriana sp. Nov.
1. Habit of the plant; 2. Part of the peduncle; 3. Flower; 4. Flower split open;
5. Pistil; 6. Fruit (immature).

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

nature is of common occurrence while in this
taxon it is not visible.

This species is being named in honour of
Prof. Rolla Seshagiri Rao, Ex-Joint Director
in-Charge, Botanical Survey of India and now
Prof. and Head of the Department of Botany,
Andhra University, for his valuable contri-
butions to Indian Botany.

10

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to express our deep sense of grati-
tude to Prof. R. S. Rao of Andhra University
for his valuable guidance and to Dr. K. Thotha-
thri, Deputy Director, Central National
Herbarium for all necessary facilities and
encouragement. We are also grateful to Dr.
N, C. Majumdar, C. N. H. for Latin translation.

145

A NEW SPECIES OF CAPPARIS LINN.
SOUTH INDIA?

(CAPPARACEAE) FROM

G. V. SuBBA Rao, G. R. KUMARI AND V. CHANDRASEKARAN®

(With nine text-figures)

Capparis nilgiriensis sp. nov.

C. brevispinae DC. affinis sed ramulis glabris,

foliis glabris non-coriaceis apicibus acutis
marginibusque non-recurvatis, nervis haud
prominentibus, petiolis canaliculatis margini-

bus inaequalibus, sepalis interioribus utrinque
tomentosis et staminibus paucioribus differt.

Holotypus Subbarao 40259 A (CAL) et
isotypi Subbarao 40259 B-F (MH) lecti apud
Chinnacoonoor (950 m) Dist. Nilgiri in
statu Tamil Nadu (Madras) die 16-3-1972 ;
paratypi Subbarao 42492 A-H (MH) lecti
apud Malappurampatti-Chinnacoonoor (950 m)
Dist. Nilgiri in statu Tamil Nadu (Madras)
die 18-4-1973; paratypi Shetty 10215 A-H (MH)
lecti apud Kuridimalai (700 m) Dist. Coim-
batore in statu Tamil Nadu (Madras) die
5-4-1960 ; paratypi Viswanathan 470 A-E (MH)
lecti apud Anaikatty (Papamalai) (760 m) Dist.
Coimbatore in statu Tamil Nadu (Madras)
die 17-3-1970; paratypi Subramanyam 5595
A-J (MH) lecti apud Honey Falls (366 m)
Courtallam, Dist. Tirunelveli in statu Tamil
Nadu (Madras) die 20-3-1958 ; paratypi Sub-
ramanyam 5789 A-F (MH) lecti apud Siru-
malai (1000 m) Dist. Madurai in _ statu
Tamil Nadu (Madras) die 26-4-1958.

Capparis nilgiriensis sp. nov.

Allied to Capparis brevispina DC. but differs
from it in: glabrous branchlets ; glabrous and

1 Accepted November 1980.

* Botanical Survey of India,
Coimbatore.

Southern Circle,

non-coriaceous leaves with obtuse tip and
non-recurved margins, reticulation not promi-
nent ; deeply canaliculate petioles with uneven
margins ; inner sepals tomentose on both
sides and less number of stamens.
Scandent shrubs +3 m high; branches irre-
gularly spreading ; branchlets terete, glabrous,
more of less flexuosus, sparingly armed with
slightly ascending small spines on few bran-
ches; cataphylls few, linear. Leaves simple,
4.0-11.3X1.5—4.2 cm, ovate or elliptic to
oblong, non-coriaceous, glabrous, margins
entire and non-recurved, obtuse or rarely
emarginate at apex, almost round at base;
nerves 5-7 pairs, looped near margins, midrib
and nerves prominent underneath, reticulations
not prominent; petioles 6-10 mm long, glab-
rous, deeply canaliculate with uneven margins.
Flowers axillary, upto 4 cm across, solitary
or sometimes conferted with upto 4 towards
the apex of a twig, lower ones supra axillary ;
hypsophylls 2.5 — 4 mm long, linear, minutely
puberulous, thick, incurved; pedicels 1.5-3.0 cm
long, rarely more, slightly dilated at apex,
ultimately glabrous. Sepals 4, subequal, con-

cave; outer sepals 7.5-—8.0X4.5—5.0 mm,
ovate, obtuse, puberulous outside; inner
sepals 7.5-—8.0x3.5—5.0 mm, elliptic to

obovate, tomentose on both sides, obtuse,
narrowed towards base. Petals 4, white ; two
lower petals free, 2.1-—2.5x0.7—1.1 cm,
elliptic to obovate, tomentose, subacute at
apex, narrowed towards base; upper two petals
1.9—2.3 x 0.6 —1.0 cm, oblong-obovate, tomen-
tose outside, obtuse to subacute, united at
base forming inside a tomentose cream

146

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fics. 1-9. Capparis nilgiriensis sp. nov.

1. A twig; 2. Flower; 3. Sepal; 4. Lower petal; 5. Upper petals; 6. Stamens ; 7. Gynophore & Ovary ;
8. Ovary; 9. C. S. of ovary.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

coloured callus. Stamens 16-24, exerted, fila-
ments 2.0-3.0 cm long, glabrous; anthers
+-2 mm long, basifixed. Gynophore 2.0-2.2
cm, glabrous ; ovary 3-4 mm long, ovoid or
spindle shaped, furrowed, densely pubescent,
slightly beaked; ovules many in 4 parietal
placentas. Fruit not seen (Figs. 1-9).

The holotype Subbarao 40259 A (CAL) and
isotype Subbarao 40259 B-F (MH) were collec-
ted from Chinnacoonoor (950 m), Nilgiri
District, Tamil Nadu (Madras State) on
16-3-1972 ; paratypes Subbarao 42492 A-H
(MH) were collected from Malappurampatti
to Chinnacoonoor (950 m), Nilgiri District»
Tamil Nadu (Madras State) on 18-4-1973 ;
paratypes Shetty 10215 A-H (MH) were collec-
ted from Kuridimalai (700 m), Coimbatore
District, Tamil Nadu (Madras State) on 5-4-1960;
paratypes Viswanathan 470 A-E (MH) were

collected from Anaikatty (Papamalai) (760 m),
Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu (Madras
State) on 17-3-1970 ; paratypes Subramanyam
5595 A-J (MH) were collected from Honey
Falls (366 m) Courtallam, Tirunelveli District,
Tamil Nadu (Madras State) on 20-3-1958 ;
Subramanyam 5789 A-F (MH) were collected
from Sirumalai (1000 m), Madurai District,
Tamil Nadu (Madras State) on 26-4-1958.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank Dr. N. C. Nair, Joint
Director, Botanical Survey of India, Southern
Circle, Coimbatore and the Forest Department
of Tamil Nadu for the facilities provided and
Rey. Fr. Dr. Cecil J. Saldanha S. J., St. Joseph’s
College, Bangalore for rendering the diagnosis
into Latin.

148

A NEW SPECIES OF MAESA FORSK. (MYRSINACEAEF) FROM
MEGHALAYA!

N. C. MAJUMDAR AND G. S. GirRI?

(With five text-figures)

Maesa kanijilalii sp. nov.

M. ramentaceae A. DC. maxime affinis sed
inflorescentiis perlaxis longioribus, pedicellis
usque ad 9 mm longis, floribus majoribus
(3-3.5 mm longis), foliorum marginibus irregu-
lariter undulatis statim distinguenda.

Arbor parva, ramuli graciles, glabri, teretes.
Folia petiolata, lanceolata, in sicco pallide
viridia, utrinque glabra, 12-16 cm_ longa,
3-4.5cm lata, chartacea vel membranacea, basi
breviter attenuata, apice acuminata, infra
medium latissima, ad marginem_ recurva,
parum undulata, cum glandibus albuminatis
marginalibus, costa infra prominenti, nervis
lateralibus 9-12 paribus, petiolis canaliculatis,
glabris, 15-18 mm longis. Inflorescentia axil-
laris, racemosa, parce ramosa, gracilis, laxa,
usque ad 24 cm longa, glabra vel apice per-
minute puberula. Flores 3-3.5 mm __ longi,
bracteati, bracteae lineares, 1-1.5 mm_ longae,
pedicellus gracilis, usque ad 9 mm longus,
glaber, bracteolae 2, ovato-lanceolatae, 1 mm
longae, margine parum ciliatae. Sepala 5,
valvata, triangulares, 0.75 x 0.5 mm, glabra,
ad marginem scariosa, ciliata ad erosa, sine
punctis glandularibus. Corolla 5-loba, lobis
reniformibus orbicularibusve, 1.5 mm x 1.25-
1.5 mm, tubum aequantibus, marginibus
undulatis chartaceis, intus glandulari-lineolatis.
Stamina 5, corollae lobis opposita, filamenta

2 Accepted November 1980.
* Botanical Survey of India, Howrah-711 103.

intus, prope basin tubi affixa, gracilia, glabra,
1-1.5 mm longa, antherae reniformes, 0.5 mm
longae, bilobatae, longitudinaliter findentes.
Ovarium semi-inferius, globosum, glabrum,
cal mm diam., stylo brevi, stigmate tholiformi
vel indistincte lobato.

Holotypus lectus ad locum Goahati Road,
prope Shillong, Assam, a P.C. Kanjilal, die
14-10-1930, sub numero 8684, et positus in
herbario indico nationali (CAL).

Maesa kanjilalii sp. nov.

Small tree, branchlets slender, glabrous,
terete. Leaves petiolate, lanceolate, pale green
on drying, glabrous on both surfaces, 12-16
cm long, 3-4.5 cm broad, chartaceous or
membranous, shortly attenuate at base, acumi-
nate at apex, broadest below the middle, margin
recurved, slightly undulate with albuminous
marginal glands, midrib prominent beneath,
lateral nerves 9-12 pairs, petiole canaliculate,
glabrous, 15-18 mm _ long. Inflorescence
axillary, racemose, sparingly branched, slender,
lax, upto 24cm long, glabrous or very minutely
pubescent at the tips. Flowers 3-3.5 mm
long, bracteate, bracts linear, 1-1.5 mm_ long,
pedicel slender, upto 9 mm _ long, glabrous,
bracteoles 2, ovate lanceolate, | mm _ long,
margin slightly ciliate. Sepals 5, valvate,
triangular, 0.75 x 0.5mm, glabrous, margin
scarious, ciliate to erose, without glandular
dots. Corolla 5-lobed, lobes reniform, or

149 —

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Fics, 1-5. Maesa kanjilalii sp. nov.
1. Habit; 2. Flower; 3. Calyx with pistil; 4. Corolla split open; 5. Stamen.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

orbicular, 1.5 mm x 1.25-1.5 mm, margin wavy,
papery, finely glandular-lineolate inside, as
long as tube. Stamens 5, opposite corolla-
lobes, filaments inserted within, near the base
of the tube, slender, glabrous, 1-1.5 mm
long, anthers reniform 0.5 mm_ long, bilobed,
longitudinally split. Ovary semi-inferior,
globose, glabrous, nearly | mm diameter, style
short, stigma dome-shaped, or very indistinctly
lobed.

Holotype : Gauhati Road, 6 to 7 miles from
Shillong, Assam, 14-10-1930, P. C. Kanjilal
8684 (CAL).

Distribution : India : Meghalaya.

This new species is closely allied to M.
ramentacea A. DC. but can be easily distin-

guished by its longer, very lax inflorescence,
long pedicels (7-9 mm), larger flowers (3-3.5 mm),
and irregularly wavy leaf margins, whereas
M. ramentacea is characterised by shorter
inflorescence (nearly half as long or rarely
as long as leaves), shorter pedicels (1-2 mm),
smaller flowers (2 mm) and entire leaf-
margins.

The species is named after its collector,
P. C. Kanjilal. It was identified as Maesa
ramentacea Wall. by D. Chatterjee at Kew
who pointed out some difference in inflores-
cence and indicated the possibility that it
could be a variety of that species. We, how-
ever, have discovered several other differences
as pointed out above, which are adequate to
distinguish it in the specific rank.

tO]

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. SOCIAL CHANGES IN THE HANUMAN LANGUR, PRESBYTIS ENTELLUS

AROUND

Social changes is a usual phenomenon in
mammals and it is a natural process of main-
taining a species specific character like group
size and structure in relation to their environ-
ment. The movement of individuals between
groups have been recorded in a wide variety
of primate species (Itani 1972). Drickamer and
Vessey (1973) suggest that age, mating season,
sex ratios of adults in the social groups and
geographical barriers, all affect the group
change behaviour. This paper reports the
various types of social changes that occurred
in langur groups, Presbytis entellus Dufresne
in a period of two years (From August, 1975
to July, 1977) at Jodhpur (26°19’'N lat. and
73°8’E long.), which lies at the eastern fringe
of the Great Indian Desert (see Mohnot
1971 for details of habitat).

Social changes can be grouped in two main
headings: gradual and drastic changes. The
former includes births, deaths, leadership change
and movement of weaned male juveniles.
The latter includes epidemics, fission
and fusion of two groups and replacement of
dominant male preceded and followed by
infant killings. Thus groups are constantly
being rearranged in a variety of ways and
there are considerably social changes in this
respect. The following five types of changes
described here are as follows :

(i) Change of leadership (Table 1): It is
the most common process in bisexual groups
and resulted by attack from neighbouring all-
male bands. A total 10 such cases were
recorded in 8 groups out of 15 (twice in two
groups), while there was no change of leader-
ship in 7 groups. In two groups, Kaga A

JODHPUR

and Kaga B, a second change was noted during
the two year period. Of these only one change
was followed by infanticides (Makwana 1979).

(ii) Fission of group: Only one such case
was noted in ‘ Ficus’ group during February
to July 1977. Originally it was a bisexual
unimale group of about 30 individuals in
February 1977. During April 4 and 5, an
all-male band of 6 (5 adults and 1 subadult)
attacked this group and absorbed 6-8 adult
and one subadult females and their young.
The resident male was observed about 50 m
away with remaining members (females and
their young).

On July 14, a new male was observed with
8 adult and 1 subadult females, 2 juvenile
females, one older infant female and one
black coated baby. The resident male and
its group was seen no longer (supposed to
have shifted elsewhere).

(iii) Fusion of two groups : The two neigh-
bouring unimale bisexual groups, SC and SH
fused into one, and the following events
occurred in this process :

(a) During first observation period
(August-December 1975) these were two
independent, unimale bisexual groups. The
group SH was smaller in size and subordinate
to the SC group (See Table 2 for composition).

(b) In Februay 1977, during second
observation period, the leader of SH group
(H1) was no more and the leader of SC group
(Cl) was visiting both the groups. One
more adult male (H2) was noted twice with
SC group, but it was subordinate to male Cl
and fear grimaced and retreated at his approach.

12

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

TABLE 1

SOCIAL CHANGES IN LANGUR, P. entellus AT JODHPUR (1975 To 1977)

Leader male in

S.No. Group
1975 1976
(Aug.-Dec.)
1. Bijolai M-1 q
2. Kailana M-1 M-1
3. Chopar M-1
4. Sursagar H M-1 ?
5. Sursagar C M-1
6. Kaga-S .. Mel 2
7. Kaga-N M-l is
8. Nagadari M-1 ?
9. Nagadari A M-1
10. Rest House M-1
11. Rest House A M-1 ?
12. Vidyasal-A .. M-l U
(Multimale
group)
13. Vidyasal-B M-1

14. Kadamkandi-A
15. Ficus

During last week of February there was only
Cl male and the other new male was supposed
to have left the group.

(c) During March and last week of
April, both the groups foraged together under
leadership of Cl male but roosted differently
at their original roosting sites. The male Cl,
roosted with SC group and SH group roosted
without adult male.

Two adult females and one juvenile
male disappeared from the SH group. Of

re es ee ee ne ee en ee er ee

Remarks
1977
(Feb.-July)

M-2 Leader changed in February, 1977.

M-1 No change of leader

M-1 -do-

M-2 Leader changed in February 77, and
disappeared by the end of February.

M-1 Sursagar H group fused with this group
in last week of April, 77.

M-2 Male 1 changed on 30 May, 77
(See Text)

M-2 Leader changed in March, 77.

M-3 Male 2 also changed on Sth May, 77 and
followed by infanticides.

M-2 Leader changed in March, 77.

M-3 Male 2 also changed on Sth March, 77.

M-2 Leader changed in May, 77.

M-l No change of leadership.

M-1 -do-

M-2 Leader changed in May, 77.

M-1 Became unimale from multimale and

(Unimale roosting site changed.
(group)
M-l No change of leadership.
Roosting site changed.

M-1 Leader changed in June, 77.

M-2

M-l Original male left the area during last
week of February with some females and

M-2 their young ones. (Fission of a group,

see Text).

these one adult female and juvenile male were
observed in a neighbouring unimale bisexual

group.

(d) During last week of April, both the
groups not only foraged but also roosted
together, under the leadership of male Cl.
Thus, the process of fusion of two neighbouring
bisexual groups was completed (Table 2).
The fused group was headed by male Cl for
about two months (May and June 1977).

153

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

TABLE 2

P. entellus, COMPOSITION OF SC AND SH GROUPS DURING 1975 AND 1977

Group SC

Period

Total Ad. Ad. Ju

eo ey

October, ’75 26 Cl 12 5
February, ’77 24 Cl 14 1
April, °77 20 Cl 10 4
May, 777 33 Cl 17 6
July, °77 33 C2 17 a.

(e) In last week of June, the male Cl
was replaced by a new male C2 from a neigh-
bouring all-male group. There might have
some fight between male Cl and C2, as the
latter had a fresh injury at his right eye. A
band of 5 adult males were also observed
around the group after the take-over.

Both the groups were still mixed and
roosted together with the new male. Thus
the fusion of two groups, and then change in
leadership occurred.

(iv) Formation of unimale bisexual from
multimale bisexual type: Group Vidyasal-A,
whose size was about 45 and comprised of a
number of adult females, juveniles, infants, 3
adult and 2 sub-adult males during October

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF JODHPUR,

JODHPUR-342 001.

CENTRAL ARID ZONE RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
JODHPUR,

October 8, 1980.

Group SH
Inf. Total Ad. Ad. Ju Inf.
J sae

8 11 Hl 8 1 1
8 14 le 8 2 4
5 19 9 2 8
9 at we
S|

1975. There was linear dominance hierarchy
among the males. In February 1977, the
group remained unimale bisexual type with
only 22 individuals (Adult male 1, adult females
15 and young ones 6).

(v) Change of groups: Mostly males in
juvenile stage change or leave their original
group due to high pressure or hostility of
leader male. Occasionally adult females also
leave their group, mainly when they are not
sexually satisfied by their own leader. Two
adult females in two different groups were
noted to change their group in a neighbouring
bisexual group. Juvenile males mostly join
all-male bands or occasionally also a neigh-
bouring bisexual group.

S. C. MAKWANA
RANJAN ADVANI

REFERENCES

DRICKAMER, L. C. AND VEssegy, S. H. (1973) : Group
changing behaviour among male rhesus monkeys.
Primates, 14 ; 359-368.

ITANI, J. (1972) : A preliminary essay on the relation-
ship between social organization and incest avoidence in
non-human primates. In Primate Socialization. Ed.
F. E. Poirier Random House, N. Y.

MAKWANA, S. C. (1979): Infanticide and social
change in two groups of the Hanuman langur, Presbytis
entellus, at Jodhpur. Primates (Japan), 20: 293-300.

Mounot, S. M. (1971): Some aspects of social changes
and infant-killing in the Hanuman langur, Presbytis
entellus (Primates : Cercopithecidae), in Western India,
Mammalia, 35 : 175-198.

154

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

2. SOME NOTES ON THE LONGEVITY OF TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN
WILD CATS IN CAPTIVITY

The present communication deals with some
notes on the longevity of two species of Indian
Wild Cats observed at the Nandankanan
Biological Park, Orissa.

Golden Cat: (Felis temmincki): One full
grown male of this species received in the Park
on 21-7-1966 died on 18-7-1979, after remai-
ning for 12 years, 11 months and 27 days in
captivity. The estimated age at the time of
death was about 15 years. It was living with
one or two female specimens of the same species.
It was housed in an enclosure having cemented
floor space of approximately 16.5 sq. metres,
height 2.80 metres. There was a two cham-
bered cave like retiring den within the enclosure
where the golden cats use to stay throughout
the day. It was fed with 750 gm of goat meat
and 250 gm of beef with bones six days in a
week and only 375 gm of goat meat once a
week. One live chicken was given once a
month in place of its usual diet of goat meat
and beef.

According to Crandall (1965) this species of
cat has not done well at the New York Zoological
Park and none survived for more than
2 years and a golden cat lived for 17 years,
8 months and 25 days at St. Louis Zoological
Park. The longevity of this cat in the Zoolo-
gical Gardens of London is given as 10 years,
9 months and 3 days (Flower 1931).

Clouded Leopard : (Neofelis nebulosa) : One

VETERINARY ASSISTANT SURGEON,
NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL ParK, -
P. O. BARANG, DIST : CUTTACK.
WILD LIFE CONSERVATION OFFICER,
ORISSA,

95- SAHID NAGAR,
BHUBANESWAR-751 007,

April 2, 1980.

full grown adult female clouded leopard
received in the Park on 29-4-1966 died on
9-2-1980, after 13 years, 9 months and 12 days
in captivity. The estimated age at the time
of death was about IS years. It was kept along
with either one male and/or one female
specimen of the same species. They were
housed in a semi out-door enclosure having
an area of approximately 48 sq. metres,
height 2.80 metres. There were two spacious
retiring cells within the enclosure. The animal
maintained very good health on a diet of 1 kg
goat meat and 100 gm beef with bones daily
for six days in a week and only 500 gm goat
meat once a week. One live chicken was given
once a month instead of its usual diet of goat
meat and beef.

At the New York Zoological Park none of
the clouded leopards survived for long, the
best record of longevity being 4 years and 8
months. A clouded leopard lived for 10 years,
8 months and 3 days in the San Diego Zoo-
logical Garden (Crandall, loc. cit). The longe-
vity of this species in the National Zoological
Park is given as 15 years, 10 months and
19 days whereas the longevity of this species
in the Philadelphia Zoological Garden is given
as 16 years, 11 months and 1 day (Jones
1958).

We would be interested in the longevity
records of these two species of wild cats in
other Indian Zoological Parks.

L. N. ACHARJYO
CH. G. MISHRA

155

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

REFERENCES

CRANDALL, LEE S. (1965) : The Management of Wild
Mammals in Captivity. The University of Chicago
Press, Chicago and London, pp. 359-413.

FLoweEr, S. S. Cited by Crandall, Lee.
S. (1965).

JONES, M. L. (1958): Cited by Crandall, Lee S. (1965).

(1931) :

3. CAUSES OF DEER MORTALITY IN INDIA

In India the information on causes of morta-
lity in deer in free living state or captivity is
very meagre. There have been reports of
occasional episodes of Rinderpest (Schaller
1967, Srivastava 1957, Singh 1958, Gupta and
Verma 1949, Ray and Samanta 1974), tuber-
culosis (Liston and Soparkar 1924, Basak ef al.
1976); fascioliasis (Rao and Acharjyo 1972)
etc. Isolated cases of parasitic infestations and
other miscellaneous conditions have also been
recorded (Rao and Acharjyo 1972, Rao and
Acharjyo 1969, Tripathi et al. 1971, Patnaik
and Acharjyo 1970, Sen Gupta 1974). This
paper records the causes of mortality among
various species of deer in Zoological Parks,
National Parks, Sanctuaries and reserve forests
in different parts of the country.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In an attempt to determine the relative impor-
tance of various diseases to which members
of cervidae family are prone to suffer and the
causes of mortality, a countrywide survey was
conducted. The mortality information for three
years period (1975-1977), based on post mortem
examinations was obtained from fifteen Zoolo-
gical Parks (Bhillai, Bombay, Darjeeling, Delhi,
Hyderabad, Junagadh, Kanpur, Kohima,
Mysore, Pune, Renuka, Shillong, Silvassa,
Tutikandi and Visakhapatnam) ; two national
parks (Corbett and Shivpuri) ; one Sanctuary
(Kinnersanni) and reserve forests in two states
(West Bengal and Jammu and Kashmir).
Information on the species of dead animal and

date of death was also collected. Information
was sought also on total populations of each
species, sex and age at death of each animal,
but the provided information was not complete
and therefore, could not be used.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

During the three year period 1975-1977,
a total of 243 deaths had been recorded in eleven
Species of deer which included 107 Chital
(Axis axis); 29 hog deer (A. porcinus); 40
barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak): 4 musk
deer (Moschus moschiferus); 3 fallow
deer (Dama dama); 28 sambar (Cervus
unicolor) ; 8 thamin (C. eldi); 2 Kashmir stag
(C. elaphus hanglu); one swamp deer (C.
duvauceli) ; 14 mouse deer (Tragulus meminna)
and 7 Sikka deer (Cervus nippon). Out of these,
Kashmir Stag, Musk deer, Swamp deer and
Thamin deer are endangered species and hence
have been included in Schedule I of Indian
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Fallow deer
(Dama dama) and Sikka deer (C. nippon) are
exotic Species and are being displayed in various
Indian Zoos. Sikka deer has also been listed
as endangered species. Out of 243, 32 deaths
occurred of animals in free living state in
national parks, sanctuaries and forests and the
remaining among animals in the zoological
gardens.

Causes of mortality :

As shown in table 1, tuberculosis was quite a
frequent cause of mortality in captive chital,

156

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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157

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

whereas not a single case was recorded in
free living state. Out of 17 cases of tuberculosis,
16 were recorded in Chital alone, which indi-
cates their high susceptibility to tuberculosis
in captivity. It would appear that the tuber-
culosis in deer is directly related to the condi-
tions of captive environment and prevalence
of this disease among other animals in the
zoological gardens. In many of the Zoos,
cases of tuberculosis had occurred also among
other zoo animals. Unfortunately, the exact
typing of the tubercle bacilli associated with the
disease in Chital and other zoo animals had
not been done. Therefore, the type of causative
organism, source and the channels of trans-
mission of infection could not be ascertained.

Cases of Anthrax were recorded in spotted
deer at Visakhapatnam Zoo (two cases),
barking deer at Kohima Zoo (two cases) and
Sikka Deer at Delhi Zoo (one case). Anthrax
is essentially a soil borne infection. However,
the infection can be transmitted through con-
taminated food or fodder from farms or places
with a history of Anthrax. Certain birds have

been found to carry spores of Bacillus anthraxis —

in their alimentary tracts, and hence can

disseminate the infection.

A Kashmir stag was recorded to have died
of Johne’s disease. Darjeeling Zoo experienced
an outbreak of Pasteurellosis in 1975-76 in
which eight red Pandas (Ailurus fulgens) and
one musk deer died.

An outbreak of fascioliasis was recorded at
Corbett National Park in January, 1975 in
which 12 chital and two hog deer died in the
Vicinity of the water reservoir. Fascioliasis
has been reported to occur in wild animals in
areas which support snail populations.

Among the non-specific diseases, pneumonia
and general debility and anaemia were res-
ponsible for 10.2 per cent and 9.8 per cent of
the total deaths, respectively. The cases of
general debility and anaemia were recorded

in both captivity and feral state. Probably
the nutrition available to the animals in forest
and captivity is deficient qualitatively and or
quantitatively which requires thorough investi-
gation. Other disease conditions recorded
were gastro enteritis (10 cases), dystokia (7)
and Captivity stress/heat stress (8).

It has been reported that the incidence of
deaths due to injuries resulting from accidents,
fighting or during capture operations for treat-
ment or managements purposes is quite high.
In this survey about 35 per cent of total deaths
were attributed to injuries of various origin.
Frequency of these deaths can perhaps be brought
down by improvement in zoo management
methods by using tranquilizers.

A number of deaths due to non-specific and
undetermined causes were also recorded which
have been included in miscellaneous causes.
The causes of death included in this category
were senility (11), snake bite (2), nephritis (1),
pericarditis (2), drowning (2), hepatitis (2),
thrombosis (1), toxemia (1), dermatitis (2),
and undetermined causes (20).

Most of the disease conditions recorded as
the cause of mortality based on the post-mortem
findings could be due to variety of aetiological
agents. For specific aetiological diagnosis, it is
highly desirable to seek laboratory support
because identification of specific agents of
disease will provide a more rational basis for
chemotherapy and also for planning suitable
measures of prevention and control in the
future.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. C. M. Singh,
Director, Indian Veterinary Research Institute,
Izatnagat for providing the required facilities
and encouragement for undertaking the study.
We are also thankful to the Chief Conser-

158

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

vators of Forests and Chief Wild Life Wardens
of Various States, Directors /Superintendents /
Veterinarians of the Zoological Parks, National

DIVISION OF EPIDEMIOLOGY,
INDIAN VETERINARY RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
IZATNAGAR, U.P.,

August 2, 1979.

Parks, and Sanctuaries for providing infor-
mation in respect of mortality recorded in
deer.

B. S. RATHORE!
S. S. KHERA

REFERENCES

BASAK, D. K., SARKAR, P., Nrvoci, M. K. AND
SAMANTA, D. P. (1976) : Tuberculosis in Zoo animals in
Calcutta. Indian Vet. J. 53 : 667-669.

GupTA, K. C. S. AND VERMA, N.S. (1949) : Rinder-
pestin wildruminants. Indian J. Vet. Sci. 19 ; 219-224.

LisTON, W. G., AND SOPARKAR, M. B. (1924):
Bovine tuberculosis in India, an outbreak of tuberculosis
among animals in the Bombay Zoological Gardens.
Indian J. Med. Res. 2 : 671-80.

PATNAIK, M. M. AND ACHARJyo, L. N. (1970):
Notes on the helminth parasites of vertebrates in
Barango Zoo (Orissa). Indian Vet. J. 47 : 723-730.

Rao, A. T. AND ACHARJYO, L. N. (1969) : Pathological
lesions in livers of two Indian Sambar (Cervus unicolor
niger) infected with Paramphistomum explanatum
Creplin, 1947); Nasmark, 1937 Gigantocotyle expla-
natum. ibid. 46 : 916-17.

———— (1972): Further observations on fascio-
liasis among wild ungulates at Nandankanan Zoo.
ibid., 49; 133-35,

Ray, D. K. AND SAMANTA, D. P. (1974) : Rinderpest
like syndrome in Calcutta Zoo. ibid., 51: 199-202.

SCHALLER, G. B. (1967): The deer and the tiger—
A study of wild life in India. Univ. of Chicago Press,
Chicago, pp. 54-56, 108-110, 181-182.

SEN GuPTA, M. R. (1974): A preliminary report on
diseases and parasites of zoo animals, birds and reptiles.
Indian J. Anim. HIth. 13 : 15-24.

SINGH, B. (1958) : Working plan for the Haldwani
Forest Division, Western Circle, Uttar Pradesh 1956-57
to 1965-66, Allahabad. Cited by Schaller (1967),
D. 53.

SRIVASTAVA, S. (1957) : Working plan for Kalagarh
Forest Division, Western Circles, Uttar Pradesh, 1955-
56 to 1969-70, Allahabad. Cited by Schaller (1967),
D5).

TRIPATHI, S. B., ACHARJYO, L. N., Rao, A. T.,
PATNAIK, K. C. AND Misra, S. K. (1971) : Survey of
intestinal parasitic infestations in zoo animals arid birds.
Indian J. Anim. Hlth. 10 : 107-10.

1 Present Address: Scientist S-2, Indian Veterinary
Research Institute, Hebbal, Bangalore-560 024.

159

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

4. REPRODUCTIVE BIOLOGY OF THE SPINY FIELD MOUSE,
MUS PLATYTHRIX

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

Since the biology of Mus in India is poorly
known, intensive study was carried out on Mus
booduga around Tirupati (Rao 1977). A
number of Mus platythrix were also collected
and studied during the course of field work
during 1975 and 1976. In this paper results
of the study on reproductive biology are pre-
sented and compared with Chandrahas’s (1974)
results of work done at Kolar (Karnataka).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Monthly collections of Mus platythrix were
made during 1975 and 1976, in crop fields
around “firupatr (13°360'" IN; 79°23" E) by
excavating the burrows. ,;The rodents were
sexed and dissected for recording pregnancy,
lactation, embryo numbers and number of
corpora lutea. Male animals were considered
to be participating in reproduction activity if
they had scrotal testes (Rao 1979). The
croplands had groundnut (July to November)
and paddy (July to October and in part January
to April also) as the major crops. The area
received rainfall (mean annual = 1085 mm)
during May to December. The data was
pooled for both the years.

OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

Male fecundity :

Fecund males were found from August to
April next (Fig. 1), which corresponds with the
pregnancy cycle of females. Except in the
month of November, the breeding rate gradually
increased from August till December and then

declined gradually till May. Chandrahas (1974)
has reported that they breed from August to
March at Kolar.

Female fertility :

Pregnant females were found from Septem-
ber to March next. There was also a gradual
increase in the per cent pregnant females
from the month of September till November
declining thereafter (Fig. 1). It is interest-
ing to observe that the numbers of fecund
males and pregnant females run parallel to
each other throughout the year.

Litter size:

Fifteen samples of litters yielding 57 young
Ones were picked up by excavating the burrows
during the study period. The litter size varied
from 2 to 7, the average being 3.8. Litters of
large size (having 7 embryos) were collected from
the fields in October and December (Table 1).

TABLE 1
DISTRIBUTION OF LITTERS OF VARIOUS SIZES IN THE
MONTHLY FIELD-COLLECTIONS OF Mus platythrix DURING
1975 AnD 1976

Total No.of Mean

No. of lacta- young
Month Size of young ting per
litter ones females litter
ORS abcd |
January On 2 oT Oat 3 3.66
February O27 .0:.20)2.0 0 0 0
March 1310 0 0 2 1 2.00
September 0:0: 1.0 5 1 5.00
October Oc a eee LS 3 5.00
November L387 0 0. 4 215
December OD Od 38 3 4.33
Total 57 15 3.80

160

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

PREGNANCY @ FECUNDITY

PER CENT

MONTHS

Fic. 1. Per cent female M. platythrix pregnant and male fecund during the year.

@ -- @ Males fecund.

The frequency of occurrence of litters of 2 and 3
young ones was relatively common. Chandrahas
(1974) has reported the litter size as ranging
from 5 to 8.9, the average being 7.6. Prakash
(1971) reported that the litter size in Mus
platythrix sadhu varied from three to ten in the
Rajasthan desert.

Observations on implanted embryos

Twenty two pregnant females of M.. platy-

thrix were examined during the course of

16]

11

x — x Females pregnant.

studies with 100 visible embryos. The litter
size ranged from 2 to 8, the mean being 4.54
per pregnant female. Embryos of 4 and 6
had the maximum frequency (Table 2). The
litter size in the present investigation was less
than the litter size of the spiny mice reported
by Chandrahas (1974). In the present study
right horn was found having less number of
embryos (1.50--1.00) than the left uterine horn
(3.05-+1.13), the difference being statistically
significant (P<0.001).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

TABLE 2

DISTRIBUTION OF EMBRYOS OF VARIOUS SIZES IN THE MONTHLY COLLECTION OF M. platythrix
DURING 1975 AND 1976

No. of

No. of

Total Mean
Month Size of litter embryos No. of pregnant embryos
D 4 5 6 8 resorbing implanted females per
embryos female
January 1 1 1 1 0 7 17 4 4.25
February 0 1 0 0 0 0 4 1 4.00
March 0 1 0 0 0 1 4 1 4.00
September 1 2 0 0 0 0 i0 3 3.33
October 0 2 0 1 1 3 Maps 4 5.50
November 1 3 0 0 1 1 22, 5 4.40
December 0 1 1 2 0 0 21 4 5.25
Total 7 100 Dip 4.54

Pre-natal mortality

The counting of the freshly formed corpora
lutea in the ovaries of pregnant females indi-
cated that the production of ova ranged from
5.00 to 6.50 per pregnant female, the mean
being 5.98 (Table 3). There was no significant
difference in the magnitude of pre-implantation
mortality during various months of breeding
season. Maximum loss per female was observed
in September when the food is abundantly
available to the mice. The intensity of loss
was more in the right ovary. The post-implan-
tation loss was maximum in October and
January (Table 2). The embryos towards the
cervix were always found resorbing but never
the ones towards fallopian tube. The resorbing
embryos were observed in female with larger
litter size only. This resorption may be an
intrinsic physiological mechanism regulating
the mouse numbers.

Annual productivity

By applying the formula of Lechleitner (1959)
the annual breeding potentiality of the spiny
mouse is calculated. Considering the gestation
period of M. platythrix as 21 days (Chandrahas

1974), a female can produce 10.09 litters in a
breeding season. Correcting this figure by
multiplying by the mean prevalence of pregnancy
the figure is reduced to 3.03/litters/female/
breeding season. Converting it to ova pro-
duced per female the annual productivity of
the female mice comes to 18.11. If pre-natal
mortality (6.9% pre-implantation and 25.7%
post-implantation) is accounted, the figure is
corrected to 18.11—0.33=17.78 young per
female per year.

Breeding season

It is interesting to observe that the scrotal
males occurred in August and soon after in
September pregnant females are found in the
population. Thereafter the peak in the reproduc-
tive activity of both the sexes continues from
October to January, during winter (Figure 1).
Chandrahas (1974) also observed a similar
cycle in Mus at Kolar. Most of the tropical
mammals litter during winter months since
during monsoon, possibly, due to excessive
rains, marshy conditions prevail and the environ-
ment is not, therefore, conducive for the sur-
vival of litters of the terrestrial animals. It

162

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi 78

appears also that the quality of the food available
in post monsoon months may trigger the breed-
ing activity. The availability of paddy and
groundnut in the post monsoon months in the
study area confirms this presumption. On the
other hand, however, the breeding activity of
the Indian desert mammals, inclusive of Mus
species, is at the maximum during monsoon
due to prevalence of favourable temperatures
and availability of nutritive green food (Prakash
1960, 1971). Though Tirupati region falls
under semi arid zone, yet the Mus platythrix

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
S.V. UNIVERSITY, TIRUPATI-517 502,

October 3, 1979.

breeds during winter like typical tropical
mammals, which is interesting.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. (Mrs.) B. Rajabai Subba
Rau for her guidance; Prof. K. S. Swami,
Head of the Zoology Department for provid-
ing necessary facilities and to Dr. Ishwar
Prakash, Coordinator and Principal Animal
Ecologist for his critical comments on the
manuscript.

A. M. K. MOHANA RAO?

REFERENCES

CHANDRAHAS, R. K. (1974) : Ecology of the Brown
spiny mouse, Mus p. platythrix (Bennett) and the
Indian field mouse, Mus b. booduga (Gray). Indian J.
Med. Res. 62 : 264-280.

LECHLEITNER, R. R. (1959) : Sex ratio, age classes and
reproduction of the black tailed Jack rabbit. J. Mam.
40 : 62-81.

PRAKASH, I. (1960) : Breeding of mammals in Raja-
sthan desert. J. Mamim. 42: 380-389.

1 Present Address :
Hyderabad-500 030. (A.P.)

PRAKASH, I. (1971): Breeding season and litter size
of Indian desert rodents. Ziet. angew. Zool. 58:
441-454,

Rao, A. M. K. M. (1977): Studies on some ecological
aspects of the Indian field mouse, Mus booduga Gray.
Ph. D. Thesis, S. V. University, Tirupati.

——--——, (1979) : Monthly variation in the numbers
and reproduction activity of the Indian field mouse,
Mus booduga Gray. Indian J. Rodentol. (In Press).

Junior Rodent Specialist, Central Plant Protection Training Institute, Rajendranagar,

5. WHITE PATCH AND ITS GENETIC CONTROL IN SOME OF THE
INDIAN RODENT SPECIES

The albinism and colour variations in the
rodents of the Indian sub-continent were repor-
ted earlier in Some of the taxonomic literature
dealing with Indian rodents. The occurrence
of a diamond shaped white patch on the ventral
surface of a house rat, Rattus rattus rufescens
has also been reported recently (Joshee 1961,

Deoras and Mithel 1974). But this fact was
overlooked, because the stress was given more
on the epidemic studies rather than on its
genetical consideration. The fact that a white
patch was seen, though very rarely, even in the
field rats of the species of B. indica (Pradhan
1975), attracted my attention towards the

164

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

subject. Some specimens of the species R. r.
rufescens, possessing two white patches on the
ventral side were also collected.

A pregnant female rat, R. r. rufescens, posses-
Sing a white patch (henceforth W.P.) on the
pectoral region was caught alive and kept in a
cage under observation. The female gave birth
to four young ones possessing white patches.
Attempts to breed and continue this generation
further failed due to their premature deaths.
But when the karyological studies were conduc-
ted in these true typical rats, an interesting fact
came to light. Though R. r. rufescens (W.P.)
has 2n==38 chromosomes, its karyomorpho-
logy varies from that of ordinary R. r. rufescens.
R. r. rufescens (W.P.) lacks one pair of graded
metacentric chromosomes and possesses one
extra pair of graded telocentric chromosomes
than those present in R. r. rufescens (Table 1).

Now it seems from the above observations
that the possibility of the genetic control over
the occurrence of white patch cannot be ruled
out. Davis and Baker (1971) have shown that
the change in the morphology of some of the
rat chromosomes controls the colour variations.
Besides, the white patch of similar kind has

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
WESTERN REGIONAL STATION,
933/A, SHIVAJINAGAR,
Pune-411 016,

July 25, 1979.

TABLE 1

KARYOMORPHOLOGY OF R. r. rufescens WITH AND
WITHOUT W.P.

Diploid *Large *Sub- *Graded *Graded

Species No. Meta- Telo- Telo- Meta-
centric centric centric centric
R.r.rufescens 38 2 1 8 8
R.r.rufescens
(W.P.) 38 2 1 9 7

* Figures in pairs.

also been reported in other rodent species.
Therefore we feel that the polymorphism of
some typical nature in the karyomorphology
may be playing some important role in con-
trolling the expression of white patch in rodents.

We thank Dr. P. J. Deoras, Prof. Emeritus ;
and the Principal, Patkar College, Goregaon
West, Bombay, for their guidance and sugges-
tions; The Director, Zoological Survey of India,
Calcutta for his permission to publish the article
and Dr. B. K. Tikader, Joint Director, Zoological
Survey of India, Western Regional Station,
Pune for his co-operation.

M. S. PRADHAN
M. MITHEL

REFERENCES

Davis, B. L. AND BAKER, R. J. (1971) : Chromosome
morphology of North American Rattus rattus (L.)
(Muridae). Cytologia, 36 : (3) : 417-420.

Deoras, P. J. AND MITHEL, M. (1974): A note on
rat collection from Goregaon and Malad, Proc. of
Ind. Sci. Cong. Nagpur, pp, 217,

JosueE, A. K. (1961): Studies on Bombay ats,
part I. Ph. D. thesis submitted in Bombay Univer-
sity.

PRADHAN, M. S. (1975): Studies on Bombay rats,
Part II, Ph. D. thesis submitted in Bombay Univer-

sity.

165

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

6. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE WHITETAILED SEA EAGLE HALIAEETUS
ALBICILLA (LINNAEUS) AT CHILKA LAKE

We recently spent a couple of days bird
watching at Chilka lake in Orissa (23rd to 25th
February 1979).

While driving upto Barkul Point from Ramba
Guest House, we had seen a whitetailed sea
Eagle on 24th February near the Naval Estab-
lishment junction.

The visibility was near perfect and the bird
was seen flying to our left against greenish
mountainous background ata height of about
300 m. The prominent white and short tail

SAILERU Foop PropuctTs PvT. LTD.,
11-2-5, DASAPALLA HILLS,
VISAKHAPATNAM-530 003.

VICE-CHANCELLOR,
ANDHRA UNIVERSITY, WALTAIR,
VISAKHAPATNAM-530 003,

July 1, 1979.

and the broad wings matched perfectly with
the description given in the HANDBOOK (Volume
1 : 286). :

Again on 25th February one of us (KSRK)
had a very clear sight record of the bird near
Barkul point; perhaps the same single individual
which we had seen the day before.

The HANDBOOK mentions only a single record
in India from Punjab.!' Our sighting confirms
the occurrence of this bird in Orissa also.

K.S. R. KRISHNA RAJU

M. R. APPARAO

1 The distribution has been updated in the 2nd edition of the HANDBOOK (1978) as extending to Rajasthan and

Kutch—EDS.

7. NIGHT HERON NYCTICORAX NYCTICORAX (LINNAEUS) BREEDING IN
SUB-ADULT PLUMAGE

I was often intrigued by buffy white-stippled,
egret-like birds on nests while watching mixed
heronries around Bombay, until a full-fledged
juvenile fallen off a Night Heron nest was
brought to the Society by a member, and its
identity confirmed by reference to specimens
in the Society’s collection. Since then whenever
I came across such birds on nests I presumed
them to be full-fledged young of the species,
though invariably always they were unattended
by adult plumaged birds at the time of obser-
vation. That this presumption was unfounded
was proved when I saw juvenile-plumaged

Night Herons collecting sticks as nesting mate-
rial in the company of adult-plumaged birds
from a bare Copperpod tree on the morning
of 26th August 1979 in the Borivli National
Park, and commuting back and forth between
the Copperpod and the nesting tree. It is
evident therefore that juvenile-plumaged Night
Herons found on nests in heronries need not
necessarily be full-fledged chicks, but mature
birds breeding in subadult plumage. There is,
however, no referene to this breeding habit of
the bird in published literature on Indian
birds as far as I am aware.

166

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The observation also partially answered a
query which often posed before me: Do noc-
turnal birds collect nesting material during day-

C/O. BomBAy NATURAL History SOCIETY,
HORNBILL House, S.B. SINGH ROAD,
BomBay-400 023,

August 30, 1979.

time hours or at night? At least the Night
Heron does so during daylight hours.

J. S. SERRAO

8. THE BROWNWINGED TERN (STERNA ANAETHETUS): AN ADDITION
TO THE BIRDS OF KERALA

On the afternoon of 12-xi-1978 the fresh
carcass of a Brownwinged Tern was found on
the beach at Puvvar 8°24’N, 77°E, c 23 km
south-east of Trivandrum. A fisherman took
it to Dr. K. V. Sreenivasan of the Primary
Health Centre, Puvvar, whose interest in birds
was known to the fishermen. The bird was
passed on to me, and I identified it as a Brown-
winged Tern. Subspecific identification created
problems, as some of the measurements did not
tally with any given in the HANDBOOK under
the three races of Sterna anaethetus included
in it.

Some 36 hours after the bird was picked up,
Dr. Satish Chandran Nair, Department of
Zoology, Kerala University, made a valient
attempt to skin and sex the specimen. But no
proper skinning could be done as putrefaction
had set in. Sexing, too, was not possible,
and we concluded that the bird was a juvenile.
The crudely prepared skin was sent to the
Society.

Mr. Humayun Abdulali and Dr. Grubh
examined the specimen. Mr. Abdulali wrote :
‘The feathers of the upper parts are pale tipped
and indicate a juvenile plumage. It is undou-
btedly a Brown-winged Tern (Sterna anaethetus)

and the nearest record which I can trace from
the area are of a male and a female which ‘fell on
board off Cape Comorin 77°E lat., 8°N long.,
on 26th September 1864’....the present speci-
men has a 255 mm wing (bill from feathers
39.5, tarsus 19, tail 150) which is too large for
Sterna anaethetus antartica Lesson(wing 218-239,
bill 29-36) quoted from Baker in the Indian
HANDBOOK (3 : 61) where it is suggested that
this is a breeding form in the Laccadives and
at Vengurla further northwards. When cata-
loguing the material in Bombay (JBNHS 69 :
297), I have expressed my inability to place the
16 specimens....among any of the three races
accepted in Indian limits.’ (See also H.
Abdulali JBNHS 67: 110-111.)

On 18-iii-1979 Sri V. K. Sureshkumar, Dr.
K. V. Sreenivasan and I were at Puvvar, and
Sri Sureshkumar found another specimen of
the Brownwinged Tern. Only the two wings,
the feathers of the back, one leg and the sternum
with the pectoral girdle remained. This was
sent to Mr. Abdulali who commented (in epist.):
‘I measured the left wing 263 and the right
255mm, the difference in size being due to the
first primary being missing in the latter. In any
case, the upperparts agree with specimens of
anaetheta in the Society’s collection, and single

167

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Specimens in fragmentary condition are
insufficient to permit any attempt at sub-
specific indentification. ’

24/1337, BEHIND G. P. O.,
TRIVANDRUM-695 001,

May 3, 1979.

The Brownwinged Tern is not included in
Salim Ali’s BIRDS OF KERALA (1969) and has
not been previously reported from Kerala.

K. K. NEELAKANTAN

9. JUNGLE CROW CORVUS MACRORH YNCHOS PREYING UPON GREY
WAGTAIL MOTACILLA CASPICA

Crows are known for their omnivorous habit.
I observed a jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos
catching a grey wagtail Motacilla caspica in
flight and feeding on it while it was still
alive.

On 16th January 1979 at 9-30 hrs. I saw a
jungle crow foraging on the ground near the
Tamil Nadu Inspection Bungalow at Thekkady,
actively hopping around. At this time there
was a grey wagtail sitting on the ground about
40 metres away. A grey wagtail, probably
the same individual, was always seen in this
locality for more than a month. Now the crow
flew silently and landed close to the wagtail.
The wagtail did not show any visible response,
probably not suspecting a predator in the

crow; the crow then made a swift advance -

towards the wagtail. The wagtail immediately
flew up but the crow gave a quick chase and

RESEARCH SCHOLAR,
BomMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,
BomMBAY-400 023,

July 27, 1979.

hit it with its beak. Now the wagtail started
losing speed and in its next attempt the crow
caught the bird in the air about a metre above
the ground and carried it in its beak to a mango
tree, about 50 m away from the spot. The
crow then started plucking the victim with
its beak while holding it with its toes against a
branch ; the wagtail was still alive and shaking
its head but did not call. While the crow was
removing the feathers another jungle crow (pro-
bably its mate) was sitting close by without
interfering. Within 3 minutes the prey was
plucked clean and then the crow started feeding
on it bit by bit. At this stage the fleshy body
of the wagtail dropped down and the crow
immediatey went down to pick it up and flew
to a house top where its ‘mate’ also joined
the feast. The whole operation took about
ten minutes.

SHAEQUE AHMED YAHYA

10. OCCURRENCE OF DICRURUS PARADISEUS LOPHORHINUS (VIEILLOT)
IN GOA (INDIA)—A COMMENT

While in Calcutta in February, 1979, Messrs
Saha and Mukherjee kindly showed me the
specimen of Ceylon Crested Black Drongo from
Goa about which they wrote in their note,

(JBNHS 77 (3): 511-2). In appearance and
measurements this specimen from the Western
Ghats coast of India conforms well to the distin-
ctive form of the Greater Drongo from the ever-

168

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

green, wet zone Of South-west Sri Lanka (Ceylon)
about which I wrote in an earlier paper (1949).
This subspecies is distinctive because the outer-
most tail feathers, instead of developing the
nude vanes and racket tips of the typical racket-
tails, has the two outer tail feathers fully plumed,
but narrowed and curved, partially twisted in
a lyre-tail fashion.

The occurrence of this specimen and the
reference in Baker (1924) to the presence of
this phenotype in Kerala ( Travancore’) con-
firms my own impression that Jophorhinus of
Sri Lanka is indeed most appropriately a sub-
species of paradiseus, closely related, but with
a single morphological character. That this
tail type is perhaps confined to a minor gene
shift in the population of the mainland would
seem to be confirmed by the method of collec-
ting specimens or sight records which of course
represent an extremely random and haphazard
sampling. More extensive field observations
in western peninsular India might reveal the
presence of this tail type character as a scarce
recessive, while the phenotype has become loca-
lized and characteristic of the south-west Sri
Lankan population. With the imminent dec-
line of the habitat in the south-west of that
island, there may be an increase of the hybrid
population, now found in a hybrid zone
between the /ophorhinus-type and the ceyloni-

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
WASHINGTON, D.C., U.S.A.,

April 23, 1979.

cus-type on the margins of the wet evergreen
belt. i |

The occurrence of a hybrid zone, and the
appearance of a phenotype of one subspecies
within the range of another is known in India
and elsewhere. One example might be cited
in the brown-backed form of fiycatcher-shrike,
Hemipus picatus, which appears in the range of
the black-backed subspecies, but is locally
dominant in part of the total species range.
Again the occurrence of intermediate or color
variants in fruit pigeons Treron phoenicoptera
in central India, cited in the HANDBOOK (1969,
vol. 3, p. 107) may refer to the same phenomenon?
The Blue Goose population, now stabilized in
part of the range of the Snow Goose, Anser
caerulescens, in north-eastern Arctic Canada,
has a hybrid zone in the western part of its
breeding range. Occasional individual * blues ’
appear in the range of the pure ° snow’
population.

Bearing the above in mind it would seem that
Baker’s former treatment of /ophorhinus as a
separate species, or even genus (1924) is un-
realistic from the point of view of speciation.

I am grateful to the staff of the Zoological
Survey of India and especially to the authors
of the note for showing me the specimen and
inviting my comments on a recent visit to
Calcutta. |

S. DILLON RIPLEY

REFERENCES

Baker, E. C. Stuart (1924): Fauna of British
India, Birds, vol. I, p. 373-4.

Rip.ey, S. DILLON (1949) : Avian Relicts and Double
Invasion in Peninsular India and Ceylon. Evolution
vol. IIT, p. 155-6.

169

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

11. THE REDTAILED WHEATEAR (OENANTHE XANTHOPRYMNA)
IN THE DELHI AREA

On the morning of 23rd December, 1977, we
saw at Sultanpur Jheel, a bird that we identified
as aRedtailed Wheatear(Oenanthe xanthoprymna)
from Ali and Ripley’s HANDBOOK, vol. 9. We
watched the bird for ten-fifteen minutes at
about twenty to thirty feet. We had never
seen it before in several year’s bird-watching in
Delhi. The bird’s description was as follows :
Size between sparrow and bulbul. Head and
back pale sandy-brown, wings somewhat darker
brown. Dull whitish supercilium, dark line
through the eye. Rufous rump, chestnut tail
with a black terminal band. Below, white,
upright posture. So far as we can see, it can
only be the Redtailed Wheatear.

D-1/155, SATYA MARG,
CHANAKYAPURI,
New DELHI-110 021,

June 11, 1979.

Later we found from Usha Ganguli’s A GUIDE
TO THE BIRDS OF THE DELHI AREA that its status
is accidental and that there is no subsequent
record since it was recorded by Holmes in
her book BIRD STUDY IN INDIA 1920. Further-
more, Abdulali and Panday’s Checklist of the
Birds of Delhi, Agra and Bharatpur places it in
brackets, signifying ‘erroneous or needing
confirmation’ and labels it S.?, S_ signifying
‘stray, accidental and far out of normal
range’,? signifying ‘absence of specimen
makes it impossible to determine subspecific
identity. ’

In the light of this, we think our sighting
may be of interest to you.

FE. SRIDHARAN
S. BIKHCHANDANI

12. A CURIOUS ACCIDENT TO THE NEST OF A SUNBIRD

On Sunday 9th September 1979 while driving
through Borivli National Park with Rafia and
Humayun Abdulali, we saw a nest of the Yellow-
backed Sunbird (Aethopyga siparaja) hanging
from an exposed root in a roadside cutting. We
stopped and found that it was old and deserted,
but another nest was seen hanging in a similar
situation on the other side of the road. No
entrance was visible and the nest was covered
with earth, first suggesting an attack by white
ants.

It was taken down and a closer examination
showed that the porch over the entrance was
depressed with earth. It contained three eggs,
one of which was broken and the other two ina
State of decay. The outside of the nest was

covered with streaks of red earth in which the
cutting had been made, and the only explanation
appears to be that a heavy flow of rain water
over the edge of the cutting brought down a
lot of earth onto the nest and this, when drying
closed the entrance, shutting out the bird.

The nest was washed under a tap and this
produced a deluge of earth from all over the
outer cover, thus corroborating the above sug-
gestion. This does appear to be a singularly
unusual disaster.

In the birds of Bombay and Salsette (1938)
Salim Ali and Humayun Abdulali said that all
their records were for the winter months, and
they could only quote breeding records from the
Bhor Ghat (Khandala) on 17 and 21 September,

170

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Mr. Abdulali has since seen many nests in the
surrounding hills, mostly June to September,
and almost always in identical facies. On 27
August 1979 he saw a § visiting a nest, almost
complete, at the southern end of the park, but
it had been torn off a few days later.

13, RETREAT APTS.,
SARASWATI ROAD,
SANTACRUZ (WEST),
BomsBay-400 054,

September 25, 1979.

The nest is of course very distinctive, showing
much coarser material than in the other sun-
birds, and lacking the cobweb covering. It is
almost invariably attached to roots projecting
from roadside cuttings.

PHILLIPPA MUKHERJEE

13. FATAL MALE-MALE CONFLICT IN THE GHARIAL, GAVIALIS
GANGETICUS (GMELIN) (REPTILIA, CROCODILIA)

(With a text-figure)

Three sub-adult gharial comprising one male
and two females, measuring 2.58-2.78 m were
liberated into a specially designed breeding pool
in Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa, on
13 February 1976. This pool, 59.5 m in length,
29.7 m in maximum breadth and with a maxi-
mum depth of 9.1 m holds 27 lakh litres and is
fed with water by a 40 H.P. pump and also has
a 10 H.P. recirculation pump. The layout
is shown in Figure |. To provide maximum
freedom from disturbances the viewing area is
restricted to 30 m and the balance of the 220 m
perimeter comprises a 2.05 m high brick and
mortar wall. Although courtship and
presumed mating were observed in 1977 and
1978 no egg laying occurred and the resident
male suffered genital prolapses on 31 January
1977 and again on 30 January 1978. In order
to bring about successful breeding, attempts
were initiated in 1978 to secure a second male.
This male was obtained from Frankfurt Zoo-
logical Society, West Germany. This male
measured 3.85 m and weighed 195 kg. A third
female was obtained from Trivandrum Zoo on

20 February 1979 and three sub-adults, reared
at the Tikerpada Gharial Project, District
Dhenkanal, Orissa, were added to the breeding
pool on 4 January 1979 when they measured
1.83-1.90 m. |

The Frankfurt male had had no exposure to
members of its own species for many years.
It was decided to introduce this new male into
the breeding pool while keeping close obser-
vation on the behaviour of the resident male.
The Frankfurt male was introduced on 11
January 1980 at 2230 hours, having arrived
from Hyderabad by truck (a two-day journey)
one hour previously. After a lapse of 50
minutes it entered the pool. On the following
day it was observed investigating the pool and
moving around very close to the overflow
(Figure 1). The resident male had as usual
occupied his favourite location close to I,.
This is the only area in the pool where the water
is sufficiently low for an animal to lie basking
with part of its body out of the water without
coming out of the pool.

The next day (13 January 1980) the Frankfurt

17]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

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[LL
Oat a wit 1

Fic. 1. Gharial breeding pool, scale in metres. The arrowed portion of the outer compound wall is the
total viewing area for the public ; the strippled area a large sandbank 2.5m high provided for

nesting.

I,—Inlet of a 40 H.P. pump O—Outlet for 10 H.P. pump, and

I,—Inlet ‘ nalla’ from 10 H.P. pump OF—Overflow used to skim off surface debris when
the 10 H.P. pump isin operation,

172

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

male showed aggressive behaviour towards the
resident male and attempted (successfully) to
displace it from this favoured basking site
which the Frankfurt male thereafter took over.
Although the Frankfurt male was 95 cm longer
than the resident, this successful aggressive
behaviour occurring so soon after its entry into
the pool is surprising when the resident had
been in the pool for almost four years. One
would have expected that this (ownership)
would have given the resident male a psycho-
logical °‘ edge’ over the Frankfurt male, at least
for some time.

From 14 January to 31 January, the resident
male attempted to come back to I, but was
kept away by the Frankfurt male.

On 1 February, the Frankfurt male com-

menced courtship with the resident females.

At 0950 on 1 February, the Frankfurt male
was observed in the water and the resident male
was basking outside the pool. When one of us
(H.R.B.) frightened the resident male into the
water, the Frankfurt male at once approached it
and to reach it with maximum speed, dived,
presumably trying to approach the resident male
from below. It was not possible to observe
what happened under the water but at the end

of its dive the Frankfurt male leapt up verti-

cally from the water exposing its body to the
mid belly region. This was presumably the
‘carry over’ of the force of an attack on the
resident male. The latter was not seen there-
after and was presumably skulking at the
bottom of the pool.

On 2 February, it was observed that the

CROCODILE BREEDING AND
MANAGEMENT TRAINING INSTITUTE,
RAJENDRANAGAR ROAD,
HYDERABAD-500 264.

NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK,
P.O. BARANG-754 005,

DISTRICT CUTTACK,

ORISSA,

November 10, 1980.

side the water at all times.

resident male was remaining completely out-
At this time, had
the senior author been present, the resident
male would have been removed from the breed-
ing complex. :

On 3 February, it was noticed that when
forced to enter the pool, the resident male did
so hesitatingly and that the Frankfurt male
immediately swam quickly towards him and
chased him out of the water.

On 4 February, the resident male was not
observed between 0600 and 0900 hours (when
it regularly basked) and was not observed
thereafter until the morning of 8 February when
the putrified carcase was observed floating in
the pool.

There was no apparent external injury. The
proctodaeum protruded and was in a wounded
condition. The post-mortem revealed a
bruised thoracic portion probably due to a
stroke by the Frankfurt male either with his
tail (more likely) or with his jaws.

These observations are interesting since
gharial are usually extremely gentle animals
very tolerant of quite small individuals (under
a metre long) in their close proximity in the
wild. Although the males are known to be
territorial during the breeding season it was not
anticipated that male-male combat with fatal
consequences was likely to occur in a pool of
this size. It is noteworthy, however, that the
attacks took place during the mating season at
a time when any male-male antagonism is
likely to be at its peak. Courtship started on
31 January and lasted until 26 February.

H. R. BUSTARD

S. MAHARANA

173

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

14. SUSPENDED ANIMATION OF FISH OUT OF WATER FOR
MANY HOURS

I give below an account of experiments carried
out by me on common carp (Cyprinus carpio)
being cultured at the Tata Hydro Electric
Company’s fish farm near Walwhan Lake at
Lonavala.

On the 21st January, 1980 I purchased a fish
(Cyprinus carpio) weighing about 1.25 kg and
brought it home at 5.30 p.m. Since it could
not be immediately cleaned it was kept in the
refrigerator at 6.00 p.m. It was taken out for
cleaning at about 8.00 p.m. and placed in a
vessel under a tap. After about 15 minutes
when its scales were being removed it was found
to be alive.

When I was told about this incident, it re-
minded me of an article that had come in the
Reader’s Digest a few years back. It was about
the bat (flying fox) which remained alive in the
refrigerator for many days. So I decided to
conduct some experiments on this species of
fish.

Accordingly on the 25th January, 1980, a
fish weighing about 250 g was brought at
5.30 p.m. and kept in a plastic bucket full of
water. At 5.50 p.m. the water in the bucket
was reduced to 5 litres. The temperature of
the water was brought down by putting some
ice cubes one by one. By 6.00 p.m. the fish
was removed into a dry alluminium vessel and
placed in the refrigerator. The vessel was then
partially covered with a lid. For about 5
minutes the fish made efforts to jump and then

TATA CAMP,
LONAVALA,
Poona DIST.,

June 23, 1980.

quietened. At 10.00 p.m. after a period of
4 hours the vessel with the fish was taken out
of the refrigerator. At this time it looked
completely dead but it’s eyes were very bright
and its scales appeared fresh. Some water was
poured into the vessel and it was watcheuU care-
fully. For the first 10 minutes there was no
sign of life in the fish. So two cups of warm
water were added to increase the temperature of
the water in the vessel. Within a few minutes
two bubbles one after another were seen coming
out of its gills. Later on slight movement of
its gills could be seen. At this instance the
fish was removed into a bucket full of fresh
water. Its breathing rate went on increasing
and it made efforts to move about. After
half an hour the fish was swimming freely,
Thus after an ordial of four hours without water
in the refrigerator this fish regained its full
vigour and vitality. Next day the fish was
released back into the pond.

Subsequently, many experiments of similar
type on the same species of fish were carried out.
Every time the experiments were performed,
the period of it’s existence in the refrigerator
was increased by half an hour. Finally it
could be concluded that the common carp,
(Cyprinus carpio) can remain without any
water in the refrigerator for a periodfof 8 hours
and survive when again released back into it’s
natural habitat.

I thank Mr. S. N. Ogale for his co-operation.

P. S. MUKUNDAN

174

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

15. A NOTE ON THE BIOGEOGRAPHICAL RELICTNESS OF PILLAIA INDICA

YAZDANI (PILLAIDAE :

MASTACEMBELOIDE]I)

(With a text-figure)

A species (or genus) is a relict of a region of it
occurs in isolation from its main centre of distri-
bution and if its presence can be explained by
the fact that it (or its ancestral form) was left
behind under different natural conditions than
existing at present. A biogeographical relict
is characterized by its confined area (Udvardy
1969), whereas biogeography by itself attempts
to reconstruct and understand the evolutionary
history of organisms both in space and time.
However it is an established fact that the mode
of dispersal of fishes in spite of suitable
ecological niches, is largely dependent on
drainage patterns, river captures and other
phenomenon (Hora 1955).

In India, most, if not all work, aimed towards
the distribution of fishes was primarily geo-
graphical ecology. Many workers have contri-
buted to a large extent to this aspect but due to
paucity of knowledge on fossil and stratigraphic
records, historical biogeography was neither
clearly explained nor analysed.

We attempted therefore, to formulate the
most plausible hypothesis about the biogeo-
graphy of fish fauna in N.E. India (Assam,
Mehalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura,
Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh). This falls
under the trans-Himalayan areas of the Indo-
Chinese Subregion (89°7’ to 97°25'E longitude
and 22° to 29°7'N latitude). This sub-region
was the centre of origin for most freshwater
fishes presently distributed in India (Jayaram
1977). It is highly stable having attained the
maximum level of differentiation in relation to
the available habitats (Mani 1974). The
present paper deals with Pillaia indica Yazdani,
a small eel-like mastacembeloid fish found
predominantly in this region (Fig. 1).

Habitat: The habitat of the fish was
peculiar, in that it was available in a small
stream adjacent to a hydro-electric power
station near Summer (N.E. of Shillong 21 km ;
91°56'E to 25°34'N) and also in the paddy fields
where the irrigation channels had decomposing
hay and other waste plant materials. Pillaia
indica lives inside the loose mud (10-15 cm deep).
We have observed the fish lifting its nose above
the water level for aeration. They were col-
lected by groping in the mud or by using iron
mesh seives.

Results and Discussion: Collections were
made throughout Khasi Hills for determining
the distribution of Pillaia indica but it could be
found only in Summer and its surroundings.
Out of a total collection from October, 1977
to the end of April, 1978, 81 specimens of Pillaia
indica along with 39 specimens of Channa spp.,
Channa stewartii (Playfair), Channa orientalis
(Schneider) were caught. When the streams
were impounded for irrigational purpose it
affected the population to a large extent result-
ing in no fish catch for 14 months.

Yazdani (1976) while discussing the relation-
ships of this fish with Chaudhuriidae and
Mastacembelidae opined that Pillaia indica
might have originated in the Indo-Chinese
amphitheatre and subsequently migrated west-
wards along the Himalayas (Menon 1973).
Yazdani (op. cit.) stated that Pillaia indica
forms a connecting link between Mastacem-
belidae and Chaudhuriidae, the latter being
phylogenetically advanced and also represented
by a single genus Chaudhuria.

Yazdani’s hypothesis lacks support if we
consider Brundin’s (1966) approach because it
is the location of * sister-groups’ that permits

175

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

NORTH EAST INDIA
| DRAINAGE

(A Area of
Pillaia

distribution
indica

biogeographic hypothesis to be constructed.
This theory implies that phyletically primitive
species will generally be postulated as being
nearer the centre of origin of the group under
consideration, whereas phyletically | more
advanced or relative taxa will tend to be peri-
pheral to it (Cracraft 1974).

If one agrees with the opinion (Menon,
op. cit.) that most of the freshwater fishes
originated and migrated towards the west along

176

the Himalayas from the Indo-Chinese centre,
and that Mastacembelids along with Pillaiidae
have migrated and distributed themselves
throughout peninsular India from the centre of
origin whereas Chaudhuria is still available
only in Burma. If so, either Mastacembelids
are phylogenetically advanced than Chaudhuria
or they have originated in some other place ?
The Mastacembeloids, including Mastacem-
belidae of Africa and Southern Asia and the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Chaudhuriidae of Burma have relationships to
the Anabantoids as suggested by gill raker
evidence (Nelson 1969) but affinities with
Symbranchiformes are also possible (McAllister
1969). In either case the Mastacembeloids
can be considered part of the Gondwanaland
Element. Pillaia and Channa _ sps. co-exist
in this region, which shows that they still stay
in the same niche which their ancestors might
have shared. But Channids have diversified
their habitat. Channidae, distributed in Africa
and Southern Asia have some relationships with
Anabantids (Gosline 1971). In North-Eastern
India, Anabantids are available in similar
habitats though they have not reached the allti-
tudinal similarity with Pillaia indica (c 1000
metres).

Pillaia indica might have had a fairly good
distribution along with Channidae, Anabantidae
and Mastacembelidae before the Himalayas
arose out of the intense squeezing of the

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
SCHOOL OF LIFE SCIENCES,
NORTH-EASTERN HILL UNIVERSITY,
SHILLONG-793 014,

MEGHALAYA.

Tethyan geosyncline between Laurasia coming
from the North and Gondwana, comprising
the Indian peninsula, from the south. But
later it must have got confined to the present
place where its niche is being shared with the
Channids alone. Further, fishes of various
and ecological associations can only spread if
suitable environmental conditions become
available in intervening areas (Hora, op. cit.).

The present-day distribution of Pillaia indica
shows that it is reaching or has already reached
relictness, either phylogenetic or biogeographic.
Due to the lack of substantial record on its
phylogeny it is difficult to point about its
phylogenetic relictness. On the other hand,
from the time of its first description (Yazdani
1972) (the specimens were collected in the year
1967), it has not expanded its distributional
area and is confined to a small zone (10 km?).
This possibly reflects Pillaia indica being a
biogeographic relict.

A. PARDHASARADHI
J,.R. B. ALFRED

REFERENCES

BRUNDIN, L. (1966) ; Transantarctic relationships and
their significance, as evidenced by Chironomid midges.
Kungal. Sveaska Veten. Hnadl. 11: 1-72.

CracrArt, J. (1974) : Continental drift and vertebrate
distribution. Annu. Rev. Ecol. & System, pp. 215-261.

Gos.Line, W. A. (1971) : Functional morphology and
classification of Teleostean fishes. Univ. Hawaii Press
Honolulu.

Hora, S. L. (1955) : Tectonic history of India and its
bearing on fish geography. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc,
52 (4) : 692-701.

JAYARAM, K. C. (1977): Zoogeography of Indian
freshwater fishes. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 86B : 265-274.

Mant, M. S. (1974): Ecology and Biogeography in
India. Ed. W. Junk, Hague.

?

MCALLISTER, D. E. (1968) : Evolution and branchios-
tegals and the classification of Teleostean fishes. Nat.
Mus. Can. Bull. No. 222 : 1-239.

Menon, A. G. K. (1973): Origin of the freshwater
fish fauna of India. Curr. Sci. 42 (10): 553-556.

NELSon, G. J. (1969) : Gill arches and Phylogeny of
fishes, with notes on the classification of vertebrates.
Bull. Ann. Mus. Natur. Hist, 141 : 475-552.

Upvarpy, U. D. F. (1969) : Dynamic zoogeography
VNR Co., New York.

YAZDANI, G. M. (1972): A new genus and species
of fish from India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69: (1):
134-135.

—-—--—--—- (1976) : A new family of Mastacembeloid
fish from India, ibid., 73 : 166-170.

177

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

16. ON THE EXTENSION OF RANGE OF TWO FRESHWATER CATFISHES,
GLYPTOTHORAX CONIROSTRE (STEIND.) (SISORIDAE) AND
CLUPISOMA GARUA (HAM.) (SCHILBEIDAE), TO POONCH VALLEY
(JAMMU AND KASHMIR), INDIA

In the vast literature on the ichthyofauna of
India there is no comprehensive report on the
freshwater teleosts of Poonch Valley. As
elucidated elsewhere (Das & Nath 1971) the
ichthyofaunal interest of Poonch Valley lies
in the unique phenomenon of ‘East meets
West ’, for this is the only region of Jammu and
Kashmir State which exhibits a rare combi-
nation of the palaearctic species with fishes of
Indian origin.

Das & Nath (1965) were the first investigators
to report six species of teleosts from Poonch
Valley. Subsequently, Das & Nath (1971), and
Nath (1973) added eighteen unrecorded species
to their original list. Recently Sharma &
Sharma (1974) reported six more species from
Poonch Valley, thereby raising the number of
species of freshwater teleosts recorded from
this area to thirty. As a result of extensive
collections made by the present author during
the period 1976-1980, it has now been possible
to add some unrecorded species to the previous
lists.

Glyptothorax conirostre (Steind.) is a typical
torrential-stream sisorid which abounds in
Kangra and other hill-streams of Punjab (Khan
1934). Day (1878) gives as its habitat the
Himalayan streams of Simla and Kangra, while
Hora (1923) mentions Simla, the head-waters
of the Jumna River. The present report of the
occurrence of this sisorid in Poonch Valley
(in the Jhelum drainage system) is a new record
for Jammu and Kashmir, where it abounds in
Poonch River and its tributaries and shares its
niche with Glyptothorax kashmirensis Hora—

another typical torrential-stream sisorid which
is endemic to Kashmir Valley—and
Glyptosternum reticulatum McClelland which
occurs in Afghanistan as well as Kashmir
Valley and Ladakh and is of palaearctic origin
(Das & Nath 1971; Das 1965, 1966 ; Talwar
1978).

Clupisoma garua (Ham.), the freshwater
schilbeid cat-fish, is found throughout the
larger rivers of Sind, India, Burma and Assam
(Day 1878). Khan (1934) reported it from the
Punjab, where it is abundant in the River
Jhelum just below the Rasul Head and the
River Sutle} near Ferozepur and Ropar. It
has, however, not been reported from Jammu
(Tawi) and the Valley of Kashmir so far and
the present report of its occurrence in Poonch
Valley is a new record for the State of Jammu
and Kashmir. It is very common in the fast-
flowing Poonch River and Betarh Nallah of
Poonch Valley, with an altitude ranging between
1005 and 1065 metres above sea level and is
particularly abundant during the monsoon
season. C. garua (Ham.) is thus essentially a
catfish of low altitudes, which has not been able
to establish itself in Kashmir Valley in spite of
the fact that Poonch River and its tributaries
are a part of the Jhelum drainage system.

Recently Malhotra et al. (1980) extended
the known range of six species of freshwater
teleosts to Jammu area. The record of Labeo
calbasu (Ham.) by the said authors is not,
however, the first one, as the species was re-
ported from Jammu (Tawi) by Das & Nath
(1966) for the first time.

178

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

- [I am indebted to Dr. A. K. Datta of the
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for con-

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

ISLAMIA COLLEGE OF SCIENCE & COMMERCE,
SRINAGAR-190 O01,

KASHMIR (INDIA),

August 14, 1980.

firming the identification of the specimens under
report.

SURENDRA NATH

REFERENCES

Das, S. M. (1965); A revision of fish species inhabi-
ting Kashmir Province. Kashmir Sci., 2 (1-2): 13-19.

———— (1966); Palaearctic elements in the fauna
of Kashmir. Nature, 212 : 1-6.
———-— AND NATH, SURENDRA (1965): The ich-
thyofauna of Poonch Valley (J. & K. State). Kashmir
Sci. 2: (1-2) : 147-155.

———— (1966) : The ichthyofauna of Jammu Pro-
vince, J. & K. State, ibid., 3: (1-2) : 65-78.

———— (1971): A revision of fishes from Jammu
Province, India, ibid., 8 : (1-2): 1-22.

Day, F. (1878) : The Fishes of India. 2 Vols. Taylor &
Francis, London.

Hora, S. L. (1923): Notes of fishes in the Indian
Museum, V: On the composite genus Glyptosternon
McClelland. Rec. Ind. Mus., 25 (1): 1-44.

Kuan, H. M. (1934): Habits and habitats of food
fishes of Punjab. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 37 (3):
655-668.

MALHOTRA, Y. R. SHARMA, K., SHARMA, C. AND
GupTA, P. C. (1980) : Extension of the known range
of some fishes to Jammu (J & K. State), India. Proc.
67th Ind. Sci. Congress, UI : 202.

NATH, SURENDRA (1973): The ichthyofauna of
Jammu & Kashmir State (India), Part Il: On som:
new records of fresh-water teleosts from Poonch Valley.
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., India, Annual No. (1978): 118.

SHARMA, B. D. AND SHARMA, T. (1974): Six new
fish records for Poonch Valley in J & K State. Ind. J.
Anim. Res., 8 (10) : 45.

TALWaAR, P. K. (1978) : On the fishes collected by the
Ladakh Expedition, 1976. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.,
74 (3): 501-505.

17. OCCURRENCE OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF COCKROACHES AT
LUDHIANA (PUNJAB)

An attempt was made to know the different
species of cockroaches occurring in Ludhiana
region of the Punjab State. For this purpose
different species of cockroaches were collected
from the kitchens of residential houses, hostels
and hotels; private stores of foodgrains and food
commodities at Ludhiana. One species was
collected from the kitchen garden. The Zoo-
logical Survey of India, Calcutta identified the

different species of cockroaches. The six
species are described briefly.

Periplaneta americana (L.): Blattidae (The
American cockroach)

This is the largest of all the species noticed
in the region. The adults measure 30-40 mm
in length. Red to chocolate brown in colour.
The adult pronotum has a conspicuous yellow

79

JOURNAL, !BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

to buff coloured area surrounding the dark
coloured patch in the centre.

Neostylopyga rhombifolia (Stoll) : Blattidae (The
harlequin cockroach)

This is a medium sized cockroach. The
adults measure 20-25 mm in length. It is
shining blackish brown with patches of yellow
colour over its body. Yellow-coloured patches
are more concentrated on the thorax and sub-
marginal area of the abdomen. Wings are
vestigial in both the sexes. Males are smaller
than females.

Shelfordella tartara (Sauss.): Blattidae

This is a medium-sized cockroach with males
measuring 19-23 mm in length. The wings are
fully developed in males and extend beyond
the end of the abdomen. The outer margin
of the fore wings and the pronotum are trans-
lucent. The general body colour is lighter as
compared with other species. In females the
wings are greatly reduced and the fore wings
are triangular. During collections only a few
male insects of this species were found in com-
parison with large number of males and females
of other species. This shows that this species
is not so abundant in this region.

Blattella germanica (L.): Blattellidae (The

German cockroach)
This is a small-sized cockroach measuring
10-15 mm in length. The males are yellowish-

brown and the females are slightly darker. In
adults the wings cover the entire abdomen of
females and in males the abdominal tip remains
uncovered. The pronotum has two prominent
black longitudinal bands separated by a lighter
stripe in between.

Supella longipalpa (F.) :
brownbanded cockroach)

Blattellidae (The

This is a small-sized cockroach measuring
10-14 mm in length. The pronotum is uni-
formly dark with light coloured lateral areas.
The male adults have slender body with wings
extending beyond the tip of the abdomen. The
adult females have short wings with exposed
portion of broad abdomen. The wings of
females are comparatively darker than that of
males. There are two light-coloured trans-
verse stripes on the fore wings, one near the
base and the other over the abdomen.

Polyphaga indica Walk. : Polyphagidae

The males are winged measuring 27-30 mm
in length. The females are wingless, nymph-
like and measure 27-30 mm. The males look
smoky brown due to the presence of light
coloured wings while the females are uniformly
brownish-black except the anterior margin of
the pronotum. The pronotum has a light
coloured anterior margin in both the sexes.
The antennae are shorter than the body and
the cerci are very short.

The above listed species can be separated by the use of the following key :

coecuevrertrorer ce oer eee eee et hh Oe hh Oe eh el wh Ohm Oh he hh heh eh

2. Length more than 18 mm ; female subgenital plate divided longitudinally; male styli uniform, slender, elon-

Bate andestraights. cue pote cet cate camer ee ne ae

Length less than 18 mm; female subgenital plate entire ; male styli variable, often modified, assymetrical or

unequaleMM sige Ct. Sis) a a ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

SO Wines Ob Doth. Sexes Vestigial. ss vse Genesee

eee eee > ee ee er eee eo we eww dee oe ww

Wings of both the sexes well developed or females with pad-like wings........ ccc. cccccccceevscceees 4

4. Length 30-40 mm ; wings of both sexes well-developed ; pronotum with dark brown patch surrounded by

Vellowisntarecaene nd pai ae uel hee alae a a rs

eececeer se eee ee we weer eee ee ee ewe ee we

Periplaneta americana

Length 19-25 mm ; wings of male well-developed and of females pad-like ; pronotum without dark brown

patch surrounded by yellowish area...............0005

Ce 2

Shelfordella tartara

5. Pronotum with two conspicuous longitudinal dark bands...................... Blatella germanica
Pronotum without longitudinal dark bands but with broad, dark, central area........: Supella longipalpa

Singh and Sohi (1957) listed Shelfordella tartara (Suass.) and Periplaneta americana (L.) as pests
of household in the Punjab. However, in the present studies Neostylopyga rhombifolia (Stoll), Blattella
germunica (L.) and Supella longipalpa (F.) are new records for Punjab as household pests. Polyphaga indica
Walk. occurring outside the houses is also a new record for this region.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of Department of Entomology for providing the

India for the identification of the insects
and Dr. A. S. Sidhu, Professor and Head,

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY,
PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,
LuDHIANA-141 004,

December 1, 1978.

necessary facilities.

GURMEL S. SANDHU
A. S. SOHI

18. RECORD OF APANTELES OBLIQUAE WLKN. AND METEORUS SP.
(HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) AS PARASITES OF THE HAIRY
CATERPILLAR AMSACTA MOOREI BUTL. (LEPIDOPTERA: ARCTIIDAE)

The caterpillars of the moth Amsacta
moorei Butl. defoliating bean plant, Phaseolus
acontifolius Jack. in Mehrawal village in
Aligarh district were collected during June 1978
and reared in the laboratory. The observations
revealed that two braconid species namely,
Apanteles obliquae Wikn. and Meteorus sp. (pro-
bably undescribed) parasitise the caterpillars.

In India the caterpillars of Amsacta albistriga
and A. moorei have been reported to be para-
sitised by the braconids Apanteles creatonoit,
A. bosei and A. flavipes (David and Kumara-
swami 1978). Therefore, this appears to be

first record of A. obliquae and Meteorus sp.
on A. moorei.

Out of 560 caterpillars collected and obser-
ved, 169 were parasitised by these two parasites
showing a parasitisation of 30.8 per cent. The
parasitisation due to A. obliquae was 17.5
per cent and the rest by Meteorus sp.

Meterous sp. is a solitary endoparasite. It
forms brownish cocoon outside near the head.
The mature cream-coloured grub measures
4.2 to 5.1 mm long and 1.45 to 1.75 mm
wide. The cocoon measures 4.2 to 5.3 mm
long and 1,65 to 2,15 mm wide.

181

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

London for identification of the parasites.
Thanks are also due to Drs. M. Hayat, Shujaud-
din and Miss Shahnaz Anwar.

I thank Professor S. M. Alam, Head of the
Department of Zoology, A. M. U. Aligarh,
for providing the facilities, and the Director,
Commonwealth Institute of Entomology,

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY,
ALIGARH-202 001 (U.P.),

September 1, 1979.

JAVED IQBAL SIDDIQI

REFERENCE

Davip, B. V. AND KUMARASWAMI, T. (1978) : Elements
of Economic Entomology Popular Book Depot,
Madras-600 015, pp. 514.

19. NEW RECORD OF MELANAGROMYZA PROVECTA (DE MEIJERE)
(AGROMYZIDAE: DIPTERA) ON SAFFLOWER FROM PUNJAB, INDIA

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius Linn.) is one
of the important oil seed crops. The Cartha-
mine dye is extracted from its flowers and oil is
obtained from the seeds. Rai (1976)! listed

twenty-two insect pests of safflower from
India. This list includes Melanagromyza
obtusa (Malloch).

The wilting of safflower plants were noticed
during the winter 1978-79, at the Punjab
Agriculture University, Ludhiana, caused by the
feeding of agromyzid maggots on the tap root.
The pupae were collected from the roots of the
attacked plants and reared in the laboratory
in glass jars. The adults were identified as

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY,
PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,
LUDHIANA-141 004,

September 7, 1979.

Melanagromyza provecta (de Meijere). The
occurrence of this agromyzid on safflower in
India is a new record.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Director, Common-
wealth Institute of Entomology, London for
the identification. Thanks are also due to
Sh. S. S. Saini, Assistant Agronomist
(New Crops), Department of Agronomy for
co-operation and to the Professor and Head,
Department of Entomology, Punjab Agri-
cultural University, Ludhiana, for providing
facilities.

G. S. MAVI
A. S. SOHI

1 Rai, B. K. (1976) : Pests of oilseed crops in India and their control. I.C.A.R. Bull. pp. 88-97.

182

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

20.

NEW RECORDS OF TWO TACHINID PARASITES FROM

EUPROCTIS LUNATA WALKER

The castor hairy caterpillar, Euproctis lunata
Walker (Lepidoptera : Lymantriidae) is the most
serious pest of castor (Ricinus communis L.)
in India. The caterpillars are voracious feeders
on the leaf and leave behind only the veins.
While studying the biology of this insect at
Ludhiana in 1977 some larvae collected
from the field were found to be parasitized,
Rearing of such larvae led to the emergence of
two tachinid parasites. The specimens of
these parasites sent to Commonwealth Institute
of Entomology, London have been identified
as Carcelia corvinoides (Wulp.) and Exorista
larvarum (L.). Collective parasitization of the
larvae was 10-15% during July-August, there-
after no larvae was found to be parasitised,
However, both the species were again recorded

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY,
PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,
LUDHIANA,

September 11, 1979.

parasitizing the larvae in the same season
during 1978.

Two braconid parasites, Apanteles colemani
Viereck and A. euproctisiphagus Muzaffar para-
sitise the larvae of this insect in the field (Bhat-
nagar 1948, Pandey 1967). Record of Carcelia
corvinoides (Wulp.) and Exorista larvarum
(L.) on the larvae of Euproctis lunata Walker
is a first report from India.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Dr. A. S. Sidhu, Pro-
fessor-cum-Head, Department of Entomology,
for research facilities and Director, Common-
wealth Institute of Entomology, London for
identification.

GURDIP SINGH
G. S. GREWAL

REFERENCES

BHATNAGAR, S. P. (1948): Studies on Apanteles

PANDEY, S. N. (1967): New record of a braconid

Forester (Vipionidae ; Parasitic Hymenoptera) from parasite, Apanteles colemani Viereck from the larvae

India. Indian. J. Ent. 10 ; 133-203.

of Euproctis lunata Wik. Curr. Sci. 36 : 498.

21. TWO CASES OF ORB WEB CONSTRUCTION BY ARANEUS

(With nine text-figures)

Recently I was able to watch a small garden
spider making its orb-web. The spider was a
young ash coloured Araneus measuring about
4mm. The site of construction was between
the extremities of two wooden rafters (45 cm
apart) projecting from the outer wall of a
garden house. These rafter ends, about 2 m

above the ground level, were connected by
a longitudinal purlin that supported an
asbestos sheet above.

The spider, female, which concealed herself
all day long at one of the rafter ends turned
active by sunset (about 6 p.m.). By touching
at point (a) with the hind end of her abdomen

183

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

she stuck a thread there and extending and
trailing the thread she moved slowly in an in-
verted position along the purlin in the direction
of the other rafter end. In so doing she was
holding the thread so carefully with one of her
right hind-legs that the thread did not touch the
purlin at any point. Reaching the rafter end
she stuck the thread at point (6) and quickly ran
back to (a) along the line doubling and streng-
thening it at the same time (Figs. | & 2).
From (a) she made an ‘ about turn ’, proceeded
a few centimetres along ad and sticking with her
spinnerets at (c) dropped down by a thread to
about 60 cm (Fig. 3) and swayed to and fro
waving her forelegs as if to catch at something.
Through this oscillating process she touched
the wall at (7) and immediately fixed the thread
there and scurried back to (c) and back to (d)
once more strengthening (cd). From (d) she

moved carefully but quite fast towards (b) via
(c) with a loose thread trailing behind and held —
by one of her hind-legs. Reaching (5) she
pulled the loose thread taut thereby joining
(d) with (6b) (Fig. 4). From (6) the spider
descended halfway down along (6d) and sticking
the thread at (e) dangled by a thread and swayed
until it touched the wall at (f) where it fixed
the thread. This additional attachment was
probably to reinforce and keep the plane of the
web in an oblique position. After this opera-
tion she hurried to (5) and then upto middle of
(cb), i.e. (g) where she fixed a_ thread and
dropped down and swayed until it touched a
point (A) along (ed) (Fig. 5). Fixing the thread
at (h) she ran up along (Ag) up to (i) where she
stuck a new thread and holding it loose with
the hind-leg proceeded upto (g) and then for
about 4 cm, i.e., point (j) along (gb). At (/)

Fog 4

Fics. 1-4.

184

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fics. 5-8,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

the thread fixed at (7) was pulled tight and stuck.
The animal then ran down along (ji), started
another loose line from (/) and proceeding first
to (A) and then about 4 cm along (Ad) pulled
taut the line and fixed it at (kK). Thus with
(i) as the centre of hub or the orb four spokes
were completed viz. gi, ji, hi and ki. (Fig. 6).

By similar operations other radii or spokes
were made: a few spokes on the right alternating
with a few spokes on the left. The work of

laying the spokes—about 28 in all was com-
pleted by 7.20 p.m.

In about another 15 m the spider made a
rough spiral of 6 rounds from the centre.

She

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

then went up along (i) and made a round along
the boundary lines as though to test the strength.
Then from a point (s) along a spoke near the
upper part of the left boundary line (cd) she
started the fine, concentric spiral work marching
from spoke to spoke quite briskly, methodically
and with precision. She made nearly 20 rounds—
not at a continuous stretch, for I could see that
at times she retraced her steps along the already
made spirals probably to test the strength and

at times she took rest for a few seconds to
clean her spinnerets. On two occasions she
rushed to the periphery and returned to the
spire perhaps attracted by some small insects or
to inspect the line. I could also observe the
spider biting off the notches of the spokes in
the centre but could not make out when she
applied the viscous fluid to the spire and
twanged them nor when she dismantled the
rough spiral.

The web was completed by 8.20 p.m. i.e.,
in 2 hours 20 mts. The orb measured nearly 30
cm across and contained 28spokes and 20 spirals
enclosed in an almost inverted right angles
triangle the base of which between the rafter
ends and the apex facing down and fixed to
the wall (Figs. 7 & 8).

In another instance where the site of cons-
truction was between two amaranthus plants
in two jars J1 & J2 placed some 60 cm apart on
either side of a coleus plant. The spider was a
small Araneus about 3 mm. Remaining at
point (a) on plant in Jl, the spider by kite
method released a thread to the wind the end
of which got stuck at point (5) on plant in J2
(Fig.9,1). This line was a littleloose. Never-
theless the spider ran through it upto the middle
and owing to the weight of the animal the line
assumed a V shape. At the meeting point
(c) she glued a fresh thread and dropped by a
thread at point (d) over the Coleus and fixing
the line there and again at (e) moved over the
leaves in the direction of J2 trailing the thread

behind. Climbing upto (6) she pulled the line
taut making a boundary line (eb) on the right
(Fig. 9, 2). From (8) still trailing the thread
she ran to (a) via (c) and hauling the line tight
and fixing it at (a) an upper boundary line was
made. From (a) she dropped down by a
thread and swayed touching point (f) from
where she moved over the foliage and
connected (f) with (d). From (d) she moved
back a few centimetres along and at point
(g) stuck a line and holding it loose ascended
to (c) and pulling the line fixed it there making
a spoke (gc). Again she started a fresh line
from (c) and carried the thread to (6) and thence
moving a few cm towards (a) at point (h)
pulled taut the line and fixed it there making
spoke ch (Fig. 9, 3). More spokes were made
in the same fashion—about 20 in all (Fig 9,4).
The spiral was made in the same way as in case
No. | (Fig. 9, 5). The orb when completed
measured 3.5 cm across with 20 spokes and 30
spirals (all could not be shown in the figure).
The whole web was made in about one
hour.

Fig. 9 (5).

187

sf

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

From the above two cases it is revealed that
1. Depending upon the facilities available at the
site of construction, provided there are conti-
guous objects which can be spanned by exten-
ding the limbs (as the purlin between the rafter
ends in case No. 1) the spider prefers to lay
the foundation line only entirely by foot.
Only when the gap is long the kite method of
paying out thread to the wind is adopted.

2. Foundation line on the sides and below
are made by the dropping method or by trailing
and hauling the loose thread taut.

3. The first bridge line is converted into
2/168, NEw KALPATHY,
PALGHAT-768 003 (KERALA),
March 21, 1980.

spokes in Case No. 2 and the upper boundary
line made afterwards.

4. Spokes are generally made by trailing
loose thread and carrying it to the boundary
line and hauling it tight.

5. The number of spokes and spiral rounds
is not constant.

6. Construction proceeds from ‘ above’ to
‘below ’—the structure broader nearer the
upper foundation line gradually tapering
down.

Altogether it may be generally stated that an
orb-weaver modifies its mode of construction
to suit the different situations.

T. V. SUBRAMANYAM

22. A NOTE ON PRASHADUS PIROTANSIS (MENON AND DATTA
GUPTA) (ECHIURIDAE) FROM THE GULF OF CAMBAY, INDIA

Prashadus pirotansis (Menon and _ Datta
Gupta), subfamily Thalassematinae, family
Echiuridae, was first described by Menon and
Datta Gupta in 1962 (Type locality: Pirotan
Island in the Gulf of Kutch, India) under the
genus Ikedosoma. Datta Gupta and Menon (1970)
mentioned ‘ It should be proper at this stage to
place the species under a separate genus’.
Stephen and Edmonds (1972) erected a new
genus Prashadus to accommodate Ikedosoma
pirotensis and remarked that ‘the genus is
unique in the family Echiuridae on account of
the distal position of its nephrostome’. Till
today it enjoys the status of a monotypic genus.
It resembles closely to [kedosoma (Echiuridae)
on the one hand and /keda (Urechidae) on the
other.

The method of collection and habitat of this
species are described in detail as the original]
description regarding the same appears to be

insufficient. Presence of this animal on mud
flat can be detected by its long, extensile
proboscis. It is useless to remove this anima]
from its burrow by pulling on its proboscis
as the latter invariably tears off and the animal
remains hidden. It rests at a depth of
100-120 cm below the surface of the substratum.
The general method of collection of echiuran
described by Stephen and Edmonds (1972)
is “ by pushing a piece of rubber tubing down
the tube made by its proboscis’ and then by
carefully digging the substratum to expose the
animal. But to dislodge this animal by this
method is not possible as it lives in the mud with
gravel and sand above.

In the Gulf of Kutch the substratum (mid-
intertidal zone) which the animal inhabits
consists of superficial layer of soft mud about
30 to 40 cm deep, followed by hard mud about
30 to 35 cm and finally a mixed layer of hard

188

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

mud, sand and gravel. In some places the third
layer is absent and the second layer continues
upto a depth of 120 cm or so. But in some
places black humus soil is noticed in the super-
ficial layer just below the soft mud. One should
be careful about the soft mud wherever it occurs,
as it is about knee deep. Whenever a pit is
made in the soft muddy substratum water
oozes immediately into it and fills it up. So,
as long as the digging continues, water is to
removed frequently. But in Bhavnagar (Gulf
of Cambay) the condition is different. The
superficial layer of mud is hard and about
40 cm deep, then follows the sand, hard mud
and gravel. It requires three to four persons
to dig the animal out. The substratum (upper
intertidal zone) should be dug around the hole
(through which the proboscis projects out)
about 45 to 50 cm away from it, upto a depth
of 120 cm. While digging, care is to be taken
that the animal should not be disturbed in
any way. ‘Then the soil column is to be scraped
carefully from periphery of the hole, the wall
of which is cemented throughout by mucous.
The animal should be caught by the trunk (not
by the proboscis) and carefully taken out.

I had the opportunity of surveying the coasts
of Tamilnadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Gujarat and
some parts of the Andaman Islands and noted
the restriction of the species to the Gujarat
Coast.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
27, J. L. NEHRU ROAD,
CaALcuTTA-/00 016,

April 26, 1979.
REFE

Datta Gupta, A. K. AND MENON, P. K. B. (1970):
The Status of the species [kedosoma pirotansis Menon
and Datta Gupta and a possible rearrangement of the
genera under the families. In: Book of Abstracts—
International Symposium Biology of Sipuncula and
Echiura Kotor, Yugoslavia : 3-4.

The present findings show that in addition to
the localities (Pirotan Island, Byet Island, Deeda
Island and Sika-in the Gulf of Kutch) mentioned
by Menon and Datta Gupta (1962) it is also
available at Bedi, Rosy, Sarmat and Navlakhi
in the Gulf of Kutch and Bhavnagar in the
Gulf of Cambay. It is for the first time re-
corded from the Gulf of Cambay. It is worth-
while to mention that this species occurred in
abundance in Byet Island, Pirotan Island and
Bhavnagar during my first survey tour in this
area in 1968.

I visited Gujarat Coast after a gap of nine
years and noted that the population of this
species is much reduced. The question of
seasonal fluctuation does not arise as the echiura
lives in the burrows all the year around. The
only other reason is probably the damage to the
habitat. The areas are frequently visited by a
large number of college students for field trips
every year, as stated by several personnel of the
Fisheries Department, Government of Gujarat.
It is obvious that they make unsuccessful
attempts to collect these animals by pulling on
their proboscis and thereby damaging a good
number. If no preventive measures are taken
to restrict the visit of students to echiura in-
habiting grounds particularly Balapur area of
the Byet Island and the Pirotan Island, it will
in no time, meet the same fate as Balanoglossus
once faced at Krusadai Island.

BADRI PRASAD HALDAR

RENCES

MENON, P. K. B. AND DAtra Gupta, A. K. (1962) :
On a new species of Ikedosoma (Echiuridae). Ann.
Mag. nat. Hist. 13 (5) 53 : 305-309.

STEPHEN, A. C. AND EpMonps, S. J. (1972) : The
phyla Sipuncula and Echiura. British Museum (N.H.):
345-346 & 462-463.

189

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

23. ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF CROTALARIA TECTA HEYNE EX ROTH
(FABACEAE) IN MAHARASHTRA STATE

Roth (1821) erected the species Crotalaria
tecta based on a collection of Heyne in
Wallichian Herbarium no. 5897A (Type !)
from Peninsular India. Later De Candolle
(1825), Wight and Arnott (1834), Bentham
(1843), Baker (1876) and Gamble (1918) re-
corded the distribution of this species in
Peninsular India as follows: India Orient
(De Candolle 1825), Madura (Wight & Arnott
1834), East Indian Peninsula, Courtallum and
Madurai (Bentham 1943), Western Peninsula
in Concan, Nilghiris and Pulney Mts. (Baker
1876) and Western Ghats, at the foot of Pulney
hills, Nagarcoil in Travancore and plains of
Tinnevelly (Gamble 1918). Thus the species
is so far recorded only from the states of Kerala,
Tamilnadu and Karnataka.

While studying the specimens of Crotalaria
L. in the herbarium of the Industrial Section,
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta (BSIS),
I came across a specimen, Kalka Prasad 30107
collected from Andheri in the Thana (Bombay)
district of Maharashtra state. This specimen
has been identified as Crotalaria tecta Heyne
ex Roth and this is a new range of distribution
of the species in Maharashtra state.

The up-to-date nomenclature, a short descrip-
tion and the phenology of the plant is given
below.

Crotalaria tecta Heyne (Wall. Cat. no.
5397A. 1831-32. nom. nud.) ex Roth. Nov. Pl.
Sp. Ind. Or. 334.1821; DC. Prodr 2-126.
1825 ; Benth. in Hook. Lond. J..Bot. 2: 569,
1843 ; Baker in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 2: 76.
1876 ; Gamble Pl. Presid. Madras 1 : 294.1918.

C. viminea Grah. (Wall. Cat. no. 5397.1831-32.
nom. nud.) ex Wt. et Arn. Prod. 190.1834.

C. linifolia Linn. f. var.? Wall. Cat. 5400-B.
1831-32. nom. nud.

C. punctata var. Wall. Cat. no. 5401. 1831-32.
nom. nud.

Erect herbs, 30-50 cm high ; branches few,
pubescent or suffruticose. Leaves sub-sessile,
0.6-2.5 0.5-1.2 cm, ovate or oblong, glabrous
above, appressed pubescent beneath, emarginate
at apex, cuneate at base. Flowers yellow in
terminal appressed pubescent racemes. Pods
1-1.5 cm long, oblique, oblong, glabrous.

Flowers : August-October.

Fruits : September-November.

Specimen examined: KERALA: without
specific locality, M.A. Lawson 298 (CAL);
Makara, M. Rama Rao 1636 (CAL) ; Makarai,
C. C. Calder & M. S. Ramaswami 837 (CAL).
TAMILNADU : Thirunelveli, Courtallum, K. K. N.
Nair 1249 (CAL). KARNATAKA: Carnatic,
J. D. Hooker & T. Thomson, s.n. (CAL);
MAHARASHTRA : Thana, Andheri, Kalka Prasad
30107 (BSIS).

Distribution: India: Kerala,
Karnataka, Maharashtra.

Tamilnadu,

I collected this plant from Courtallum forests
(Tamilnadu) at an elevation of about 300
metres, where it grows along the sides of small
canals. The stem is fleshy and green and is with
light reddish longitudinal lines.

The species is closely allied to Crotalaria
linifolia Linn. f. in general appearance. How-
ever the oblique-oblong pods and emarginate
leaves in C. fecta distinguishes it from
C. linifolia in which the pods are oblique-
rounded or ovoid and the leaves are oc
blunt or rounded at apex.

190

_ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to the Curator, Industrial
Section, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta
and to the Deputy Director, Central National

INDUSTRIAL SECTION,
BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
CALcuTTA-/00 016,

January 4, 1980.

Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah
for all facilities.

K. K. N. NAIR

REFERENCES

Baker, G. J. (1876) : Family Leguminosae in J. D,
Hooker’s Flora of British India Vol. 2, London.

BENTHAM, G. (1843) : Enumeration of Leguminosae
indigenous to Southern Asia, etc. Hook. Lond. J.
Bot. 2 : 559-613.

CANDOLLE, A. P. DE (1825): Prodromus Systematis
Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis, etc. Vol. 2., Paris.

GAMBLE, J. S. (1918): Flora of the Presidency of
Madras. Vol. I .London.

24.

Symplocos kurgensis Clarke and Symplocos
hebantha Thw. ex Clarke were two endemic
species described in FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA
in 1882. The former is endemic to Coorg in
Karnataka State, India and the latter is endemic
to Ratnapura District of Sri Lanka (Ceylon).
These two species were not collected after the
type collections. S. hebantha Thw. ex Cl. was
collected in 1866-68 (CP 3981). |

The two species were lumped together and
named Symplocos kurgensis Clarke by H. P.
Nooteboom of Riksherbarium, Leiden in
his work in FLORA OF CEYLON (in press). The
species are not represented in the Herbarium
of the Southern Circle (MH). Specimens of
Symplocos collected from Chandanathode in
Cannanore Dt. of Kerala were identified by us
with the help of literature as Symplocos hebantha

Rotu, A. W. (1821): Novae Plantarum Species
Praesertim Indiae Orientalis collectione B. Heynii.
Halberstad.

WALLICH, N. (1828-49): A numerical list of dried
specimens of plants in East India company’s museum
ae ete London.

WIGHT, R. AND ARNOTT, G. A. W. (1834) : Prodromus
Florae Peninsulae Indiae Orientalis. London.

NOTES ON AN INTERESTING SPECIES OF SYMPLOCOS JACQ.

Thw. ex Clarke and sent to H.P. Nooteboom
who confirmed the identification. This is the
first collection of Symplocos kurgensis Clarke
( = §. hebantha Thw. ex Clarke) collected
away from the type locality after about 100
years. It is likely to occur in other areas south
of Coorg in the Peninsular India.

A full citation with a description and diagram
is given here.

Symplocos kurgensis Clarke, in FI.
India 3:

Brit.
576. 1882; Brand, Pflanzr. 6: 62.

1901; Brandis, Indian Trees: 441. 1907.
S. hohenackeri Clarke, in FI. Brit. India 3:
582. 1882; Brand, Pflanzr. 6: 90. 1901;

Brandis, Indian Trees : 439. 1906. S. hebantha
Thw. ex Clarke, in FI. Brit. India 3 : 586. 1882 ;
Trimen, Handb. FI. Ceylon 3: 109. 1895;
Brand, Pflanzr. 6: 62. 1901. S. macrophylla

191

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Wall. ex De. var. kurgensis (Clarke) Noot.,
Rev. Sympl. 229. 1975.

Small tree, twigs sericeous. Leaves oblong
to elliptic, 3-12.8 x 0.8-5 cm, acuminate,
margins minutely spinous denticulate, base
rounded or cuneate (on the same twig), young
leaves sparsely pubescent both sides, older
leaves glabrous except the midrib on the lower
surface ; nerves 7-11 pairs, arched. Petioles
0.9-2 cm long, sericeous. Inflorescence in
axillary spikes, 5-9.1 cm long, rachis densely
tawny tomentose. Bracts 3x1.5 mm,
deltoid, acute, densely tawny tomentose both
sides, caducous ; bracteoles small, caducous.
Flowers white, scented. Calyx 5 lobed;
tube glabrous, 1 mm long; lobes 5, ovate,
2-3 x 1-2 mm, valvate, spathulate, tomentose
without except the scarious margins. Corolla
5 lobed; lobes 5-6x3 mm, oblong, obtuse,

SOUTHERN CIRCLE,
BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
COIMBATORE 641 002,

January 4, 1980.

glabrous. Stamens 50-98, 3-5 mm _ long;
anthers basifixed, 2 lobed. Pistil 6 mm long,
style cylindric, base broad and hirsute ; stigma
capitate, disk 5 glandular. Fruits ovoid-
cylindrical, 13-20 x 6-8 mm, stone with shallow
lengthwise grooves, depressed at one side to-
wards the base (description of fruit adopted
from literature).

Specimens examined: INDIA: Kerala,
Chandanathode, 710 m, 5-12-1967, Ellis 29476.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank Dr. H. P. Nooteboom for
confirming our identification and for the
valuable information communicated through
his letter. We are thankful to Dr. N. C. Nair,
Dy. Director, for his help and encouragement.

G. V. SUBBA RAO
R. GOPALAN

25. HOST PARASITE RELATIONSHIPS IN DENDROPHTHOE FALCATA
(LINN.F.) BETTINGH (LORANTHUS LONGIFLORUS DESR.)

A wide spectrum of host plants known for
Dendrophthoe falcata (Linnf.) Ettingh
(Loranthaceae) seems to be quite unique in the
whole angiospermic parasites. This fact has
been substantiated by a large number of host
plants reported so far for this taxon (Fischer
1926, Sambandam 1966, Sampathkumar and
Kunchithapatham 1969, Sampathkumar 1970).
It has also been pointed out earlier that although
there existed no specificity in the selection of
host plants for D. falcata, the selection of host
plants was not entirely promiscuous since the
seeds of the parasite could not establish success-
fully in some monocots and also a few dicots
(Sampathkumar 1970) where they initially germi-

nated but failed to establish later. One of the
factors deciding the establishment of the
parasite was thought to be osmotic pressure
relationships between the host and the parasite
(Sampathkumar 1970) for which experimental
evidence presented in this paper lends support
to this view.

The osmotic pressure relationships of the
host as well as of the parasite in each case
revealed in unambiguous terms that the parasite
tends to have higher osmotic pressure than the
host in question. Determination of osmotic
pressure was made by plasmolytic method,
using different molar concentrations of sucrose
in which epidermal peelings of the leaves of

192

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

host and the parasite were immersed separately
for 30 minutes. By using the formula OP =
CRT (C= molar concentration; R= gas
constant = 0.082; and T = Absolute tempera-
ture — 273° + lab temperature) the osmotic
pressures of the host and the parasite were
determined. The osmotic pressure differences
between the host and the parasite were cal-
culated in terms of atmospheres. From the
data presented in Table 1, it is evident that
invariably in all the cases, there is higher

osmotic pressure in the parasite, as compared
with the host, the difference in the pressure
being very low (4.87 atm.) to very high (22.27
atm.), depending upon the host. Another
interesting conclusion emerging from the present
study is that there exists a narrow range in the
osmotic pressure of the parasites on different
host plants, with an average OP of 32.14 atmo-
spheres (range : 29.47 to 36.91 atm.). It is also
likely that this difference might well represent
cases of physiologically distinct strains.

TABLE 1

Name of the host

Annona squamosa Linn.
Ficus religiosa Linn.
Cordia rothii R. & S.
Citrus aurantium Linn.
Mangifera indica Linn.
Mimusops hexandra Roxb.
Psidium guajava Linn.
Oncoba spinosa Linn.
Crescentia cujete Linn.
Punica granatum Linn.

Osmotic pressure in atmospheres

in a rs re er er eS SS HS SH

Host Parasite Difference
15.38 30.80 15.42
18.56 32.08 13.52
8.38 30.65 2227
21.76 34.61 12.85
18.54 38:32 14.78
15.35 30.75 15.40
12.34 33.32 20.98
16.90 36.91 20.01
19.81 29°52 9.71
24.60 29.47 4.87

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,
Govt. ARTS COLLEGE,
KARUR-639 005.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY,
ANNAMALAINAGAR-608 101,

November 29, 1979.

C. NARAYANASAMY

R. SAMPATHKUMAR

REFERENCES

Fiscuer, C. E. C. ( 1926): Loranthaceae of Southern
India and their host plants. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 11
(1) : 159-195.

SAMBANDAM, C. N. (1966) : Some new combinations
of Loranthus longiflorus Desr. and host species. Anna-
malai Univ. Agric. Mag. 6 : 63-64.

SAMPATHKUMAR, R. AND KUNCHITHAPATHAM, J.
(1969) : Observations on the host range in Loranthus
longiflorus Desr. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3) : 804-
805.

—-—-——_—_—-—-(1970) : Further studies on the
host range in Loranthus longiflorus Desr. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 67 (2): 360-361.

193

13

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

26. ecole OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLOWERING AND FRUITING OF
BALANITES ROXBURGHII Pi.

(With a plate)

INTRODUCTION

Balanites roxburghii P1., family Simarubaceae
is a very drought hardy tree growing wild in
West Rajasthan and in other dry parts of the
country. The roots and fruits of this plant
have been analysed by a number of workers for
diosgenin, a valuable steroidal drug precursor.
At Central Research Farm, Jodhpur, 3.65%
of diosgenin from the fruits has been obtained
which is the highest so far reported. The seed
kernels also yield 44% non-edible oil.

For the economic feasibility for exploitation,
the knowledge of flowering and fruiting of this
plant is of a great significance. Conflicting
Observations have been reported by various
authors regarding the flowering season of
this plant (Table 1). In a related species

B. aegyptiaca Del. from Syria, Post (1932)
reported flowering during May-July.

Field observations at Jodhpur and other
places have revealed that B. roxburghii Pl.
flowers twice a year, but the fruits reach
maturity only once (Figs. 1, 2). Flower buds

appear in the axils of the bifoliate leaves or on

the thorns during the end of March and
October. Flowers are pollinated by flies which
are attracted by a secretion from the glandular
margined, prominent disc. They deposit the
eggs inside some of the ovaries and as the fruits
mature, the larvae also develop inside the seeds.
In such infected fruits, the kernel is completely
consumed by the developing larva. The green
larva finally emerges out by drilling a hole
through the stony endocarp of the ripe fruit.

TABLE i

FLOWERING AND FRUITING SEASON AT DIFFERENT LOCATIONS OF INDIA

Bihar, Orissa

Punjab

West Rajasthan

Location Flowers
‘Bombay March-May
Rajasthan October
Upper Ganges April-May

November and

February-May

AprileMay

October

Fruits Authors

ait Cooke, 1903

E. Biatter and
F. Hallberg, 1918

J. F. Duthie, 1960

November H. H. Haines, 1961 .

December
Cold Season R. N. Parker, 1973

October M. M. Bhandari, 1978 ~

194

(6161 ISQUSAON) Sauunjog JO syindj ame *7 “DIA (6L61 [dV) samuvjog ul SulIOMO].y pue joS NI “T “DIF

sajuvjog : fe1jewy
ALVId 8L ‘90S “LSIH “LYN Avawog ‘f

nen ARE

i

_ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Nearly 30 per cent of the fruits have been
observed to be _ infected.

TABLE 2

OBSERVATIONS ON GROWTH, FLOWERING AND FRUITING
OF Balanites

<=

Height (m) Basal Stem Observations
Girth* (cm) —---——---—---—_——-—
Flowering Fruiting
0.9 1S Less
1.0 -10.0 Less ne
1.8 9.5 Good 2
233 13.8 Profuse :
2D 20.0 Less
2:5 20.0 Ha Less
2.8 2755 - Less
3.0 1233.50 a Good
4.5 40.0 ms Good
5.5 45.0 3 Profuse
6.0 48.0 Ss Profuse

(* Girth of stem measured 10 cm above ground)

The fruits mature during November-
December, while there is another flush of

DIVISION OF PLANT STUDIES,
CENTRAL ARID ZONE RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
JODHPUR-342 003,

January 10, 1980.

less profuse flowering during October-
November. These flowers are either completely
shed or in few cases, in certain localities, develop
into small shrunken fruits which prematurely
fall off. Some plants never flower at all during
November.

The information on the age of flowering and
fruiting in Balanites is inadequate. It is, how-
ever, generally believed that the tree starts
flowering at the age of five years. The youngest
tree which was observed to flower was 90 cm
high with a basal stem girth of 7.5 cm. But,
fruit setting was observed to start at an older
age and the minimum height of the tree with
fruits was about 250 cm with a basal stem girth
of 20 cm (Table 2). Flower production and
fruit setting was found to increase with age of
the tree. Trees with more than 40 cm girth
were observed to fruit profusely.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank Dr. O. P. Pareek, Head of Division
of Plant Studies for encouragement and useful
suggestions.

V. ALPHONSE AMALRAJ

REFERENCES

BHANDARI, M. M. (1978): Flora of the Indian
desert, Jodhpur.

BLATTER, E. AND HALLBERG, F. (1918): Flora of
the Indian desert. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 232.

Cooke, T. (1903) : The Flora of the Presidency of
Bombay (Vol. I). London.

‘Dutuie : J. F. (1960) : Flora of the Upper Gangetic

Plains (Vol. I), Calcutta.

Haines, H. H. (1961): Botany of Bihar and Orissa
(Vol. 1), Calcutta. ,

ParKER, R. N. (1973) : A forest flora for the Punjab
with Hazara and Delhi, Dehra Dun.

Post, G. E. (1932) ; Flora of Syria. Palestine and
Sinai (Vol. I), Beirut.

27. PRIMULA MALACOIDES FRANCH.—NATURALISED IN
GARHWAL HIMALAYA

-Primulas are well known for their attractive
flowers and have always fascinated Horti-
culturists, As a result, many of the beautiful
species known from wild sources are now

coveted ornamentals in green houses. Quite
a number of such species are often naturalised
after escape and flourish in wild habitats.
Primula malacoides Franch, is one such species

195

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

which has now established itself in Garhwal
Himalaya. This species was collected near the
water pump house at Lansdowne in Dist-
Garhwal growing in moist shady place
(J. N. Vohra 10679).

In India P. malacoides is known as a garden
plant and there are collections from Darjeeling
Botanic Garden at DD Herbarium. It’s
running wild in the N.W. Himalaya hill station
has not been reported so far. A short descrip-
tion of the species is given below for locating
this handsome Primula in other hill stations also.

Primula malacoides Franch. in Bull. Soc.
Bot. France 33: 64.1886. Slender herb
20-30 cm high. Leaves cordate, broadly lobed;

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
NORTHERN CIRCLE,
DEHRA DwuNn,

December 4, 1979.

lobes incise-dentate, petiole exceeding the leaf-
blade. Flowers in many flowered, 2-6 super-
imposed umbels. Calyx white farinose, accres-
cent in fruit. Corolla bluish ; limb obcordately
lobed, upto 1.3 cm across. Capsule globose,
included.

The specimen is deposited in the BSD
herbarium under the above collection number.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Dr. U. C. Bhattacharyya,
Deputy Director, Northern Circle, Botanical
Survey of India, Dehra Dun for the encourage-
ment and for going through the manuscript.

B. P. UNIYAL
SURENDRA SINGH

28. NOTE ON AMBEMOHOR PAT (PANDANUS AMARYLLIFOLIUS ROXB.)
FROM WESTERN INDIA

(With a photograph)

Along the coastal districts of Western India,
pieces of grass like leaves are often used in
cooking to give pleasant flavour to rice:
According to local inhabitants, such method of
cooking rice has been practised from ancient
times. The flavour is very similar to that of
the choice variety of Ambemohor rice popular
in hilly tracts of Maharashtra and hence the
local name of the plant is ambemohor-pat. It
is also known in Ratnagiri and neighbouring
districts of Maharashtra as annapurna-pat, a
name, obviously given after the goddess of food
Annapurna.

Lot of ambiguity exists about the correct
identity of the plant. The plant multiplies by
producing suckers and does not flower in spite
of various types of environmental conditions
provided. Nobody has witnessed or recorded
flowering of this particular plant, Fusiform

stilt roots at the base and pleat nature of leaves
certainly show its affinity with Pandanus.
William Roxburgh named this particular
plant as Pandanus amaryllifolius and published
a short description in the flora ‘ Hortus
Bengalensis ’ in 1814. He has also mentioned
that the plant was introduced from Amboyna
(now Indonesia) into the Botanical Garden of
Calcutta in the year 1798. Roxburgh was quite
confident about the likeness of the relevant
plant with the genus Pandanus which shows
fusiform roots arising from stem and larger
branches, descending towards ground. He
did not, however, give any information about
the flowering of the plant and its scented leaves
used for giving fragrance to cooked food.
Later on a number of botanists working on the
flora of South-east Asia like Voigt (1828),
Hasskel (1842, 1844), Rumphious (1844), Merrill

196

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(1917) and Ridley (1925) recognised the above
plant by various botanical names.

Uncertainty in confirmation of the plant is
mostly due to the unavailability of flowers and
occurrence of two distinct ecotypes. Although
the plant remains dwarf because of constant
pruning, it grows into a shrub, 2.5-3 m in height
if allowed to grow as a wild plant under a typical
tropical environs. There is a report (Stone 1979)
that the plant did flower in Botanic Gardens,
Singapore in 1974. Unfortunately it was
overlooked and by the time its importance was
realised the inflorescence had dried out. Only
the staminate flowers could then be collected
and preserved. Since then pistillate flowers
have not been observed or reported till this date.
Ambemohor-pat is known by various names in
South-Asian countries (Stone 1979) and
*Pundan wangi’ is the most popular name in
Malaysia.

Stone (1976) noted that Pandanus with musk-
odoured leaves occasionally seen planted in
the kitchen gardens in Hassan district of
Karnataka State, South India was dwarf
cultivar of Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. In
1979, he further elaborated his findings by
studying critically morphological diagnostic
characters of this species. Electron microscope
observations of leaf surface and other relevant
literature available from European and Asian
Herbaria finally confirmed the identity of the
plant as Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb., which
had till then dubious recognition from the time
of its naming.

Ambemohor-pat popular in Konkan area is
a dwarf cultivar, reaching a maximum height
of about 100 cm, if proper support is provided
in the absence of which it becomes prostrate or
procumbent. Constant pruning of the leaves
forces the stem to grow erect, bearing tuft of
leaves and short branches at the top (See the
photograph). Even under this condition, side
short branches give stilt roots. If such cultivars

Photo : Ambemohor-Pat (Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb.)

are planted in moist soil they grow vigorously
into new plants. Leaves are 60-80 cm long,
4-8 cm broad, linear, lanceolate, dark green
above, pale beneath, pleat along the two lateral
ribs ; apex acute ; margins minutely prickled.
Occurrence of female or male inflorescence
has not been recorded or seen.

Fresh leaves are slightly scented but the
fragrance becomes stronger when the leaves
are crushed or boiled with food.

Reference specimens: RATNAGIRI—Thorla
Sada, H-MACS 20860 ; POONA—cultivated
H-MACS 21540.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Dr. B. C. Stone, Curator,
Department of Botany, University of Malaya,

197

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia for confirming the
species and supplying relevant information. I
am also thankful to Dr. S. H. Godbole for going
through the manuscript and suggesting valuable

BOTANY DEPT.,

MAHARASHTRA ASSOCIATION FOR THE
CULTIVATION OF SCIENCE,

Pune-411 004,

January 14, 1980.

RoxBURGH, W. (1814): Hortus Bengalensis 71,
Serampore.

——— (1832): Flora Indica 3:
Wallich edition) Serampore.

STONE, B. C. (1976) : Pandanaceae in the Flora of

743 (Carey &

improvements and to Dr. G. B. Deodikar,

Director, M.A.C.S. Pune and Dr. T. S.
Mahabale for encouragement.
V. D. VARTAK

REFERENCES

Hassan District, Karnataka, India, Amerind Publ.
New Delhi.

STONE, B.C. (1979) : Studies in Malesian Pandanaceae

XVII. On the taxonomy of ‘Pandan Wangi’— A
Pandanus Cultivar with scented leaves.
Botany 32 (3) : 285-293.

Economical

29. VITTARIA LINEARIFOLIA CHING—A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA
(With five text-figures)

In the course of studies on ferns of the genus
Vittaria J. Sm. in India, I came across a peculiar
specimen, collected from Arunachal Pradesh,
characterised by its long linear, flexuose leaves,
strongly incurved margins and midrib broader
than the soral line. With the help of literature
(Ching 1931)!, the specimen was identified as
V. linearifolia Ching and the identification was
confirmed at Kew by Dr. G. Panigrahi.

V. linearifolia Ching is earlier reported from
Tibet, Yunnan, and Burma, therefore, its occur-
rence in Arunachal Pradesh is a new record for
the Indian region.

The species is described in detail with illustra-
tions to facilitate its easy identification.

1 Ching, R. C. (1931): The studies of Chinese ferns
VI. Genus Vittaria of China and Sikkim—Himalaya.
Sinensia 1 (12) : 175-199.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
ALLAHABAD, U.P.,

November 26, 1979.

Vittaria linearifolia Ching, Sinensia 1 (12) :

183, t. 1, figs. 1-3, 1931.

Plants epiphytic on moss covered tree trunks
and branches. Rhizome creeping, clothed with
many clathrate scales, ovate-lanceolate, 1-1.5 x
0.4-0.6 mm and margins dentate, Fronds tufted,
stipes short, 3-5 mm long, leaves linear-
lanceolate, 30-35 cm x 2-3 mm; flexuose, texture
rigidly coriaceous but fragile on drying, margins
strongly involute, midrib flattened and broader
than the soral line, upper surface plane, lower
surface longitudinally bisulcate. Sori intra-
marginal, completely filling up the space bet-
ween midrib and margins ; paraphyses capitate,
spores monolete, 30-65 «m, verrucoid (Figs. 1-5).

Specimen examined: Arunachal Pradesh :
Kameng district: Bomdila, R. S. Rao 7336
(ASSAM).

R. D. DIXIT

198

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fics. 1-5. Vittaria linearifolia Ching.
1. Habit Rao 7336 (Assam); 2. Scale; 3. Part of leaf enlarged ;
4. Paraphysis; 5. Spore.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

30. SOME NEW HOSTS FOR DENDROPHTHOE FALCATA (LINN.F.)
ETTINGH (LORANTHUS LONGIFLORUS DESR.)

One of the characteristic features of Dendro-
phthoe falcata (Linn.f.) Ettingh is its non-
specificity in the selection of host plants (Fischer
1926, Sambandam 1966, Sampathkumar and
Kunchithapatham 1969, Sampathkumar 1970).
Although the selection of host plants is entirely
at random, experimental evidence indicates
that this parasite has its own spectrum of hosts
controlled by some factors one of which seems
to be osmotic pressure relationships between the
host and the parasite. Evidence in support of
this concept has been gained recently by the
study of osmotic pressures of the different
hosts as compared with the parasite. Interest-
ingly, despite the large number of host plants
recorded so far for this parasite, the monocots
have been excluded completely and there is
but a single report (Fischer 1926) of a gymno-
sperm host (i.e. Pinus longifolia Roxb.). In an
earlier communication (Sampathkumar 1970)
it was pointed out that the seeds of D. falcata
germinate initially forming a massive haus-
torium in all the ‘host’ plants, but the fate
was decided only when the haustorium pene-
trated the host tissue.

In the present paper, sixteen new hosts species
have been listed from this locality, as given
below :

1. Atalantia monophylla (Roxb.) DC.—

Rutaceae

2. Swietenia macrophylla King.—
Meliaceae

3. Sesbania grandiflora Pers.—
Papilionaceae

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY,
ANNAMALAINAGAR-608 101,

January 12, 1980.

4. Crotalaria striata DC.—

Papilionaceae
5. Cassia marginata Roxb.—
Caesalpiniaceae
6. Rhizophora candelaria DC.—
Rhizophoraceae
7. R. mucronata Lamk.—
Rhizophoraceae
8. Acacia cunninghamii Hook.—
Mimosaceae |
9. Chomelia asiatica O. Kze.—
Rubiaceae
10. Mimusops roxburghiana Wt.—
Sapotaceae
11. £rvatamia coronaria Stapf—
Apocynaceae
12. Nerium indicum Mill—
Apocynaceae
13. Argyreia bella (C. B. Clarke) Raizada—
Convolvulaceae
14. Excoecaria agallocha Linn.—
Euphorbiaceae
15. Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Bl.—
Euphorbiaceae
16. Jatropha gossypifolia Linn.—
Euphorbiaceae

While fifteen of the new hosts observed here
belong to the ten families of dicots reported
earlier, one new family (i.e. Convolvulaceae)
has been added to the existing number of host
families. Experimental observations are still
well under way and it is hoped that some more
new host species are likely to appear in future.

R. SAMPATHKUMAR
R. SELVARAJ

REFERENCES

FIscHER, C. E. C. (1926) : Loranthaceae of Southern
India and their host plants. Rec. Bot. Surv. India 11:
155-195.

SAMBANDAM, C. N. (1966): Some new combina-
tions of Loranthus longiflorus Desr. and host species.
Annamalai Univ. Agric. Mag. 6: 63-64.

SAMPATHKUMAR, R. AND KUNCHITHAPATHAM, J.
(1969): Observations on the host range in Loranthus
longiflorus Desr. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 65:
804-805.

——————_—— (1970): Further studies on the
host range in Loranthus longiflorus Desr. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 67 : 360-361.

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VOLUME 78 NO. 2 : AUGUST 1981
Date of Publication : 28-8-1981

CONTENTS
PAGE
NOTES ON THE BREEDING OF INDIAN Cuckoos. By J. H. Becking. (With I coloured and
9 black-and-white plates and a text-figure) 201
BOMBAY NATURAL History SocIETY—THE FOUNDERS, THE BUILDERS AND THE
GUARDIANS—Partr 2. By Salim Ali. (With three plates) 232

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF THE RHESUS AND THE BONNET MONKEYS IN WEST
CENTRAL INDIA. By Naoki Koyama and P. B. Shekar. (With four text-figures) 240
TAXONOMIC NOTES OF THE GENUS Portulaca LINN. IN INDiA. By V. V. Sivarajan 256
A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION CF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SociETrY—23. By Humayun Abdulali ve 261
OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR OF Ceratcsolen fusciceps MAyR (AGAONIDAE: HYMENO-
PTERA) AND THE MECHANISM OF POLLINATION IN Ficus racemosa L. By Mathew
Joseph and U. C. Abdurahiman. (With four text-figures) 287
VASCULAR PLANTS OF VEDANTHANGAL WATER BIRDS SANCTUARY AND SURROUNDING
REGIONS IN CHINGLEPUT District, TAMIL NaApu. By A. N. Henry and M. S.
Swaminathan 292
AIDS TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF ARTIODACTYLAN HAIRS WITH GENERAL COMMENTS
ON HAIR STRUCTURE. By B. R. Koppiker and J. H. Sabnis. (With six text-
igures) 299
Spud OBSERVATIONS ON NESTING HABITS AND BIOLOGY OF Varanus salvator GeauRenan)
OF BHITARKANIKA SANCTUARY, ORISSA. By S. Biswas and S. Kar. (With a plate

and two text-figures) 303
A SURVEY OF THE CEYLON FROGMOUTH (Batrachostomus moniliger) MWHABITAT IN

THE WESTERN GHATS OF INDIA. By R. Sugathan 309
FURTHER REPORT ON THE TAXONOMY OF FOULING BRYOZOANS OF BOMBAY PRAHOUR

AND VICINITY. By S. R. Madhavan Pillai. (With nine text-figures) 317,
SPECIES OF Chionanthus Sw. (= Linociera Sw.) (OLEACEAE) IN THE fee BUR

REGION. By K. K. N. Nair and K. P. Janardhanan es 330
MADHYA PRADESH FORESTS REVISITED, By C. E. Hewetson. (With a plate) a 333

New DESCRIPTIONS:
On some New Species of Tetrastichus Haliday (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae). By M.

Younus Khan and S. Adam Shafee. (With three text-figures) 337
Two New Species of Tetrastichinae Foerster (Hymencptera: Eulophidae) for
India. By M. Younus Khan and S. Adam Shafee. (With two text-figures) ioe 344

New Species of the genus Chrysonotomyia Ashmead (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)
from India. By M. Younus Khan and S. Adam Shafee. (With sixteen text-

figures) 348
Zenkeria jainii—A New Species of Poacea from Kerala. By N. C. Nair, P. V. Shree:

kumar and V. J. Nair. (With nine text-figures) 352
A New Species of Syzygium Gaertn. (Myrtaceae) from south India. By M. Chandra

bose and V. Chandrasekaran. (With eight text-figures) nf 354
REVIEWS:
1. The Birds of the Gambia. (Humayun Abdulali) 357
2. Birds of East Africa their habitat, status and distribution. (Humayun Ae dnlaties 358
3. Coloured illustrations of the Butterflies of Japan. (R. K. Varshney) ae 359

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

MAMMALS: 1. New records of Tomb Bat (Chiroptera: Emballonuridae) from Bihar
with some ecological remarks. By Y. P. Sinha (p. 362); 2. Observation of Homosexual
behaviour in Asiatic Lion Panthera leo persica. By Sanat A. Chavan (p. 363); 3. On the
longevity of the Cat-Bear or Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens) in captivity. By Mir Gowhar
Ali Khan and M. Kamal Naidu (p. 364); 4. Studies on Bandicota bengalensis bengalensis
Gray in Kerala. (With four text-figures). By C. M. George, P. J. Joy and C. C. Abraham

(p. 365); 5. Burrowing behaviour of Rattus meltada pallidior. (With a text-figure). By B.
D. Rana and B. K. Soni (p. 370); 6. Notes on weight and size at birth of eight species
of Indian Wild Ungulates in captivity. By L. N. Acharjyo and Ch. G. Mishra (p. 373).

Birps: 7. Ecology and behaviour of Great Indian Bustard (Family Otididae). By B. S.
Kulkarni (p. 375); 8. Occurrence of the Sooty Tern (Sterna fuscata) in Bombay—An authen-
tic record. By V. C. Ambedkar (p. 377); 9. Extension of range of Brown Wood Owl,
Strix leptogrammica. By S. Dillon Ripley (p. 378); 10. A note on the feeding habits of
Swifts (Apodidae:. Apodiformes). By S. Thirumurthi and D. Krishna Doss (p. 378);
11. Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus feeding a fledgling Cuckoo (Cuculus sp.). By Shaeque
Ahmed Yahya (p. 379); 12. Large Racket-tailed Drongo and Common Babbler. By Asad
Rafi Rahmani (p. 380); 13. On the validity of Irena puella sikkimensis Whistler & Kinnear
and I. p. andamanica Abdulali. By Humayun Abdulali and Nosherwan Sethna (p. 381);
14. On the first record of occurrence of three Passerine Birds from Andhra Pradesh. By N.
Majumdar (p. 382); 15. Extension of range of the Indian Maroonbreasted Sunbird, Necta-
rinia lotenia hindustanica (Whistler) [Aves, Nectariniidae], and the Northern Jungle Myna,
Acridotheres fuscus fuscus (Wagler) [Aves, Sturnidae]. By N. Majumdar (p. 383);
i6. Preiiminary studies on the Graminivorous Munias (Lonchura spp.) of Bangalore. By
Abraham Verghese and A. K. Chakravarthy (p. 384); 17. Siskin (Carduelis spinus) in
Solang Nalla, Himachal Pradesh. By A. J. Gaston and S. Chattopadhyaya (p. 386).

AMPHIBIA: 18. Juvenile Bull Frogs (Rana tigerina) feeding on flies on resting Buffaloes.
By N. J. George (p. 387).

REPTILES: 19. Egg-laying and Nest-guarding behaviour of Estuarine Crocodile (Croco-
dylus porosus, Schneider) in Captivity. By L. N. Acharjyyo and Ch. G. Mishra (p. 387);
20. Maternal behaviour in the Gharial [Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin)]. (With a text-figure).
By D. Basu and H. R. Bustard (p. 390).

FisHes: 21. Growth records of Grass Carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella Val. from Rankala
Tank, Kolhapur. By Jay S. Samant (p. 392); 22. Bamboo bridge fishing with lift net.
(With a text-figure). By Tej Kumar Shrestha (p. 395).

CRUSTACEAE: 23. Occurrence of a species of Palinnotus (Amphipoda) on Port Blair
Shore (Andaman Islands). (With fifteen text-figures). By A. L. N. Sarma and D. G. Rao
(p. 397).

ANNELIDA: 24. Anachoresis of Earthworms (With a plate & a text-figure). By Radha
D. Kale, Kubra Bano and R. V. Krishnamoorthy (p. 400).

INSEcrs: 25. Some entomological notes from a visit to the Valley of Flowers. By Naresh
Chaturvedi (p. 402); 26. First record and a new host record of Trichogramma chilotraeae
Nagaraja and Nagarkatti from the Punjab. By Maninder and G. C. Varma (p. 407);
27. The Carpenter Bee (Xylocopa fenestra) in the Indian Thar Desert. By Indra Kumar
Sharma (p. 408); 28. Catopsilia crocale/pomona. By D. G. Sevastopulo (p. 409); 29. Role
of parasites and pathogens in the natural control of Safflower Caterpillar, Perigea capensis
Guen. By K. C. Paliwal and S. S. Jakhmola (p. 410); 30. Incidence of Jowar Army Worm,
Mythimna separata (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on maize cobs. By R. Govindan,
J. S. Awaknavar, C. Thippeswamy and M. C. Devaiah (p. 412); 31. New record of
Pygaera restitura Walker (Notodontidae: Lepidoptera) on poplar. By G. S. Mann.

BorANy: 32. Eupatorium capillifolium (Dog-Fennel) naturalising in India. (With a text-
figure). By K. M. Vaid and H. B. Naithani (p. 413); 33. Additions to the Flora of Bihar
and Orissa-III. By M. Brahmam and H. O. Saxena (p. 415); 34. A’ short note on the
occurrence of Lasia heterophylla Schott in Maharashtra. (With two text-figures). By S. K.
Malhotra and K. Madhusudan Rao. (p. 417); 35. Notes on some plants records for Bengal.
By J. K. Sikdar (p. 419); 36. Cultivation of endangered plants in South India. (With
a plate). By A. V. N. Rao, A. K. Banerjee and A. Subramaniam (p. 421); 37. Melochia
nodiflora Swartz (Sterculiaceae)—A New record for India. By P. V. Sreekumar and N. C.
Nair (p. 424); 38. A reassessment of the taxonomic position and status of Aglaia bourdil-
lonii Gamble (Meliaceae) with notes on the nomenclature of related taxa. By K. K. N.
Nair (p. 425); 39. Two new combinations of the genus Asemanthia (Stapf) Ridley (Rubia-
ceae). By A. K. Sinha and B. Mitra (p. 427).

PLATE 1

Nestlings and fledglings of three Indian cuckoo species.

Top: Nestling of the Himalayan Cuckoo Cuculus saturatus from the nest of the Moun-
tain Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus trivirgatus. Curug Cimahi, SW-slope of Mt. Pangrango, at
1700 m. W. Java, Indonesia. leg; Dr. M. Bartels Jr., 30 April 1942, RMNH reg. no. 80712.

Middle: Nestling (to the left) and fledgling (to the right) of the Bay Banded Cuckoo
Cacomantis sonneratii fostered by the Common lora Aegithina tiphia, Bogor, W. Java, 450 m,

collected on 18 February 1945 (nestling) and 16 July 1941 (fledgling) by J. H. Becking.
Fledgling specimen in RMNH reg. no. 24181,

Bottom: Nestling of the Drongo Cuckoo Surniculus lugubris from the nest of Horsfield’s
Babbler Trichastoma sepiaria, Botanic Gardens, Bogor, W. Java, 450 m, collected on 21
April 1945 by J. H. Becking. Specimen in RMNH reg. no. 24184.

[Colour painting by P. Barruel (France), except nestling of Cacomantis sonneratii
which was painted from a live chick by Gusti Abdul Kadir (Bogor, Indonesia) ].

x 0.7,

JOURNAL
| | OF TE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOC eT Y¥

1981 AUGUST

Vol. 78

No. 2

NOTES ON THE BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS'

Ue H. BECKING?

(With 1 coloured and 9 black-and-white plates and a text-figure )

INTRODUCTION

In spite of all that has been published by
Baker (1906-07, 1907-08, 1934, 1942). and
others, unequivocal data on the breeding of
Indian parasitic cuckoos are, by and large,
lacking. Much of what exists is of a dubious
nature, and some eggs ascribed to this or that
species appear to be wrongly identified or even
not cuckoo eggs at all.

For this reason a thorough-going investiga-
tion of Indian cuckoo eggs de novo is an urgent
need. A first attempt to this is made in the
following pages. Objective criteria for the
identification of cuckoo eggs are presented,
and some corrections of earlier information
are given. The present data were collated with
a view to their incorporation in the new edi-
tion of the HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA
AND PAKISTAN, vol. 3, by Salim Ali and S. D.
Ripley (1969). For this reason the various

1 Accepted May 1980.

2 Institute for Atomic Sciences in Agriculture,
Wageningen, The Netherlands.

hereafter referred to as

species are treated in the same sequence as in
the HANDBOOK. Extensive use has been made
of the Catalogue of ‘Cuckoo Eggs’ (as marked
on the spine) by Baker in the BM(NH) con-
taining all original data and labels of his egg
collection. The cuckoo egg catalogue is quite
separate from the catalogue of other eggs (i.e.
Catalogue of Indian Eggs, 18 volumes), it is
Baker’s catalogue
(Baker, 1944).

In the present treatise advanced morpholo-
gical techniques (scanning electron micros-
copy) and biochemistry (egg-white protein
electrophoresis) are correlated with egg de-

scriptions and field studies. Since many readers

of this journal may have the opportunity for
field work on Indian cuckoos, this study starts

with some notes and suggestions which it is

hoped may be helpful. For the same reason,
in addition to ultra-structure micrographs of
eggshells, some photographs are included of
young cuckoos in nests as well as a colour
plate of fledgling stages of some Indian cuck-
OOS.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

FIELD STUDIES

Field work on Indian and Asiatic cuckoos
is still much needed. Very little is known not
only of the breeding habits of Indian
cuckoos, but also of their population
ecology and territorial behaviour. In some
species (e.g. Cacomantis species) the males
apparently have fixed territories, calling
regularly from the same look-out points dur-
ing the breeding season, although territories
may shift slightly from year to year, probably
due to local environmental conditions and
fluctuations in the numbers of their hosts
(pers. observation, especially for Cacomantis
variolosus and C. merulinus). For Cuculus ca-
norus, it has been shown that in one territory
one female was dominant and prevented other
females so far as possible from laying in and
robbing suitable nests in her territory. This
female, which was associated with at least 2
males, laid by the end of the season a mini-
mum of 12 eggs (Wyllie, 1975).

Sympatric cuckoo species probably occupy
different ecological microniches with respect
to habitat and food, and mainly exploit dif-
ferent foster species. In some species such as
the Himalayan Cuckoo Cuculus saturatus
northern migratory races may be temporarily
sympatric with sedentary races. The resident
race may even breed during the sojourn of the
northern subspecies; whereas the resident race
is vocal, the migratory race is always non-
vocal.

Some cuckoo species appear to be generally
solitary. Thus calling males of the Himalayan
Cuckoo Cuculus saturatus are often observed
singly; females are far more elusive as they
do not advertise themselves. In contrast the
Indian Cuckoo Cuculus micropterus is regular-
ly observed in trios consisting probably of two
males and one female; while so engaged the
female occasionally advertises herself by a bub-

202

bling note. Nevertheless it is striking that the
Bartels collection (now in the Rijksmuseum
van Natuurlijke Historie (RMNH) Leiden,
The Netherlands), which was collected in all
seasons and probably more or less at random,
contains 61 specimens of Cuculus saturatus ot
the Javanese breeding race lepidus of which
35 (57%) are males and 26 (42%) females
among which 12 (46%) are in the hepatic
(i.e. red) phase. However, of the Indian
Cuckoo Cuculus micropterus, this collection
contains 7 specimens of the Javanese seden-
lary race concretus of which only one (14%)
is female. It is difficult to accept these diffe-
rences aS a mere coincidence.

It is highly desirable to make estimates of
numbers of cuckoo species in well-defined
biotopes and if possible with an estimate of
sex ratios, which is very difficult in the field
because of the usually non-vocal and cryptic
behaviour of the females. These data should
be related to quantitative data on foster spe-
cies present.

In the absence of sufficient foster species
within a biotope female cuckoos may dump
eggs in nests of species not normally parasi-
tised. Some of these are not even ‘biological’
hosts because they cannot rear a cuckoo be-
yond hatching. For instance, an exclusive seed-
eater such as the Linnet Carduelis cannabina
in Europe can never rear a cuckoo, although
eggs of Cuculus canorus are regularly found
with this fosterer. Therefore, a distinction
should be made between non-biological and
biological hosts. Biological hosts are foster
species capable of raising a cuckoo beyond
hatching.

Egg dumping seems to be a rather regular
phenomenon among parasitic cuckoos, since in
addition to Cuculus it has been observed in
the genus Cacomantis (pers. observation) and
in Clamator (Vernon, 1970). Apart from this,
in Clamator often more than one egg is laid

BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS

in the same nest, which appears to be a biolo-
gical adaptation since Clamator chicks do not
show the eviction response and the adult
cuckoos do not remove foster eggs from the
nests. Multiple laying has been shown for the
Pied Crested Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus in
Africa in 21.6% of the parasitized nests (Liver-
sidge, 1971), while for the same species in
India in 39% of the cuckolded nests (17 out
of 44) cuckoos’ eggs were laid in Jungle Bab-
blers’ nests which already contained one (Gas-
ton, 1976). Often only the cuckoo fledgling(s)
survive by monopolizing the food, but there
is good evidence that in some cases (especial-
ly when the cuckoo egg is laid in a nest with
incubated foster eggs, thus giving the foster
fledglings a start) both the young cuckoo(s)
and some foster fleldglings are successfully
raised (R. M. Adam, cited by Hume and
Oates, 1890; Bates, 1938; Gaston, 1976). Cla-
mator species which parasitise babblers Tur-
doides spp. have in addition the advantage (or
adaptation ?) that the young are fed by foster
groups, so-called helpers at nests, which re-
duces the possibility of limitation of food sup-
ply (Raj, 1964; Andrews and Naik, 1970;
Zacharias and Mathew, 1977, Gaston, 1977,
1978). Survival of one or two cuckoos besides
host nestlings is more the rule than the ex-
ception in the case of the Great Spotted
Cuckoo Clamator glandarius and the Koel
Eudynamys scolopacea.

Cuckoos may lay directly in the nest of the
foster species. This has been observed and
confirmed by cinema documentation in the
case of Cuculus canorus with the Meadow
Pipit Anthus pratensis (Chance, 1940; Seel,
1973) and the Reed Warbler Acrocephalus
scirpaceus (Wyllie, 1975). In the Pied Crested
Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus parasitizing a
Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus nest, it was
observed that the cuckoo did not settle into

the cup, but perching c. 15 cm above the bab-
oler’s nest dropped her egg into it; the impact
caused some damage to one babbler’s egg
(Gaston, 1976). Direct laying into the nest
cup or dropping into the nest cannot be
readily visualized in the case of foster species
with nests with small (side) entrances (hole
breeders) and in the tiny, very fragile and
enclosed pocket-shaped nests of tailorbirds
Orthotomus spp. parasitized by Cacomantis
merulinus, or certain nests of Nectariniidae
(sunbirds) or the Flyeater Gerygone sulphurea
parasitized by Chrysococcyx species. There is
no authentic record of a cuckoo egg being
laid on the ground and transported to the
parasitized nest in the throat or beak in spite
of some literature citations (e.g. Tutt, 1955).
Female cuckoos have been observed to carry
eggs of the host species in the beak and to eat
them. As early as 1938 Livesey (1939) saw a
Khasi Hills Cuckoo Cuculus canorus bakeri
steal and eat an egg from the nest of the Bur-
mese Stonechat Saxicola caprata burmanica.
Stealing of the eggs of foster species is appar-
ently a common habit of female cuckoos and
probably a substantial source of food for them.
A high incidence of nest robbing was also ob-
served by Wyllie (1975) in Cuculus canorus
parasitizing Reed Warblers Acrocephalus
scirpaceus (at least 19 fresh eggs and two four-
dav old nestlings were taken in one season).
Lohrl (1979) established from aviary observa-
lions that the egg-stealing behaviour is restrict-
ed to the female and that the stolen eggs are
swallowed whole. Besides being a substantial
protein and lipid nutritional source, they are
probably also an essential source of calcium
in the diet. One encaged female cuckoo swal-
lowed 65 Passerine eggs in one breeding season.
The egg-stealing habit of some cuckoos is prob-
ably the basis of the supposition that cuckoos
transport their eggs to host species’ nests as
it is often difficult in the field (and sometimes

203

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 7&

even in the hand!) to distinguish between a
fosterer’s and a cuckoo’s egg, and to be sure
whether the egg is being transported to or
from the nest.

Cuckoo eggs are generally characterized by
thick shells and relatively short incubation
periods (especially in relation to egg size) of
11-13 days, usually shorter than that of the
fosterer’s eggs. The short incubation period
of cuckoo eggs is probably related to the fact
that the egg is retained one day in the oviduct
(laying intervals of 24 h) and that in some
cuckoos, e.g. Clamator spp., the egg when it
starts its development in the host nest is ap-
proximately 17-20 hours in advance of a nor-
mal chick embryo at time of laying (Liver-
sidge, 1961; Vernon, 1970). This pre-incuba-
tion embryonic development is probably a
general and basic feature of cuckoo’s eggs as
it has also been observed in Cuculus species
(Hellebrekers, 1963; Perrins, 1967).

EGG COLLECTIONS

Existing egg collections such as the Baker
collection often contain material obtained near
or outside the present borders of India, e.g.
the Khasi Hills in Assam and parts of Upper
Burma. This is probably due to the fact that
collecting was mainly done as a pastime by
military people, and by people working on
estates in these localities. In these regions a
full assortment of congeneric cuckoo species is
usually present, so that there was much spe-
culation as to the ownership of the supposed
cuckoo eggs. Further, the collectors’ own ob-
servations were often limited, and they bought
eggs in some cases rather indiscriminately,
from local inhabitants and paid good prices
particularly for cuckoo eggs. This stimulated
the production of odd clutch combinations or
falsifications. Hence, the very extensive egg
collections made in the past (e.g. more than
2,000 eggs of the Khasi Hills Cuckoo Cuculus

204

canorus bakeri in the Baker collection) have
contributed little to the better knowledge of
the breeding biology, brood parasitism or eco-
logy of cuckoos. In particular, many eggs of
the Baker collection are of dubious identity
and a number of supposed cuckoo eggs are
in fact not cuckoo eggs at all. Even for the
apparently locally rather common Khasi Hills
Cuckoo, the incubation period has to my
knowledge never been determined.

In this context, it should be stated that it is
far more profitable not to collect the sup-
posed cuckoo egg, but to let it hatch. Young
cuckoos hatched from well-documented eggs
(i.e. measured and described) would allow a
proper identification of the cuckoo species in-
volved. Nestlings and fledglings of cuckoos are
often rather difficult to classify without ade-
quate comparative material. Even experienc-
ed taxonomists have made mistakes with re-
gard to this. For instance the supposed nest-
ling of Surniculus lugubris in the nest of Sei-
cercus castaniceps (Robinson, 1927; Chasen,
1939) is in fact that of Cuculus saturatus (see
this study). It is advisable, when the identifi-
cation of a cuckoo nestling is not absolutely
certain, to collect it and deposit the skin in
one of the major museum collections for sub-
sequent identification and more general use.

Cuckoo NESTLINGS

As an aid to identification, Plate 1 depicts
the nestling and fledgling plumages of some
less-known Indian cuckoos. In addition, some
plumage descriptions of juvenile cuckoos are
given in the text and partially illustrated in
black-white photographs under the headings
ot the various species discussed.

At all stages, even when just hatched, cuckoo
nestlings are distinguishable from the host
species. Just hatched cuckoo nestlings are com-
pletely naked and, because of their shorter

BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS

incubation period, they usually hatch before
the foster-species (Plate 2). They can easily
be told apart from host nestlings by their con-
spicuous crimson red mouth lining (palate),
which probably functions as a visual signal
and stimulus for feeding (see Plate 1), and by
iheir completely circular nostrils, which are
often a little raised. Foster species like all
Passerines have elongated nostrils. This feature

of the nostrils is particularly prominent in re-

cently hatched nestlings of representatives of
the cuckoo genera Cuculus, Cacomantis and
Chrysococcyx, but it does not hold for nest-
lings of the genus Clamator which have rather
oblong: nostrils. Moreover, nestlings of the
latter genus do not have a hollow back and
apparently do not actively evict their nest-
mates as do the nestlings of other parasitic
cuckoos. Finally, cuckoo species possess in
contrast to Passerines a zygodactylous foot
structure, in which the second and third toes
are directed forward, the first and fourth back-
ward (see Plate 1).

As will be discussed in the following sec-
tions, some cuckoo species show a rather spe-
cialized host choice, being nearly one-host
parasites, whereas others like the Khasi Hills
Cuckoo Cuculus canorus bakeri have a multi-
ple host range. However, in the latter species,
special populations (‘gentes’) showing egg
mimicry adapted to a certain host species may
exist. A more detailed study of cuckoo nest-
lings will certainly be very rewarding, since to
my knowledge the incubation period and nest-
ling and fledgling periods have not been deter-
mined for any Indian cuckoo. So far no ac-
counts have appeared describing individual
laying histories, clutch size and number of
eggs per season with respect to Indian parasitic
cuckoos. —

Cuckoo Ecc IDENTIFICATION

It has always been claimed that the only

genuine cuckoo egg (at least for the less known
species) is the oviduct egg. It should, how-
ever, be remembered that these eggs laid in
the death struggle or freed from the oviduct
by dissection often lack the external superficial
eggshell layers and therefore can seldom give
reliable information on the ultimate colour and
pattern of normally delivered eggs.

In the case of cuckoos whose eggs match
the fosterer’s eggs perfectly, it is often difficult
to decide whether a true cuckoo egg is in-
volved or not. Also it is often very difficult
to discriminate between a cuckoo egg and a
dwarf egg of the host species or an egg that
is slightly aberrant in colour. However, irre-
futable criteria are now available allowing us
to identify a supposed cuckoo egg beyond any
doubt. These criteria involve two quite un-
related characters: first, the eggshell surface
ultra-structure, and secondly egg-white pro-
teins. Metaphorically, the first can be regard-
ed as the envelope of the message, the second
as the letter itself.

With respect to eggshell structure, Becking
(1975 a, b) has shown that ultra-structural
characteristics, as revealed by scanning electron
microscopy, can be used to distinguish cuckoo
eges from the eggs of Passerine fosterers.
Cuckoo eggs possess a rather smooth eggshell
surface of polyangular and triangular some-
what raised faces. They have also a very pecu-
liar and characteristic type of eggshell pores
with a cracked surface and plugged with gra-
nuJar material probably of organic nature
(sec Plate 3 and 10). In contrast, Passerine
egeshells show a far more irregular surface
dotted with numerous small pits (see Becking,
1975 a, Plate 10 a).

With regard to egg-white proteins, Sibley
(1970) and Sibley and Ahlquist (1972) have
shown that the gel electrophoretic patterns of
egg-white proteins of Non-Passerine and Pas-
serine birds are fundamentally different. In

205

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

this context we have studied the starch gel
electrophoretic patterns of egg-white proteins
of cuckoo species and compared them with
the foster species, if possible from the same
clutch as the cuckoo egg (Becking, in prepa-
ration). Cuckoo egg-white proteins showed a
characteristic and distinct pattern of protein
bands compared to the proteins of Passerine
eggs. In addition to specific differences in pro-
teins of the same group, as evident from dif-
ferences in the displacement rates, cuckoo egg-
white generally exhibits strong ovalbumin
bands, which are usually very faint or lacking
in Passerine egg-white proteins. Moreover, in
Passerine egg-white proteins their similarity
was greater, the closer they were phylogenet-
ically (and therefore taxonomically) related.
as evident from the comparison of the egg-
white proteins of Sylviinae (1) and (2) in
Plate 4. Thus egg-white protein patterns may
give clues to taxonomic relationships.

With the far more sensitive iso-electrofocus-
ing electrophoresis technique using poly-acryl-
amide gels with a pH gradient obtained by
ampholines, the resolution and separation of
the individual protein bands is markedly in-
creased. Applying a more restricted pH range
over the same gel width, the resolution of the
protein bands is still more increased. In this
way, a distinct pattern of proteins can be ob-
tained, which makes it possible to distinguish
between the egg-whites of cuckoos at the spe-
cies level. So far this has only been done for
some African cuckoos, because egg-whites of
these were available. But when egg-whites,
preferably in combination with eggshell sam-
ples, of Indian cuckoos become available, this
method will certainly enable us to discrimi-
nate between cuckoo species of this region.
Such a study will be particularly important for
the proper re-classification of Indian cuckoo
eggs present in existing collections (e.g. the

206

Baker collection), of which a _ considerable
number are rather doubtfully identified.

ENUMERATION OF SPECIES DISCUSSED

The following species are listed according
to the sequence of the HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS
OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN, vol. 3 (Ali and Rip-
ley, 1969).

In the egg descriptions in some exceptional
cases the numbers of the eggs (clutches) of
the Baker collection and catalogue are cited.
These numbers, divided into box and clutch
number, are still retained for the Baker col-
lection in the British Museum in Tring. By
these numbers any individual egg of the Baker
collection can be found and so can be re-
examined if this proves to be necessary.

In the egg descriptions some less known egg
parameters are used, i.e. shape index (egg
length : maximal egg width), Rey’s eggshell
weight index (egg length x width in mm divid-
ed by eggshell weight in mg) and relative egg
weight (% egg weight of body weight of bird).
Rey’s index is the reverse of the so-called
‘Ratcliffe-index’ (see Ratcliffe, 1970) used as
a measure of eggshell thinning in the eggs of
raptors and other birds caused by ingestion of
chlorinated hydrocarbon residues. In the pre-
sent study Rey’s index is preferred since it
gives indices above 1.0 for the eggs of all cuck-
oos and Passerines. Moreover, Rey’s index
is of older date (Rey, 1894; 1897).

In some of the descriptions of the cuckoo
eggs for more precise colour indication Ridg-
way’s (1912) colour nomenclature is used.

Clamator coromandus

REDWINGED CRESTED CUCKOO

BREEDING. Brood-parasitic mainly on Hima-
Jayan laughing thrushes, Garrulax species. The
commoner hosts are Garrulax pectoralis and
G, moniligerus, followed by G. striatus, G. de-

BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS

lesserti, G. squamatus and G. caerulatus in de-
creasing frequency of parasitization. Parasi-
tizes also, but far less commonly, a number of
other bird species, which may be regarded as
accidental or abnormal (probably even non-
biological) foster species. Baker (1942: 196-
7) gives a full list of other fosterers, but some
of the eggs cited are of doubtful identity.
Eggs, pale glaucous blue in various tints
and shades, unmarked. Shape broad elliptical,
sometimes nearly spherical with round nearly
equal poles. Eggshell texture fine, eggs mostly
glossless. Eggs usually matching the eggs of
the fosterer perfectly, but often the cuckoo
egg has a different shade of blue and less gloss.
As a rule the Clamator egg is distinguishable
by its nearly perfect spheroidal or obtuse ellip-
tical shape (shape index: av. 1.17) and the
absence of any gloss. Laughing thrush eggs
are usually glossy and show a marked diffe-
rence between the small and large end. Red-
winged Crested Cuckoo eggs have extremely
thick shells, being about double the thickness
of the fosterer’s eggshells (Clamator 200-204
um, Garrulax spp. 103 pm). The considerable
thickness of the Clamator eggshell is also
evident from the Rey’s index (length x width
of the egg in mm divided by shell weight in
mg), which in Clamator coromandus is near
to 1.0 (av. 1.08), and in Garrulax species
1.56-1.84. This parameter therefore offers a
good criterion for discriminating cuckoo eggs
from fosterer eggs. Average of 50 Clamator
coromandus eggs 26.9 xX 22.8 mm, shape index
1.18 (Baker, 1934). Average of 8 eggs examin-
ed by me: 27.4 x 23.4 mm, shape index 1.17,
av. shell weight 0.6014 g, Rey’s index av. 1.08
(0.93-1.19). Fresh egg weight 7.4-8.0 g. Aver-
age body weight 78.9 (70.5-96.0) g (n=9), re-
lative egg weight 9.4-10.1%. Scanning electron
microscopy revealed that the Clamator eggs
have pores with granular plug material, very
similar to the eggs of other parasitic cuckoo

genera (Cuculus, Cacomantis, and Chrysococ-
cyx). Eggs can be distinguished from those of
the Pied Crested Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus
by their larger size and a different surface
ultra-structure of the eggshell.

Nestling cuckoo is thought to evict the right-
ful nest-mates from the nest, because Garrulax
nests containing only one Clamator cuckoo
have been regularly observed (Osmaston,
1916). However, this needs verification as the
actual act of eviction of eggs or nest-mates, as
in Cuculus and Cacomantis, has never been
observed. The elimination of the nest-mates
is probably due to starvation or trampling or
by spread-eagling of the young cuckoo over
the fosterer’s young, preventing the chicks from
lifting their heads when the parents come to
feed, as observed in Clamator jacobinus in
Africa and Asia. Two or more (up to 4 re-
corded) eggs of Clamator are sometimes laid
in the same Garrulax nest. Occasionally also
the same Garrulax nest is parasitized with an
ege of ‘Cuculus sparverioides’. The blue eggs
of the latter species I consider, however, to
be eggs of Cuculus canorus bakeri (see later).
Osmaston (1916) reported the occurrence of
two Clamator coromandus young in the same
Garrulax nest, which both survived and reach-
ed the fledgling stage. Initially this particular
Garrulax moniligerus nest (Maymyo, 1100 m,
Shan Plateau, Upper Burma; 22°01’N, 96°28’
E) contained the surprise packet of 3 young
of the fosterer, 2 young of Clamator coro-
mandus, and 1 egg of ‘Cuculus sparverioides’ .
One week later, it contained only two Clamator
young, the Garrulax young having succumbed
probably to starvation and trampling.

Fledgling plumage is rufous with pale bars
above and white below. Crest development
takes place at c. 5 weeks, and the young bird
moults gradually into mature plumage at 3
months (Osmaston, 1916).

The Redwinged Crested Cuckoo is migratory

207

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

and migrants on passage or rare stragglers are
recorded from peninsular India. It winters only
and does not breed in Ceylon (Phillips, 1948),
and also occurs rather commonly as a winter
visitor in South-East Asia (Malaysia, Indo-
nesia). Thus, its migratory route is southeast,
in contrast to the Pied Crested Cuckoo Cla-
mator jacobinus which migrates southwest to
continental Africa. This disparity in migration
routes probably reflects a difference in evolu-
tionary history of these species. The same
difference is observed between Cuculus satu-
ratus migrating southeast and Cuculus polio-
cephalus migrating southwest (see later).

Clamator jacobinus
PIED CRESTED CUCKOO

BREEDING. Brood-parasitic mainly on babblers
of the Turdoides group, most commonly low-
land and foothills species such as 7. striatus,
T. caudatus, and T. malcolmi. In the lower
Himalayas laughing thrushes are presumably
also victimized: Garrulax lineatus seems to be
a popular host (Baker, 1934; 1942). The cita-
tion in the HANDBOOK (vol. 3, 1. c. p. 196) “In
Kashmir the Rufousbacked Shrike (Lanius
schach erythronotus) is a frequent victim’
needs verification, since this fosterer is not
even mentioned by Baker (1934, 1942).

In Africa the Black-and-White Cuckoo Cla-
mator serratus is now considered to be conspe-
cific with jacobinus. The African breeding
populations, which are ail south of the Sahara,
occur in three different colour phases in which
the underparts are creamy white, grey on a
creamy ground, or black. On the basis of these
three morphs two races are usually distinguish-
ed in Africa, i.e. pica over the most of the
African continent as well as Arabia and India,
and serratus in South-East Africa. The Indian
population winters in Africa, south to Natal,
but irrefutable proof of migration (by ringing)
from India to Africa is lacking (see Whistler,

208

1928; Simmons, 1930; Ali, 1931). Asian win-
tering birds, if they occur in Africa, are in-
distinguishable from white-breasted African
birds (pica). : )
Like the Indian population, the African race
pica parasitizes mainly babblers of the Tur-
doides group such as T. plebejus. Also like
the Indian section it mainly lays blue eggs.
Very rarely a white egg is reported, e.g. a
white egg associated with a white-egg variety
of Turdoides plebejus (Akokoro, N. Uganda,
2 April 1950; B.M. collection), if the identi-
fication is correct. On the other hand, the race
serratus lays mainly white eggs and parasitizes
bulbuls (Pycnonotus capensis, P. barbatus, and
Andropadus importunus) and shrikes (Lanius
collaris), and to a far lesser extent some other
species but no babblers (Payne and Payne,
1967; Liversidge, 1969; Jensen and Jensen,
1969). In contrast to pica, for the race ser-
ratus only very rarely is a blue egg reported
(also associated with Pycnonotus barbatus,
Kenya, Konza, Machakos Distr., B.M. collec-
tion Reg. No. 1962. 9. 17), if correctly identi-
fied. ee )
With the electron microscope ., a-structur-
al differences were observed in the differently
coloured eggs of the various populations and
it is therefore possible that this taxonomically
highly complex group is heterogeneous and in
fact hetero-specific. It is remarkable that the
related Striped Cuckoo Clamator levaillantii
of Africa shows an egg ultra-structure related
to the Indian forms of Clamator jacobinus and
that like jacobinus this species mainly, and
perhaps even exclusively, parasitizes babblers
of the Turdoides group in Africa, i.e. Turdoi-
des jardinei, T. melanops, T. plebejus, and
T. leucopygius (Steyn, 1973; Steyn and Ho-
wells, 1975; Colebrook-Robjent, 1977, and
B.M. collection). It is also remarkable that
although bulbuls are plentiful in India. C.
jacobinus has never been found to parasitize

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 78 PLATE 2
Becking : Indian Cuckoos

Just hatched nestling of the Fan-tailed Cuckoo Cacomantis variolosus in the nest
of the Rufous-backed Shrike Lanius schach. Coffee/Rubber Estate Dampar, Jember,
East Java, Indonesia, 27 May 1937. ~x 1.0.

(Photo: J. G. Kooiman)

J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 78 | PLATE 3
Becking : Indian Cuckoos

Scanning electron micrograph of the eggshell surface of a Fan-tailed Cuckoo
Cacomantis variolosus.-egg- showing the rather smooth surface with poly-angular
raised faces and pores with granular pore-plug plaques, characteristic of. parasitic
cuculids. x 885. .

BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS

bulbuls in India.

Clamator levaillantii has an extensive dis-
tribution on the African continent and is
widely sympatric with C. jacobinus. Besides a
blue egg, certain populations of C. levaillantii
(i.e. in Nigeria) produce a pink egg associat-
ed with a pink egg-variety of Turdoides ple-
hejus (B.M. collection). A more thorough
electron microscopic survey of the eggshells
of the various Clamator species, if possible
in combination with egg-white protein analy-
ses, would certainly clarify specific relation-
ships in this rather complex and probably con-
fused group of Clamator species.

Eggs of the Indian section of C. jacobinus,
pale blue or sky blue, unmarked, varying in
depth of tint, sometimes closely matching those
of the fosterer, but usually lighter blue. Dis-
tinguishable from fosterer eggs by their usual-
Jy larger size, more spherical/elliptical shape
with rounded poles, and the absence of gloss.
Turdoides eggs are generally very glossy and
Garrulax eggs usually have a moderate gloss.
Average of 100 Clamator jacobinus eggs, vary-
ing greatly in size, av. 23.9 18.6 mm (Baker,
1934). Shape index 1.28. Five eggs measured
by me had a shell weight of av. 0.4609 g, fresh
ege weight av. 4.5 (4.4-5.2) g, and Rey’s index
of 1.03-1.08. Eggshell thickness 140-161 pm,
compared to Turdoides c. 101 pm and Gar-
rulax species c. 103 wm. Average body weight
of the African section 84 g (Payne, 1974),
relative egg weight 5.4 (5.2-6.2) %, i.e. much
smaller than in C. coromandus. Thus, although
C. jacobinus is a heavier bird than C. coro-
mandus it produces smaller eggs. This is cor-
related with the fact that C. coromandus para-
sitizes relatively large and C. jacobinus rela-
tively small foster species.

Nestling C. jacobinus does not evict its nest-
mates. Usually its nest-mates perish by star-
vation through monopolization of the food by
the young cuckoo, jostling out of the nest or

trampling. Newly hatched Pied Crested Cuck-
oos are naked and brownish to orange brown.
Nostrils are oblong and not very prominent.
Eyes open by the 2nd day. Mouth-lining red,
with a yellow gape. Back not flat, but rather
rounded. Nestlings darken till they are blackish
dorsally by the pin-feather stage (morphologi-
cal description for the African population by
Skead, 1951). Feathered young are dull black-
ish-brown to brown above, slightly crested,
and buffy white below. Faint white wing win-
dows are discernible. Incubation for the South
African population 11-12 days, ie. rather
short for such a large bird (Liversidge, 1969).
An incubation of about 11 days, i.e. 3 days
shorter than that of their host (Jungle Bab-
bler), is reported for the Indian population
(Gaston, 1976). Nestling Pied Crested Cuck-
oos also develop more rapidly after hatching,
being ready to leave the nest at 11-12 days
old compared to 14-16 days for the Jungle
Babbler. The mean maximum rate of
growth of nestling cuckoos was 6.5 g per
day, compared with a mean of 5.2 g per day
for Jungle Babblers Turdoides striatus which
have the same sized egg, and 2.7 ¢ per day
for Common Babblers 7. caudatus (Gaston,
1976). In a restricted area (forest near Delhi)
71.0% of the Jungle Babbier’s and 38.7% of
the Common Babbler’s nests were parasitized
(Gaston, 1976).

Multiple laying by the Pied Grete Cuckoo
was quite regular. In the Delhi study area 39%
cuckoo’s eggs were laid in Jungle Babblers’
nests which already contained one. In 8 out
of 27 nests from which cuckoos fledged suc-
cessfully at least one babbler was also fledged,
and this was also true for 2 of 4 cases in which
two cuckoos were fledged from the same nest.
Young babblers disappeared only in cases
where the cuckoo hatched 2 or 3 days before
the first babbler, and was large enough to
monopolize the food supply. Dead babbler

209

JOURNAL,

chicks, clearly starved, were found in several
nests containing young cuckoos (Gaston,
1976). Young cuckoos continued to be fed
for 2-3 weeks after leaving the nest (Gaston,
1976).

The short incubation of cuckoo eggs is prob-
ably related to pre-incubation embryonic de-
velopment. A newly laid egg has an embryo
17-20 hours advanced in development com-
pared to a freshly laid domestic fowl egg-
embryo (Liversidge, 1961). Embryonic devel-
opment must also be very rapid; although
for the African population parasitizing bulbuls
the egg is about twice the host egg, its devel-
opment is 2 days shorter (Liversidge, 1969).

Clamator jacobinus jacobinus
CEYLON PIED CRESTED CUCKOO

BREEDING. In Sri Lanka the locally common
babbler, Turdoides affinis taprobanus, is the
chief fosterer. Three eggs in the B.M. collec-
tion (Tring) examined by me were collected
at Puttalam, Sri Lanka (8°02’N, 79°50’E) in
April and May. Eggs, green glaucous blue with
moderate gloss and of the typical more spheri-
cal/elliptical Clamator shape. Fosierer eggs,
Turdoides affinis, were also deep blue, some-
what smaller and shell weights considerably
lighter. Clamator eggs (n=3): av. 23.8 x 19.6
mm, shell weight av. 0.4595 gs, Rey’s index
av. 1.02 (0.97-1.06), fresh weight av. 4.7 (4.5-
5.4) g. Host eggs (n=6): av. 22.4 18.5 mm,
shell weight av. 0.2576 g, Rey’s index av. 1.62
(1.48-1.75), fresh weight 4.0-4.3 g. Eggshell
thickness 156-165 pm, Turdoides affinis 100-
102 pm.

Cuculus sparverioides
LARGE HAWK-CUCKOO

BREEDING. Brood-parasitic on the Streaked
Spiderhunter Arachnothera magna and_ the
Nepal Shortwing Brachypteryx leucophrys.

210

BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

The cuckoo eggs are uniform olive-brown and
match rather closely the similar coloured eggs
of the fosterer species except in size and shape.
Baker (1934, 1942) also attributed a blue
cuckoo egg in the nests of laughing thrushes
Garrulax spp. to this cuckoo species. I be-
lieve, however, that at least some of these
blue eggs belong to another cuckoo species,
i.e. Cuculus canorus (see below). Support for
Baker’s view is given by A. E. Osmaston
(1912), who mentioned that his brother B.
B. Osmaston collected a nestling of Cuculus
sperverioides from a nest of the Redheaded
Laughing Thrush Garrulax erythrocephalus.
The whereabouts of this skin are unknown
to me.

Of the brown egg-type (which I agree be-
long to this cuckoo species) of the 145 col-
lected eggs (Baker collection), 98 records
(68%) are associated with Arachnothera
magna, 24 (17%) with Brachypteryx leuco-
phrys, 4 (2%) with Arachnothera longirostris,
and 19 (13%) with various other host species
of which about half were deserted nests (egg
dumping) probably belonging to non-biologi-
cal hosts.

Of the so-called blue ege-type (most of
which I think do not belong to this cuckoo
species) the Baker collection contains 36 eggs,
which were mainly associated with Garrulax
species (i.e. 22 eggs, 61%), but also with
Turdinae such as Myiophonus caeruleus, Zoo-
thera citrina, and Z. dauma. | examined 3 eggs
of this turquoise blue egg-type in more detail,
i.e. 2 associated with laughing thrushes and
one with Myiophoneus. The eggs in Garrulax
nests were associated with G. moniligerus
(Baker’s catalogue, Box 107, A 8) and G.
erythrocephalus (B. M. collection, 195.2. 68/
69, collected by A. E. Osmaston). The third
eg was in the nest of Myiophonus caeruleus
(Baker’s catalogue, Box 107, D 3). These eggs
measured 30.1 21.5, 30.2X20.5 and 30.3 x

BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS

20.6 mm, respectively. Their shape index (egg
length : breadth) is 1.40-1.47, and the Rey’s
index 1.43-1.54. These parameters suggest that
they belong to a blue egg-type of Cuculus
canorus. The ultra-structure of the eggshell as
observed by scanning electron microscopy also
agrees with blue Cuculus canorus eggs from
Europe. Up to now, however, there is no re-
cord of a Cuculus canorus nestling in the nest
of Garrulax! It will therefore be very profit-
able to let hatch any such blue cuckoo eggs
in Jaughing thrushes’ nests for confirmation.
Confusion with the egg of the Common Hawk-
Cuckoo Cuculus varius also cannot be ruled
out, since the egg of this species is virtually
unknown. Further, in areas where Hodgson’s
Hawk-Cuckoo Cuculus fugax nisicolor occurs,
confusion with this species may be also pos-
sible, since its breeding is very imperfectly
known. In this treatise another type of egg
of smaller size and weight is attributed to
Hodgson’s Hawk-Cuckoo.

Two oviduct eggs of the Common Hawk-
Cuckoo Cuculus varius, described by Baker
(1934, 1942), according to his description
closely resemble the so-called blue egg-
type of Cuculus sparverioides. Regrettably.
these eggs (Box 114) could not be traced in
the present Baker collection in the B.M. (M.
P. Walters, pers. communication).

An examination of a large series of the so-
called blue egg-type of Cuculus sparverioides
in the Baker collection (Box 107) revealed
that most of these eggs, which were mainly
collected at Khasi Hills, Assam, are probably
those of the Khasi Hilis Cuckoo Cuculus
canorus bakeri (Box 107: A 6&7, B 3 & 6b,
D 3, 4 & 5, E 1, etc.) as their measurements
are consistent with this species and the Rey’s
index is within their range 1.30-1.64. Other
egss in this box, however, such as Box 107:
6b & 7a, I would definitely classify as Clama-
for eggs, as is obvious from their more round-

ed shape (shape index: 1.13-1.21), equal
poles, absence of gloss, and very thick shells
(Rey’s index: 1.06-1.21). All the above-men-
tioned eggs were probably indiscriminately
pooled by Baker for the average figures of
the eggs of Cuculus sparverioides in his publi-
cations.

Fggs (as reclassified and delimited by me),
uniform light brownish olive, seldom speckled
with darker olive-brown specks, particularly
around the blunt pole. Ground colour of vary-
ing shade or depth of tint from Olive Brown
or Greyish Olive to Deep Greyish Olive or
Citrine Drab (Ridgway). Seventy eggs mea-
sured by me (Baker collection, B.M.) av. 26.6
(24.5-29.0) xX 18.6 (17.3-20.6) mm. Eggs
broadly oval, shape index av. 1.43 (1.30-1.58),
Rey’s index av. 1.59 (1.27-1.83). Eggshell
weight (n=70) av. 0.3119 (0.2377-0.4298) g.
Eggshell thickness av. 107 (101-120) pm, fresh
ege weight av. 5.1 (4.7-5.4) g.

As discussed above mention of a blue egg-
type of C. sparverioides should be deleted
from the HANDBOOK. Arguments are given that
these eggs belong to the Khasi Hills Cuckoo
Cuculus canorus bakeri. These eggs are mainly
found in the Khasi Hills. Furthermore, the
blue egg-type was never found associated with
Arachnothera species nor the brown egg-type
with Garrulax species, which points to differ-
ent cuckoo species with a different fosterer
specialization.

The majority of the Cuculus sparverioides
eges were associated with Arachnothera magna
(68%) and very few (2%) with Arachnothera
longirostris, in spite of the fact that the Small
Spiderhunter is commoner in the Khasi Hills
than its larger congener. Obviously the tunnel-
shaped nest of the Small Spiderhunter is Jess
suitable for the deposition of the egg of this
Jarge cuckoo than the more open, hanging
cup of the Streaked Spiderhunter. It is re-
markable that this cuckoo is adapted to two

211

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

main fosterers which nest in very different
sites and habitats, i.c. Arachnothera spp. build-
ing nests under large leaves (Musaceae, Zingi-
beraceae) usually in medium-sized vegetation,
often secondary growth, and Brachypteryx
leucophrys, a ground breeder in dense, usually
primary forest.

Cuculus varius
COMMON HAWK- CUCKOO

BREEDING. Imperfectly known, for India no
certain evidence. The Baker collection contains
78 eggs attributed to this species, including
two oviduct eggs. These eggs were found main-
ly in the nests of babblers such as the Jungle
Babbler Turdoides striatus, Whiteheaded Bab-
bler T. affints and the Rufous Babbler T. rufes-
cens, and also in nests of many species of
laughing thrushes, Garrulax species (for full
list see Baker, 1934, 1942, and Baker’s cata-
logue in B.M.). Baker’s evidence for attribu-
ting these eggs to Cuculus varius is, in my
opinion, rather flimsy. I regard a considerable
number of the eggs attributed to Cuculus
varius (Box 115, 116 & 117, Baker collec-
tion) as a hotchpotch of blue C. canorus eggs
and Clamator eggs. In these series, all thick-
shelled eggs with Rey’s indices of 0.93-1.07
and of round, elliptical shape, I regard as
Clamator eggs (i.e. Box 115; A 1, B1,C1&
2; Box, 116: Al, Bl; Box 117; AeA QiiBet:
C 1, D 1, etc.) while the other eggs with a
Rey’s index of 1.32-1.71 (av. 1.52) are probably
C. canorus eggs. The averages given in Baker’s
publications have therefore little value as they
concern a mixture of eggs of various species.
From the set marks on the eggs and the origi-
nal labels (Baker’s catalogue) it is also evi-
dent that Baker several times changed his opin-
ion on the identity of these eggs. Unfortu-
nately, the two oviduct eggs of this species
in Baker’s collection (Box 114) could not be

212

located in the present Baker collection (B.M.)
inspite of determined efforts (M. P. Walters,
pers. communication). According to the Baker
catalogue both oviduct eggs were collected by
Mr. C. M. Inglis. The measurements given
for these eggs are 26.0 20.2 and 22.1 x 20.4
mm and shell weights 0.410 and 0.438 mg,
respectively (Baker’s catalogue). In the same
sequence the shape index of the eggs is 1.27
and 1.08, and the Rey’s index 1.29 and 1.03,
respectively. The nearly round, thick-shelled
ege (shape index 1.08, Rey’s index 1.03) I
would classify on the basis of these parameters
as an egg of Clamator !

In my opinion the egg of the Common
Hawk-Cuckoo is unknown. It is remarkable
that no irrefutable eggs are known, seeing that
its name suggests that it is rather common.
A reliable record of its breeding is from Sri
Lanka, where Phillips (1948) mentions that two
observers (Mrs. C. Lushington and Mr. R.
West) saw on three occasions a fledgling Com-
mon Hawk-Cuckoo being fed by the Jungle
Babbler Turdoides striatus. One of these
fledglings was collected (Mr. R. West), but
the whereabouts of this skin are unknown
io me. It is further noteworthy that in con-
trast to its occurrence in India, in Ceylon this
cuckoo is essentially a highland species (Phil-
lips, 1948). Another reliable record is cited
in the HANDBOOK (Ali and Ripley, vol. 3, I.c.
p. 202, 1969) of a young Cuculus varius ac-
companying a flock of Jungle Babblers Tur-
doides striatus and being fed by its presumed
foster-parents, but occasionally also by other
members of the party. In this context it is
worth mentioning that communal breeding and
helpers are frequently reported for members
of the Turdoides group (Blencowe, 1960; Raj,
1964; Reynolds, 1965; Andrews and Naik,
1970; Grimes, 1974; Zahavi, 1976; Zacharias
and Mathew, 1977; Gaston, 1977, 1978). Com-
munal feeding of Clamator fledgling(s) by

J. Bombay NAT. Hist. Soc. 7& PLATE 4
Becking : Indian Cuckoos

Starch gel electrophoretic pattern of the egg-white of a cuckoo compared with
its Passerine fosterers. A=point of application, top anodal (+), bottom cathodal
(—) direction.

Egg-white proteins: (3) Cuculus canorus. Foster species: (1) Sylvia atricapilla,
(2) Acrocephalus schoenobaenus, and (4) Troglodytes troglodytes. The cuckoo egg
(3) was associated with species (2), same clutch. x 1.0.

¢ FLVId

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sooyon, uevipuy : suryosog
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BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS

Turdoides groups has also been regularly re-
ported (R. M. Adam in Hume and Oates,
1890: Bates, 1938; Gaston, 1976).

For the Indian subcontinent, it will be im-
portant to examine eggs attributed to the
Common Hawk-Cuckoo in regions where
Hodgson’s (Cuculus fugax) is absent. Of the
latter species, which is apparently nowhere
common (Ali and Ripley, 1969) the Baker
collection contains 82 eggs ! The possibility that
the identification of the eggs of the two cuckoo
species in Baker’s collection should be revers-
ed cannot therefore be excluded. Hence, it
will be of great significance to record the hatch-
ing of the glossy turquoise blue egg attri-
buted to this cuckoo species or the supposed
olive-green egg of Hodgson’s Hawk-Cuckoo,
in order to identify the cuckoo species involv-
ed beyond any doubt.

Cuculus fugax
HODGSON’S HAWK-CUCKOO

BREEDING. Very imperfectly known. No re-
cords of fledgling cuckoos in host nests or fed
by forster species. According to Baker (1934,
1942) brood parasitic mainly on the Nepal
Shortwing Brachypteryx leucophrys (thus shar-
ing this host with the Large Hawk-Cuckoo
Cuculus sparverioides) and the Small Niltava
Muscicapa macgrigoriae. One oviduct egg col-
lected by Mr. Mandelli in Sikkim and describ-
ed by Hume (cf. Baker, 1934, Ic. p. 349) is
broad oval (22.6 x 16.3 mm, shape iridex 1.39),
scarcely at all pointed at the small end, uni-
form olive-brown with an indistinct ring of a
darker shade at the large end.

Similar eggs (82 specimens collected !) were
described by Baker (1934, 1942) and are still
present in his collection in the B.M. These eggs
examined by me are very typical Jong ovals.
Although their length is not much different
from that of the Large Hawk-Cuckoo Cuculus

sparverioides, they are much narrower in
width, i.e. av. 15.8 (15.2-16.8) mm, giving a
shape index averaging 1.50. Moreover, in con-
trast to Large Hawk-Cuckoo eggs, they have
much lighter shell weights. The eggs are Light
Brownish Olive or Olive Buff with Citrine
Drab or Dark Olive Buff specks (Ridgway)
forming a ring around the larger end. In some
eges the specks are larger and more blotch-
ke and more regularly distributed over the
eggshell. This egg-type is very well illustrated
by Baker (1942, Plate VIII, No’s 11 & 12).

Although there is no absolute proof that
these eggs belong to Hodgson’s Hawk-Cuckoo,
it is rather plausible, because it is smaller than
its two congener Hawk-Cuckoos. Moreover,
the Large Hawk-Cuckoo Cuculus sparveriot-
des falls ouside consideration as its eggs are
sufficiently known. However, as already stated
the eggs of the Common Hawk-Cuckoo Cu-
culus varius are unknown and there is a pos-
sibility of confusion with this species (see
Cuculus varius).

In this context it is worth mentioning that
the eggs reported for Cuculus fugax in Japan
are different. Five eggs of this cuckoo from
Japan present in the Baker collection and col-
lected by Kobayashi at Mt. Fuji were measur-
ed by me. They average 27.4 x 19.8 mm, shape
index av. 1.79, Rey’s index av. 1.49. These
eggs are pale blue in colour and resemble some
of the eggs described by Baker for Cuculus
varius. Further, Kobayashi and Ishizawa
(1932-40) described 14 eggs of Cuculus fugax
from Hondo, Japan, mainly in the nests of the
Japanese Blue Chat Erithacus cyane (Turdi-
nae), as beautiful greenish light blue and gave
aS measurements av. 28.2*19.9 mm. These
Japanese records are surely of considerable
importance, because in Japan the pattern of
sympatric cukoos is much simpler and more-
over their breeding is better known. However,
in spite of the above-mentioned statements

213

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

the possibility still exists (and needs veritfica-
tion) that the described eggs are in fact the
blue egg-type of Cuculus canorus telephonus.

Fourteen eggs of Cuculus fugax in India,
of the long oval, olive-green type in the Baker
collection (B.M.), and also attributed by me
to this cuckoo species, measured by me aver-
age 23.8 (23.1-24.8) x 15.8 (15.1-16.8) mm,
av. shell weight 0.1943 (0.1263-0.2270) g, shape
index av. 1.50 (1.41-1.63), Rey’s index av.
1.98 (1.80-2.94), shell thickness 62-98 ym,
fresh egg weight av. 3.4 (3.1-3.5) g. Average
body weight 76.2 (70.7-81.6) g (n=2), rela-
tive egg weight 4.5%. The eggs were all col-
lected in the Khasi Hills, Assam in April to
June.

A supposed egg of Cuculus fugax was collected
by J. Whitehead on Mt. Kinabalu, North Borneo
(ex. coll. Crowley Bequest, B.M. coll.), 29 April
1888 (see also Whitehead, 1893, l.c. p. 214) from
the nest of the Greyheaded Flycatcher Culicicapa
ceylonensis. This egg is Ivory-Yellow with Cream
Buff and Cartridge Buff (Ridgway) specks around
the blunt pole and measures 22.1 x 16.4 mm, shell
weight 0.1784 g, shape index 1.35, Rey’s index 2.03.
This egg is very reminiscent of a certain egg-type
of Cacomantis variolosus in Indonesia, which in
Java is also partly associated with the same host
(Bartels collection, RMNH). However, the Bornean
egg is rather large for a normal Cacomantis vario-
losus egg of Java, since of 80 eggs cf. the latter
species examined by me the largest measures 21.7Xx
14.4 mm; av. 20.3 x 14.8 mm, shape index 1.37,
Rey’s index 2.33-2.37. It is, however, clear that
the identity of the above mentioned egg as Cucu-
lus fugax is very doubtful. A pale uniform bluish-
white cuckoo egg described by Sharpe (1897, l.c.
p. 264) from Bunang River, Borneo, May 1876,
measuring 30.5 x 20.3 mm, shape index 1.50, found
in a nest of the Black-and-Red Broadbill Cymbi-
rhynchus macrorhynchus, might be an egg of Cucu-
lus fugax (see Japanese eggs), but is probably still
a little too large for this species. The largest Japa-
nese egg (B.M. collection, ex. coll. Baker) measures
28.7 x 19.2 mm, shell weight 0.3572 g, shape index
1.50, Rey’s index 1.54, Mt. Fuji, Subashiri, Japan,
5 June 1916.

214

Cuculus micropterus
INDIAN CUCKOO

BREEDING. Brood-parasitic on drongos (Di-
cruridae), mainly the Indian Black Drongo or
King Crow Dicrurus adsimilis and the Indian
Grey Drongo D. leucophaeus. Other fosterers
in whose nests cuckoo eggs attributed to this
species are found (see Baker, 1942, p. 190-
191) are rather dubious. Probably, the Streak-
ed Spiderhunter Arachnothera magna, the
Paradise Flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi, and
orioles Oriolus oriolus and O. sinensis, should
be omitted as hosts.

Baker (1934, 1942) distinguished two egg-
types of this cuckoo: one white with reddish-
brown markings and adapted to drongos, the
other plain blue and adapted mainly to Garru-
lax species.

Of 9 eggs of the drongo-type of this cuckoo
in the Baker collection, scanning-electron
microscopic examination of the eggshell sur-
face revealed that only one egg of this series
was a cuckoo egg. All the other eggs (Box 98:
E2,E 4, F 1, 20a & b’, etc.) were displaced
drongo eggs apparently from other drongo
clutches. Drongo eggs are rather variable in
colour and markings and it is relatively easy
to obtain eggs of a different pattern, which
can be placed in nests of either other drongos
or Paradise Flycatchers or orioles. The only
genuine cuckoo egg (Box 98: 20 b”) was
claimed to have been obtained from a nest of
the Paradise Flycatcher, but in view of the
above-mentioned displacements this cannot be
accepted as certain. According to the original
label (Baker’s catalogue) this Cuculus micrep-
terus egg was obtained by Mr. F. A. C.
Munns (see also Munns, 1939) in the Cham-
paran district of Bihar in Northern India, on
26 May 1939. The same collector provided
Baker with two other eggs from the same

BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS

locality, which prove to be falsifications, i.e.
displaced drongo eggs.

Dicrurus adsimilis is also reported to be
the host of Cuculus micropterus in the duars
of North Bengal, as on two occasions a fledg-
ling cuckoo was seen to be fed by this host
species (O’Donel, 1936). A similar observa-
tion was made by Storrs (1944). Also other
data indicate that drongos are the main fost-
er species of this cuckoo in India. A nearly
full-grown fledgling of Cuculus micropterus
was collected by B. B. Osmaston at Dehra
Dun, Uttar Pradesh, on 30 July 1897.
Its skin, which came to the Leiden Museum
(ex. coll. H. J. V. Sody, RMNH reg. no.
27040), bears on its label in Osmaston’s hand-
writing: ‘shot while being fed by Dicrurus
atra’ (=D. adsimilis) and ‘it was calling like
a young Dicrurus’. In the Simla region (Hima-
chal Pradesh: 31°07’N, 77°09’E), Jones
(1941) reported for Cuculus micropterus
five cuckoo eggs in the nests of the
Indian Grey Drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus
longicaudatus and one fledgling cuckoo being
fed by the same foster species. All cuckoo
eggs were found in the month of May at eleva-
tions between 1800 m and 2000 m.

In Java fledglings of the local resident race
Cuculus micropterus concretus have been ob-
served and collected (Bartels collection,
RMNH); they were fed by the Large Racket-
tailed Drongo Dicrurus paradiseus. A genuine
ege of this cuckoo (confirmed by electron
microscopy) from this region is also from the
nest of the same host species. It was collected
by H. Bartels (Bartels egg-collection, RMNH)
at Mt. Massigit, near Cibadak, W. Java, on
10 December 1927. In this area this cuckoo
is especially vocal in the winter months, i.e.
rainy season, at the time when the northern
migratory race micropterus is also present in
the same area (pers. observation).

For China, La Touche (1931) described an

oviduct egg resembling very closely the egg
of a drongo, and Herklots (1953) for the
Heng Kong area mentioned fledglings and two
eggs found in the nests of the Chinese Black
Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis. Eggs and nestlings
associated with Dicrurus adsimilis are also
mentioned by Vaughan and Jones (1913, lc.
p. 186) from the Chinese mainland, a few
miles from Macao. Further north, ie. in
Peking, North China, nestlings of Cuculus
micropterus have been observed in the nests
of the Chinese Blue Magpie Cyanopica cyana
(Shaw, 1938, 1940; Hoffmann, 1950), and in
the Amur region, U.S.S.R., its principal host
is the Amur Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus
confusus, as well documented by Neufeldt
(1966).

As mentioned above, Baker (1934, 1942)
also attributed an uniformly blue egg to this
cuckoo species; but this is very dubious. Some
of these eggs are, from their ultra-structure,
not cuckoo eggs but probably those of Musci-
capidae (Timaliinae) or even Sturnidae, e.g.
the cuckoo eggs in Baker’s collection Box 98:
A 2 & 3. One egg ‘found’ in a drongo nest was
according to its typical ultra-structural charac-
teristics definitely a Garrulax spp. cgg. Others,
rather regularly associated with the Streaked
Laughing Thrush Garrulax lineatus, are from
their ultra-structure indeed cuckoo eggs, e.g.
Box 98: A 1 & 4, B 1, etc. The blue eggs are
nearly all collected in the Murree Hills, W.
Pakistan (Murree: 33°55’N, 73°26’E), and on
the basis of their parameters such as dimen-
sions, shape and Rey’s index and ultra-structur-
al details of the eggshell, I regard them as blue
eges of Cuculus canorus. As for the so-called
blue Cuculus micropterus eggs in the Baker
and B.M. collection associated with Terpsi-
phone paradisi (B.M. 1962.24.477-8); Turdi-
nae such as Saxicola torquata (Murree Hills,
19 June 1906), Erithacus brunneus (Murree
Hills, 31 May 1903), Enicurus maculatus

215

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

(Murree Hills, 20 May 1911); Campephagi-
dae: Coracina melaschistos (Murree Hills, 14
May 1911, B.M. 1962.24.479-80), and Embe-
rizidae: Emberiza cia stracheyi (Murree Hills,
16 May 1911, B.M. 1962. 24.453-4), I regard
all of these as blue eggs of Cuculus canorus.
Ultra-structural examination showed that one
of the ‘host’ eggs in a clutch with a cuckoo
egg in Baker’s collection (Box 98: A 4, Murree
Hills, 15 June 1900) in a nest of Garrulax
lineatus is in fact a Clamator spp. egg indica-
ting once more that these various cuckoo spe-
cies have partly the same fosterers. The con-
fusion can be cleared up, if new material be-
comes available which would allow a combi-
nation of eggshell ultra-structure study and egg-
white protein analyses. This would be parti-
cularly important for the immaculate plain
blue cuckoo eggs which I attribute to Cuculus
canorus.

Eggs, broad ovals (see shape index), pink
or whitish pink with vinaceous, violet or scar-
let-carmine ill-defined blotches and spots and
more greyish underlying markings, mimicking
drongo eggs very closely. For this reason ultra-
structural analyses are absolutely necessary for
irrefutable proof. One Indian egg (Baker col-
lection; Box 98: 20 b”, dist. Champaran,
Bihar, 26 May 1939) measures 26.2x17.9 mm,
shape index 1.46, shell weight 0.2362 g, Rey’s
index 1.99, fresh weight 4.6 g. Measurements
of 3 eggs from the Lower Amur region,
U.S.S.R. reported by Neufeldt (1966) av.
25.2 x 19.5 mm, shape index 1.30. One egg of
the sedentary Javanese race C. micropterus
concretus distinctly smaller, 23.6 17.7 mm,
shape index 1.33, shell weight 0.2259 g, fresh
weight 4.0 g (Bartels collection. RMNH).
Average body weight 118.2 (114.6-121.8) g
(n=2), relative egg weight 3.4-5.0%.

Season, available data for India scarce (see
above), probably from May till July, i.e. the
main season of its drongo hosts and the time

216

when this cuckoo is most vocal.

Nestling and _ fledgling. Newly hatched
blind and naked. Skin of body, bill, nostrils,
and legs yellowish pink. Mouth orange-red,
gape yellowish. In 4-5 days the first feathers
developing, eyes half open. In 7 days the eyes
entirely open, and by 9-10 days feathers emerge
from their sheaths (Neufeldt, 1966). Feathered
nestlings and fledglings are distinguishable
from chicks of all other cuckoos by their pecu-
liar pale, rather variegated appearance caused
by a predominance of dirty cream and isabel-
jine colour in the plumage. Feathers of upper
part of the head, hind-neck, and throat basally
brownish black, but with broad isabelline api-
cal band. Lower throat sparsely marked with
transverse bars, and belly pure isabelline
coloured (see Plates 5 and 6). Incubation
period 12 days, while in the Brown Shrike
Lanius cristatus 14 days, therefore cuckoo
nestlings usually hatch before the fosterers
(Neufeldt, 1966).

Cuculus canorus bakeri
KHASI HILLS CUCKOO

It is well known that the widespread Eura-
sian Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus pata-
sitizes many host species, and that it is divided
into so-called ‘gentes’ which lay quite different
egg-types adapted to certain host species.
Broadly speaking, it has a spotted egg-type
mainly adapted to Acrocephalus and Anthus
species and a plain blue egg-type adapted to
the Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus and
the Dunnock (or accentors) Prune'la modu-
laris, although of course intermixing sometimes
occurs.

It is remarkable that Baker (1934, 1942)
gave very little attention to blue egg-type of
C. canorus bakeri. Only about 20 eggs of the
blue egg-type were considered to be of the
Khasi Hills Cuckoo, although altogether about
2,000 eggs of this race were collected. This

J. BomBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. 78 PLATE 6
Becking : Indian Cuckoos

Fledgling of the Indian Cuckoo Cuculus micropterus fed by the Amur Brown
Shrike Lanius cristatus confusus, showing the dark-brown and ivory white ‘variegated’
appearance of the cuckoo. Lower Amurland, U.S.S.R., 10 July 1962. x 0.7.

(Photo: I. A. Neufeldt)

PLATE 7

Soc. 78
Cuckoos

NAT. HIST

BOMBAY

j

Indian

ing

Beck

Nest of the Bush Warbler Cettia diphone with female bird at nest entrance. This

Cuckoo Cuculus _ poliocephalus.

f the Small
x 0.9.

1eS O

=

foster spec

In

the mai

1S

.

warbler

I. A. Neufeldt)

(Photo

Ussuriland, U.S.S.R., July 1966.

BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS

was in spite of the fact that the blue egg-type
was irrefutably established by B. B. Osmaston
(1916) for Maymyo, Upper Burma (in asso-
ciation with Saxicola caprata!) and by Mac-
kenzie (1918) for Maymyo and the North
Chin Hills (in association with pipits and
buntings). I regard all putative blue cuckoo
eggs attributed by Baker (1934, 1942) to
Cuculus micropierus, C. varius, or C. sparve-
rioides (as already discussed under these spe-
cies), to be in fact blue eggs of Cuculus cano-
rus bakeri. Also the plain blue egg found in
the nests of laughing thrushes, Garrulax cine-
raceus and G. pectoralis, and of the Rusty-
cheeked Scimitar Babbler Pomatorhinus ery-
throgenys, described by Hopwood and Mack-
enzie (1917, lc., p. 89) as those of the Large
Hawk-Cuckoo Cuculus sparverioides, are pro-
bably Cuculus canorus eggs.

Although the Baker collection contains a
great number of eggs of the Khasi Hills Cuck-
oo very little is known of its ecology and
breeding habits. Except for Livesey (1936,
1939) nobody has studied its biology and be-
haviour at fosterer nests. For this race the in-
cubation period and fledgling time are un-
known. It will be far more useful not to collect
any more eggs of this C. canorus race, but to
let them hatch and confirm the identity of the
cuckoo, especially in case of abnormal hosts
and rather aberrant cuckoo eggs. Particularly
the supposed Cuculus canorus eggs in Gar-
rulax nests should be verified by hatching (see

Cuculus sparverioides and C. micropterus).

BREEDING. ‘The Eurasian races have a multi-
ple fosterer range, parasitizing mainly small
Passerines of the families Muscicapidae, in
particular Turdinae (chats), Sylviinae (Acro-
cephalus spp.), Motacillidae (Motacilla spp..,
Anthus spp.) and Emberizidae (buntings).
Baker’s statement that the principal host of
the Khasi Hills Cuckoo are small warblers

(Sylviinae) of the genera Cisticola and Prinia,
based on the number of eggs in his collection,
probably does not truly reflect the choice of
fosterer, since the nests of the latter species
are more likely to be found by unintentional
human activity (grass cutters, rice field har-
vest, etc.). From accounts by Mackenzie
(1918), Livesey (1935 a, b), and Jones
(1936), it is evident that Saxicola species (S.
caprata and S. torquata), Anthus species (A.
sylvanus, A. novaeseelandiae rufulus), Mega-
lurus palustris (Sylviinae) and buniings (Em-
berizidae: Melophus lathami) are aiso very re-
gularly parasitized and certainly equally im-
portant hosts.

Eggs. Six eggs of the spotted egg-type:
white with reddish brown blotches (egg-type
resembling a large European Robin egg), av.
24.4 17.3 mm, shape index 1.41, av. shell
weight 0.2384 g, Rey’s index 1.84 (1.76-1.80),
fresh egg weight 3.6-4.3 g. In one of the host
species, the Brown Hill Warbler Prinia criniger,
the Rey’s index is on average 2.86 (2.68-3.06),
showing the great difference from the cuckoo
eggs. Five eggs of Cuculus canorus from North-
ern Europe measure on average 22.8 x 16.9
mm, shape index 1.35 (1.27-1.43), shell weight
0.2420 (0.2287-0.2577) g, Rey’s index 1.59
(1.52-1.77), indicating that the Khasi Hills

Cuckoo has a somewhat larger, thinner-shell-

ed egg compared to the European race. My
assumption that the blue cuckoo eggs in Gar-
rulax nests are those of Cuculus canorus is
strengthened by the fact that the red spotted
‘Robin-type’ egg of this cuckoo is occasional-
ly also found in association with Garrulax
lineatus (Baker coliection).

Cuculus saturatus
HIMALAYAN CUCKOO
BREEDING. ‘This species is highly specialized

in its fosterer choice. It is brood-parasitic on

2 le)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

members of the closely related group of fly-
catcher and leaf warblers of the genera Sei-
cercus and Phylloscopus. These are tiny birds
less than one-third of the size of the cuckoo.
In Kashmir the Large Crowned Warbler Phyl-
loscopus occipitalis and in the Himalayas and
Khasi Hills in Assam, the Crowned Leaf War-
bler Phylloscopus reguloides are the most fre-
quent foster species. In Malaysia and Indo-
nesia, with respect to the sedentary race C.
saturatus lepidus (formerly assigned to Cucu-
lus poliocephalus, see Wells and _ Becking,
1975; and Becking, 1975 b) its host pattern
is the same. In Malaysia the main fosterer is
the Chestnut-headed Flycatcher Warktier Seicer-
cus castaniceps, and in Java the Sunda-Island
Flycatcher-Warbler Seicercus grammiceps and
the Mountain Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus tri-
virgatus. Eggs and breeding in this geographi-
cal region are described by Becking (1975b).

A nestling of this cuckoo found at the
Semangko Pass, Selangor-Pahang, Malaysia (alt.
850-1500 m) on 24 February 1908 in the nest
of Seicercus castaniceps butleri was described
by Robinson (1927) and Chasen (1939) as
that of Surniculus lugubris brachyurus. For-
tunately, definite proof could be obtained as
I was able to locate this skin under the latter
name in the B.M. collection, Tring (B.M. reg.
no. 1936.4-14-359) and identified it as Cuculus
saturatus. As in Cuculus canorus, nestlings and
fledglings of C. saturatus are very variable in
colour. Light and dark coloured specimens may
occur. Light coloured specimens have whitish
underparts heavily barred with dark chocolate
brown and possess rufous red greater wing
coverts (see colour Plate 1), whereas in dark
specimens the barring is far less conspicuous
and the upperparts are much darker, super-
ficially resembling a Surniculus lugubris young.
However, nestlings and fledglings of Cuculus
saturatus can easily be told apart from those
of Surniculus lugubris by a fundamentally dif-

218

ferent feather pattern. Feathers (underparts
and back) of dark specimens of Cuculus satu-
ratus are dark blackish brown with a white
apical band, whereas those of Surniculus lugu-
bris are blackish brown with a white triangular
spot near the rachis at some distance from the
apex (see Figure 1).

Or gi
Fig. 1. Pattern of certain contour feathers (in this
case back feathers) of the Himalayan Cuckoo
Cuculus saturatus (left) and the Drongo Cuckoo
Surniculus lugubris (right) showing the characteris-
tic difference in the white pattern of the vane.- x 1.0.

F.ggs, long elliptical or sub-elliptical, rather
variable in size and rather small for the size
of the cuckoo. Ground colour white or whitish
buff speckled with small spots and tiny lines
of reddish brown, usually forming a conspic-
uous ring round the large end. In some cases
mimicking the spotted eggs of a leaf warbler
(Phylloscopus spp.), but in other cases not
matching the plain white eggs of flycatcher-
warblers Seicercus spp. and some other Phyl-
loscopus species (e.g. P. trivirgatus). Average
size of 10 eggs 21.1 15.6 mm, shape index
1,36 (1.27-1.45), shell weight 0.153 (0.130-
0.165) g, Rey’s index 2.16 (1.99-2.44). Six
eggs have average fresh weight 2.89 (2.70-
3.10) g. The Rey’s index indicates that the
eggs are rather thin-shelled; actual measure-
ments showed a shell thickness of the calcified
shell of 77-80 um. Fosterer eggs are, however,
much more thin-shelled, since the Rey’s indices
of the eggs of Phylloscopus trivirgatus and
Seicercus grammiceps are 3.54 (3.26-3.87). and
4.09 (3.85-4.33), respectively. |

Distribution and migration. The dicttributien

BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS

map presented in the first edition of the HAND-
BooK (Ali and Ripley, 1969, vol. 3): is incor-
rect, since the races insulindae and lepidus are
now not assigned to C. poliocephalus, but’ to
C. saturatus (Becking, 1975 b; Wells and Beck-
ing, 1975). The races insulindae and lepidus are
sedentary and in the winter season, which is
partly also their breeding season, they occur
sympatrically with the migrant palaearctic races
saturatus and horsfieldi (Becking, 1975 b). In
India Cuculus saturatus is a typical montane
species, breeding in the Himalayas from west
to east and throughout the higher hills of
Assam (Khasi Hills, etc.) and northern Burma
and Thailand (Smythies, 1953). It is absent
in the plains except some northern races as
winter visitors. Migrants of the northern race
horsfieldi (Japan, etc.) arrive earlier (because
of earlier winter at higher latitude) in South-
east Asia than the nominate race from central
Asia (Becking, 1975 b). The direction of migra-
tion is south-east over Malaysia and the Indo-
nesian islands to Papua, some even reaching
the northern part of the Australian continent
(Slater, 1971). In contrast, the sympatric
Small Cuckoo Cuculus poliocephalus migrates
south-west to Africa. The same difference of
migration routes exists between two also partly
sympatric Clamator species, i.e. C.-coroman-
dus and C. jacobinus, and must therefore been
of ancient, evolutionary origin. The notation
in the HANDBOOK (vol. 3, Ic. p. 212) ‘Not un-
common in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
during the summer months’ (Butler, 1899, Lc.
p. 565) needs verification, since as. pointed: out
above Cuculus saturatus is primarily a mon-
iane species and northern migratory — races
occur in the lowlands only in winter.
Cuculus poliocephalus -

SMALL CUCKOO Se | Ps
BREEDING. Rather specialized on..one host.
Brood-parasitic on small warblers of the genus

Ceitia which nest near the ground. From the
Himalayas to Assam and Upper Burma the
main fosterer is the Strongfooted Kush War-
bler Cettia fortipes, in Sikkim the Palefooted
Bush Warbler Ceftia pallidipes. In inore north-
ern regions the main host is the Chinese Bush
Warbler Cettia diphone, e.g. in Aiur region,
U.S.S.R. (Neufeldt, 1971) and in Japan (Ko-
bayashi and Ishizawa, 1932-40; Yamashina,
1961).

Season, May, June and July, synchronized
with that of the fosterers at the various lati-
tudes.

Eggs, broad ovals with rounded ends, ter-
ra-cotta red or deep chocolate-brown in colour,
Closely mimicking the similar coloured eggs
of the host species. Plates 7 and 8 show an
egg in a nest of Ceftia diphone. As is evident
from the picture, the cuckoo egg can hardly
be distinguished from the host eggs. Baker
(1934, 1942) also attributed a plain white egg,
also associated with Cettia, to this cuckoo
species. This needs, however, verification by
letting such eggs hatch. Nevertheless it is plau-
sible that such an egg belongs to this cuckoo
species, because its ultra-structure is similar
to that of the terracotta red eggs, and differ-
ent from that of the Himalayan Cuckoo Cucu-
lus saturatus. Yen terracotta red eggs measure
av. 21.2 x 15.6 mm, shell weight 0.153 (0.130-
0.165) g, shape index 1.36 (1.27-1.45) and
Rey’s index 2.16 (1.99-2.44). Direct measure-
ments of the thickness of the calcified shell
by scanning electron micrography give 77-80
pm. Six fresh eggs weighed 2.89 (2.70-3.10) g.

Distribution and migration. The distribution
map given in the HANDBOOK (Ali and Ripley,
vol. 3, Ist ed., 1969) is incorrect, since the
races insulindae and lepidus do not belong to
this species, but to the Himalayan Cuckoo
Cuculus saturatus (see Wells and Becking,
1975). Its migration pattern is peculiar, since

219

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

this cuckoo shows long distance migration in
a south-west direction (probably over open
sea, no records from the Middle East) straight
from India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) to South-
fast Africa. I have seen skins of this species
collected in their winter quarters in Tanzania,
Kenya, Uganda, Rhodesia and southern Africa
in the months November to April (RMNH
Leiden, B. M. Tring, MNH—Paris, Bulawayo
Museum, Durban Museum and NHRM, Stock-
holm). The earliest date was 16 November,
the latest 17 April; most of the specimens
were collected in the months March and April.
This cuckoo was also found among skin mate-
rial from Madagascar (Forschungsinstitut Sen-
ckenberg, Germany, reg. no. 27780, collected
by E. Ebenau in 1876) besides Cuculus rochii,
which is not a race of C. poliocephalus but a
separate species (Becking, in prep.). There is
one certain record of C. poliocephalus from
the South Andaman Islands (collected 5 No-
vember 1906) verified by us (Wells and Beck-
ing, 1975), but no other record between Asia
and Africa.

€Cacomantis sonneratii
INDIAN BAY BANDED CUCKOO

BREEDING. Brood-parasitic primarily on ioras
Aegithina tiphia and probably to a lesser ex-
tent on minivets, Pericrocotus species. Both
genera build rather similar, small. cup-shaped
nests. Egg mimicry with Aegithina eggs is per-
fect and cuckoo eggs can only be discriminat-
ed from fosterer eggs by ultra-structural ana-
lyses of the eggshell surface by means of scan-
ning electron-microscopy. So far this has not
yet been done for the Indian races owing to
lack of material, but has been done with the
eggs of the Javanese race musicus, the Suma-
tran race schlegeli, and the Ceylon race waiti.
The eggs described by Baker (1934, 1942) for
this species associated with babbler; (Timalii-

220

nae),.in particular the Nepal Quaker Babbler
Alcippe nipalensis, are misidentified; they be-
long to the Drongo Cuckoo Surniculus lugu-
bris. .

One egg of the Aegithina-tvpe was obtained
by Abdulali (1943), who shot on 3 August
1941 a female at Khandala (Wesicern Ghats,
18°O1’N, 74°04’E) with a shelled egg in the
oviduct. Although the egg was damaged by
the shot, the remains were preserved and the
egg agrees closely with an Jora’s—white back-
ground with sparse reddish-brown blotches and
streaks heavier towards the broader end. AIl-
ready Abdulali remarked that it was certainly
not like an egg of the Red-whiskered Bulbul
as suggested by Baker (1942) (=egg of Surni-
culus lugubris). :

Season, probably variable and prolonged
(February to August), synchronized locally
with its favourite host species Aegithina tiphia.

Eggs, broad ovals, ground colour white or
pinkish, speckled and blotched with reddish-
or purplish-brown primary markings and
somewhat greyer underlying markings. Some-
times the blotches are more elongated and
directed from pole to pole. Two eggs of the
Javanese race musicus average 17.6 X 13.5 mm,
shape index 1.30, shell weight 0.0985 (0.0954-
0.1016) g. Rey’s index 2.42 (2.41-2.43), fresh
weight 1.80 (1.68-1.94) g. One egg of the
Sumatran race schlegeli measures 18.8 x 14.4
mm, shape index 1.31, Rey’s index 2.39, fresh
weight 2.12 g. This egg is more densely
blotched with olive-green and grey spots
(somewhat resembling a Passer egg), but other-
wise very similar to the Javanese eggs. It was
obtained at Negerya, Tanjung Karang, Lam-
pongs, South Sumatra on 18 April 1950. This
egg, earlier described by Voous (1951), was
Jaid in the hand by a bird shot with a sling.

The egg of the foster species Aegithina
fiphia is rather variable in colour and mark-
ings. Although Aegithina eggs are of the same

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 78 PLATE 8
Becking : Indian Cuckoos

Nest of the Bush Warbler Cettia diphone showing eggs of the fosterer with one
egg of the Small Cuckoo Cuculus poliocephalus. The cuckoo egg (indicated by arrow)
mimics the foster eggs closely. Ussuriland, U.S.S.R., 11 July 1966. x 1.0.

(Photo: I. A. Neufeldt)

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BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS

size as the Cacomantis sonneratii eggs, they
are thinner shelled. Five Aegithina tiphia eggs
average 0.0847 g, Rey’s index 2.75-2.88. Egg-
shell thickness in C. sonneratii is av. 143 ym,
whereas in Aegithina 117-123 ym. There is
no significant difference in fresh egg weight
between cuckoo and fosterer, since Aegithina
eggs weigh 1.71-1.89 g. Three adult specimens
uf this cuckoo averaged 33.7 (32.0-35.0) g,
thus relative egg weight (related to body
weight) is 5.2%. Two cuckoo fledglings (stage
presented in Plate 1, middle right) weighed
25.0 and 26.0 g; they were collected by W. C.
van Heurn (now collection RMNH) at Bogor,
Western Java, in July 1925 and August 1926,
respectively.

The young cuckoo evicts eggs and rightful
nest-mates from the parasitized nest. The re-
cord by Bromley (1948), mentioning two
Cacomantis sonneratii fledglings fed by the
same parents (Aegithina tiphia) in Malaysia,
is probably a confusion of two neighbouring
cuckolded Aegithina pairs. The nestling of an
unknown cuckoo species found in a Common
lora Aegithina tiphia nest, described by His-
lop (1956) as having a reddish-brown ‘wood-
cock’ plumage, is definitely a Cacomantis
sonneratii nestling. No other cuckoo has these
plumage features. A colour representation of
a very young C. sonneratii and a recently fledg-
ed fledgling is shown in Plate 1 (middle). As
is evident from the colour plate, the young of

this cuckoo species can be readily distinguish-
ed from all other cuckoos by their rufous-red
striped upperparts and the fine black barring
of throat and underparts. Further, it is the
only small cuckoo with rather striking olive-
green feet, a feature which is very prominent
in nestlings and fledglings and to some extent
also visible in juveniles and semi-adults.

Cacomantis sonneratii waiti
CEYLON BAY BANDED CUCKOO

BREEDING. A Common lora. Aegithina tiphia
multicolor nest containing one cuckoo egg and
two host eggs was collected by W. E. Wait
at Colombo, Sri Lanka, in February 1909
(Baker collection, B.M.). This cuckoo egg was
formerly assigned by Baker (1934, 1942) to
the Drongo Cuckoo Surniculus lugubris. The
cuckoo egg measures 17.4 13.5 mm, shape
index 1.29, shell weight 0.0866 g, Rey’s index
2.71. It mimics the Iora eggs closely, but in
this particular clutch it is somewhat different
from the Tora eggs, which as usual are rather
variable in colour and markings in the various
clutches.

Victimizes also the Orange Minivet Pericro-
cotus flammeus, since Mrs. C. Lushington
(cited by Phillips, 1944, lc. p. 219) observed
a couple of these minivets on 4 September
1940 at Kahawatta (6°35’N, &0°34’E), Ratna-
pura district, Sri Lanka, feeding a fledgling of
this cuckoo. Probably also parasitizes the
Little Minivet Pericrocotus peregrinus, but
irrefutable data are lacking. Fledglings and
young cuckoos have been observed in June
and October by Phillips (1944).

Cacomantis merulinus
INDIAN PLAINTIVE CUCKOO

Brood-parasitic on small warblers
(Sylviinae) such as representatives of the
genera Prinia, Cisticola, and Orthotomus.
These fosterers are birds of rather open habi-
tats such as savanna grassland, village gardens,
plantations and secondary forest. In conformity
with this, Cacomantis merulinus is a cuckoo
of open habitats and secondary forest and is
never found in dense primary forest. Most of
its fosterers build dome-shaped nests with a
side entrance or rather fragile deep purses

BREEDING.

221

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

with a narrow slit entrance between leaves.
Thus, it is rather difficult to conceive how the
cuckoo introduces its egg into these nests
without damaging it. The act of egg laying
has never been observed and needs to be de-
termined. In Java where this cuckoo mainly
parasitizes Orthotomus sepium and O. suto-
rius nests, a large proportion (i.e. 20%) of the
parasitized tailorbird nests are afterwards
deserted (Becking, pers. observation). A nest-
ling of Cuculus merulinus fed by its fosterer,
the Ashy Tailorbird Orthotomus sepium, is
illustrated in Plate 9.

Season, overall May to September, with a
distinct peak in July (58% of 53 breeding
records, Baker collection). Breeding synchro-
nized locally with the host species. oS

Eggs, several clear-cut colour types exist,
adapted to special fosterer species. Eggs usual-
ly larger than fosterer’s long oval with rounded
ends, but in some cases somewhat tapering
to the small end. Shell surface glossy or mod-
erately glossy. Fourteen Indian eggs average
19.1 x 13.3 mm, shape index 1.44, shell weight
0.1187 (0.1016-0.1326) g, Rey’s index 2.14
(2.04-2.39). Fresh egg weight 1.48 (1.33-1.56)
g. Body weight of the bird is av. 25.7 g (n=6),
thus the egg weight is 5.4-6.0% of the body
weight. Colour of the cuckoo egg variable and
distinct colour types (so-called ‘gentes’) mim-
icking certain fosterers can be distinguished.
These types are mainly the following:

(1) Cuckoo eggs adapted to the eggs of the
Ashy Wren-Warbler Prinia socialis are uni-
formly chestnut- or mahogany-red sometimes
with some darker faint spots of the same colour
around the large end. This type is mainly
found on the Deccan plateau and Andhra
Pradesh, e.g. in Hyderabad city and surround-
ings, Trimulghery, and Bolarum.

(2) An egg-type adapted to the Com-
mon Indian Wren-Warbler Prinia inornata.
These eggs mimic the eggs of the fosterer per-

Pipi

fectly except for their size, being larger. These
cuckoo eggs have a pale blue ground colour
boldly marked with sharply defined blotches
and twisted lines of deep red, blackish
brown or purple at the surface and somewhat
greyer underlying markings completely similar
to the foster species. This egg-type is found
in Tamil Nadu, e.g. Kotagiri (11°21’ N, 76°
54’ E), Nilgiris near Ootacamund, and also
much more north near Dehra Dun (30° 19’N,
78°03’ E), Uttar Pradesh.

(3) A cuckoo egg-type adapted to the tailor-
birds Orthotomus sutorius and O. sepium, or
the Streaked Fantail Warbler Cisticola juncidis.
So far Cacomantis merulinus eggs have never
been found in the nest of the Redheaded Fan-
tail Warbler Cisticola exilis, which occurs in
more scrubby habitat and builds 2 different
type of nest. This third type of cuckoo egg has
a light pinkish or bluish white ground colour
marked with reddish-brown blotches and
specks often forming a ring around the large
end. This egg-type is widely distributed over
the Indian subcontinent and occurs in various
habitats.

A remarkable case of adaptaticn of this
cuckoo species to its foster species is re-
ported by R. K. Burnett in Andhra Pradesh
(cited by Baker, 1907/08), where in Hydera-
bad city this cuckoo lays a brick-red egg
(type 1) associated with the Ashy Wren-War-
bler Prinia socialis, but in the surroundings
of the city a spotted egg (type 3) associated
with the Indian Tailorbird Orthotomus suto-
rius.

The extraordinary record cited in the HAND-
BooK (Ali and Ripley, vol. 3, 1969, l.c. p. 219)
of a chick of this cuckoo at Poona
(Maharashtra) in the nest of a Purjle Sunbird
Nectarinia asiatica being fed in turns by its
fosterers and by tailorbirds Orthotomus suto-
rius (cf. Suter, 1945) needs confirmation. The
chick is more likely to have been a Chrysococ-

BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS

cyx® (=Chalcites) species (C. maculatus or C.
xanthorhynchus) and its begging had prob-
ably elicited the feeding response of a pair of
tailorbirds which had Ses lost their off-

spring.

Cacomantis merulinus querulus
BURMESE PLAINTIVE CUCKOO

BREEDING. Probably more or less identical
to the Indian race. The HANDBOOK (Ali and
Ripley, vol. 3, 1959, l.c. p. 221) cites as hosts
Prinia criniger, P. atrogularis, P. hodgsonii,
Cisticola cursitans, and Orthotomus sutorius.
It is very likely also that in the plains (grass-
land savanna and rice fields) the Streaked
Fantail Warbler Cisticola juncidis and in grass-
land/scrub country the Yellowbellied Wren-
Warbler Prinia flaviventris are regular victims,
because these host species are often parasitiz-
ed by this cuckoo in the more eastern regions
of its distribution area such as Malaysia and
Indonesia (J ava).

Chrysococcyx maculatus
EMERALD CUCKOO

BREEDING. Very imperfectly known. Brood-
parasitic on sunbirds, mainly the Indian
Yellow backed Sunbird Aethopyga siparaja
seheriae or Mrs. Gould’s Sunbird Aethopyga
gouldiae and the Little Spideriunter Arachno-
thera longirostris. The Baker collection has a
fair number of eggs of this and the following
species, the Violet Cuckoo C. xanthorhynchus,
nearly all collected in Assam. These localities
are: Cherrapunji (Assam, 25°16’N, 91°42’
FE), Goalpara (Assam, 26°.10’N, 90° 38’E),
Gooma Reserve (near Goalpara, Assam), and
Dumpep (Khasi Hills, Assam). Apparently in

3 But Poona is entirely outside the distributional
range of these cuckoos !-Eds.

this region both species are widely sympatric
and victimize the same hosts.

Comparison of these series of eggs in the
Baker collection showed two distinct types of
eggs in respect of markings and shape (long
type versus round type). Since moreover also
the ultra-structure of the eggshell was funda-
inentally different, it is evident that they be-
long to two different cuckoo species. Because
no oviduct eggs are available of this species,
nor of Chrysococcyx xanthorhynchus, — there
is at present no means of assigning the egg-
types to either of these species. As is evident
from the numerous changes in names on the
labels and set marks on the eggs, Baker chang-
ed his opinion several times and his classifi-
cation is rather arbitrary. Re-examining this
material Harrison (1970) partly reversed
Baker’s classification, but I cannot subscribe
to some of his allocations as some of these eggs
probably belong according to me to the Plain-
tive Cuckoo Cacomantis merulinus (see Chry-
sococcyx xanthorhynchus).

Ultra-structural examination of these eggs
in the Baker collection by scanning electron
microscopy revealed irrefutably that both egg-
types were cuckoo eggs. They showed all the
structural characteristics of parasitic cuckoo
eggs such as surface texture and the presence
of plugged pores with cracks in the plug ma-
terial (see Plates 3 and 10). As already stated,
the two types had a different ultra-texture, in-
dicating that they belong to different species.
The mensural characteristics of both egg-types
are also different. One egg-type is on average
smaller and more rounded; the other is larger
and more elongated (see shape indices and
measurements). Since Chrysococcyx xantho-
rhynchus (body-length c. 17 cm, wing-lengths
90-105 mm) is a somewhat smaller bird than
C. maculatus (body-length c. 18 cm, wing-
lengths 105-114 mm) the smaller more round-
ed egg-type is provisionally attributed to C.

223

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

xanthorhynchus and the larger, elongated egg-
type to C. maculatus. This classification is to
some extent supported by the field observations
of Inglis and Primrose, the main collectors of
these eggs (see Inglis, 1908), as discussed
under C. xanthorhynchus.

The supposed Chrysococcyx maculatus eggs
mimic very Closely those of the Little Spider-
hunter Arachnothera longirostris, with which
host they are often associated. The eggs are
long ovals, glossless and in colour Light Buff
or Orange Citric (Ridgway) covered with
Light Brownish Olive spots and specks often
forming a distinct ring around the blunt pole.
Compared to Arachnothera eggs, the cuckoo
eggs have markings of a more olive-brown
tinge being less russet or vinaceous-fawn than
Arachnothera longirostris eggs usually are.
Eight of this type of cuckoo eggs average
17.6X 12.3 mm (16.4-18.4 x 11.7-13.3), shape
index av. 1.42 (1.33-1.53), shell weight av.
0.0889 (0.0780-0.0965) g, Rey’s index av. 2.44
(2.32-2.73). Fresh egg weight c. 1.45-1.50 g.

It will be absolutely necessary to determine
the identity of the cuckoo hatching from these
eggs before they can be attributed to C. ma-
culatus with any confidence. Although not
definitely observed in this species, nor in the
next, Chrysococcyx xanthorhynchus, it is prob-
able that the cuckoo nestling evicts the right-
ful nest-mates, since in some cases the sunbird
nest contained only the cuckoo chick (Baker,
1907/08, 1908). Also in all congeneric species
(extralimital) the cuckoo nestling is known
to evict the rightful nest-mates.

Chrysococcyx xanthorhynchus

VIOLET CUCKOO

BREEDING. Very imperfectly known. Like the
preceding species Chrysococcyx maculatus,
mainly brood-parasitic on Yellowbacked Sun-
birds Aethopyga siparaja and the Little Spider-

224

hunter Arachnothera longirostris. Baker (1934,
1942) mentioned also as (putative?) hosts
Seicercus xanthoschistos and Orthotomus suto-
rius, but these hosts seem unlikely and need
confirmation. Harrison (1970), revising the eggs
of the Indian Chrysococcyx species in the
B.M. collection (Tring), gave a multiple host
range for C. xanthorhynchus including the
Streaked Fantail Warbler Cisticola juncidis
and the Tailorbird Orthotomus — sutorius.
Some of these eggs which I have examined, I
would classify as eggs of the Plaintive Cuckoo
Cacomantis merulinus.

As explained under Chrysococcyx macula-
tus, on the basis of numerical features the
smaller, more rounded egg was attributed to
C. xanthorhynchus. Among material of this
round egg-type in the Baker collection are
eggs collected by Mr. A. M. Primrose and
Mr. C. M. Inglis at the Gooma Reserve, Goal-
para, Assam, and associated with Aethopyga
siparaja seheriae (e.g. the clutches collected
on 14 May 1906, 16 June 1906, 15 May 1908,
etc.). In this respect it is of interest that Inglis
(1908), commenting on Baker’s (1908) iden-
tification of these eggs as those of the Emer-
ald Cuckoo Chrysococcyx maculutus, men-
tioned that the only Chrysococcyx species seen
and collected in the Gooma Reserve was the
Violet Cuckoo C. xanthorhynchus. Of the two
other cuckoos present in the Gooma Reserve,
one, the Drongo Cuckoo Surniculus lugubris,
has a much larger egg (as evident from an
unshelled egg of a bird shot in the Reserve)
and the other, the Plaintive Cuckoo Cacoman-
tis merulinus, 1s rare. Violet Cuckoos were very
numerous and actively calling, and in contrast
to the two other cuckoo species were seen
(and shot) in the vicinity of the sunbird nests.
Therefore, Inglis (1908) concluded that these
cuckoo eggs must belong the Violet Cuckoo
Chrysococcyx xanthorhynchus. In reply Baker
(1907/08, 1908) stated that Mr. Primrose suc-

Fes

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 78 PLATE 16)
Becking : Indian Cuckoos

Scanning electron micrograph of the surface of an eggshell of the Drongo Cuckoo
Surniculus lugubris, showing the very fine texture of the surface with many regular
triangular raised faces of characteristic dimensions and the typical cuculid pore. The
thread running to the pore is a contaminating fungal hypha. This cuckoo egg of the
so-called Pycnonotus-type was found in the nest of the Nepal Quaker Babbler Alcippe
nipalensis, Cherrapunji, Assam, 29 April 1918, leg. U. Nissor Singh (Baker collection
Box? 125; D7) s< 350:

BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS

ceeded in rearing a young cuckoo from such a
sunbird nest to the fledgling stage and this
proved ‘beyond all doubts’ to be the Emerald
Cuckoo, as evident from the skin sent to him
for identification. Unfortunately, the where-
abouts of this skin are unknown (not in the
B.M. collection). In my experience it is rather
difficult to distinguish these two species in
juvenile plumage, especially females.

In this connection it is worth mentioning
that Baker (1907/08, I.c. p. 685 and 1908, l.c.
p. 278) reported that an Emerald Cuckoo was
caught by ‘one of his men’ in a noose at the
entrance of a Blackthroated Babbler Stachyris
nigriceps nest (Gunjong, North Cachar, 10
August 1891) containing a distinct cuckoo egg,
bright pinkish-cream with red-brown blotches,
freckles and scriggly lines, and two quite dif-
ferent coloured host eggs. This is again an
unreliable record caused by uncritical accept-
ance of eggs from local inhabitants. First, it is
rather unlikely that a cuckoo could deposit an
ege without first being caught by the noose,
and secondly the egg, measuring 20.8 x 12.3
nim, is far too large for this bird and probably
an egg of the Drongo Cuckoo Surniculus
lugubris.

The smaller, round egg provisionally attri-
buted to Chrysococcyx xanthorhynchus has a
faint or moderate gloss. It is quite different
from the supposed C. maculatus eggs, being
profusely speckled and blotched with red vi-
naceous or violet (Ridgway: Indiaa Red, Co-
rinthian Red) spots and more olive-brown
secondary markings on a whitish buff or pink
ground colour. The distinct spots are generally
regularly distributed over the eggshell, but
occasionally are more concentrated forming a
loose ring round the blunt pole. Eight of these
supposed C. xanthorhynchus eggs measure on
average 16.4 x 12.3 mm (15.9-16.8 x 10.8-12.9),
Shape index av. 1.34 (1.24-1.49), shell weight
av. 0.0751 (0.0580-0.0843) g, Rey’s index 1.34

(1.24-1.49). Compared to the prececing species
they are thinner shelled (see Rey’s index).
Fresh egg weight av. 1.47 g. Body weight of
two birds av. 21.0 (19.8 and 22.1) g, and
accepting the above-mentioned provisional
identification relative egg-weight is 7.0%.

It remains necessary to determine the cuckoo
species which hatches from similar eggs before
this egg-type can be attributed to this cuckoo
species with any confidence.

Surniculus lugubris
INDIAN DRONGO-CUCKOO

BREEDING. Brood-parasitic on babblers, in
particular the Nepal Quaker Babbler Alcippe
nipalensis and the Blackheaded Babbler Rho-
pocichla atriceps. The often cited opinion that
it is brood-parasitic on drongos Dicrurus spp.,
mentioned by the HANDBOOK (Ali and Ripley,
vol. 3, 1969, l.c. p. 225), is definitely an error
and probably inspired by the superficial like-
ness of this cuckoo to a drongo.

Eggs, the Baker collection (B.M., Tring)
possesses a fair number of eggs of this species,
although they are not recognized as such by
Baker (1934, 1942), but attributed by him to
the Bay Banded Cuckoo Cacomantis sonneratii.
These Surniculus eggs were mainly collected
in Assam (Khasi Hills, Shillong, Cherrapunji,
etc.) and are of the so-called Pycnonotus-type,
because of their superficial resemblance to Pyc-
nonotus eggs. Scanning electron microscopic
examination of the eggshell showed that at least
a number of them are genuine cuckoo eggs be-
cause of their smooth surface with regular poly-
angular structures and characteristic cuckoo
pores. Nevertheless, this analysis revealed also
that a number of these eggs were not cuckoo
eggs at all, but pycnonotid eggs, However, most
clutches collected by Baker himself (as evi-
dent from Baker’s catalogue) were real cuckoo
eggs as proved by their ultra-structural char-

225

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

acteristics. I was able to identify this Pycno-
noius-type of cuckoo egg as that of the Drongo
Cuckoo by its similarity, in texture pattern
of regular triangular raised faces and in their
dimensions (Plate 10), to genuine Surniculus
lugubris eggs from Java. The observed pattern
is characteristic for Surniculus and different
from all other cuckoo eggshells examined.
Among the Indian egg material in the B.M.
Tring, there is also one egg resembling that
of Alcippe in coloration and markings. This
Alcippe-type cuckoo egg was associated with
the Blackheaded Babbler Rhopocichla atriceps
and was collected by J. Stewart in Kerala
(formerly Travancore) at Aneichardi on 4
April 1907. It shows some similarity with
Surniculus lugubris eggs of the nominate form
of Java associated with Horsfield’s Babbler
Trichastoma sepiaria (so-called Trichastoma-
type of Surniculus egg).

In Java the main fosterer of the Drongo
Cuckoo is Horsfield’s Babbler Trichastoma
sepiaria and regularly, but less frequently, the
Pearlcheeked Babbler Stachyris melanothorax
and Bonaparte’s Yellowbreasted Babbler Mac-
ronous flavicollis. Only in one case it was
associated with the Javanese Quaker Babbler
Alcippe poiocephala. Surniculus eggs in Tri-
chastoma nests can scarcely be discriminated
from the host’s eggs; they are somewhat smaller
in size, but clearly distinguishable by ultra-
texture. Surniculus eggs, however, do not mimic
the plain bluish-white eggs of Stachyris and
the white dark reddish-brown speckled eggs
of Macronous. Macronous spp. seem also a
host of Surniculus in Malaysia, since Medway
and Wells (1976) mention a record of a
Drongo Cuckoo fledgling being fed by a pair
of Striped-throated Tit Babblers Macronous
gularis.

The young cuckoo evicts unhatched eggs
and rightful nest-mates from the nest, since in
all cases only one cuckoo nestling was observ-

226

ed, even at a very young stage. Nestlings and
fledglings are all black with white spots over
the plumage. Closer examination shows that
each feather has a white triangular spot at
some distance from the tip near the rachis.
Mouth lining and gape bright vermilion red,
feet conspicuously vinaceous (see colour Plate
1): |

Season, presumably March to’ October
(January to April in Kerala?), when most were
rather vocal and gonads of specimens were in
breeding condition. In Assam (Khasi Hills,
etc.) the breeding season is from the second
half of April to July with a distinct peak in
May and June (Baker collection). Ds

Eggs, in various colour and marking varia-
tions (see above). Broad oval, usually heavily
blotched and streaked with red and purplish
on a white or pinkish underground resembling
a small egg of a Pycnonotus species (Pycno-
notus-type), while others, more faintly mark-
ed, are more reminiscent of Alcippe (Alcippe-
type). The nominate race of Java has yet
another egg-type very closely mimicking the
egg of its principal fosterer Trichastoma sepia-
ria. The Indian eggs measure on average
19.8x 15.5 mm, shape index 1.28 (1.23-1.32),
shell weight av. 0.1352 g, Rey’s quotient 2.24
(2.12-2.39), fresh egg weight 2.4 (2.2-2.6) g.
Body weight adult av. 36.2 (30.0-43.6) g
(n=28), relative egg-weight (related to body
weight) 6.7-7.3%. Eggshell weight and fresh
egg weight not significantly different from
fosterer eggs; often the cuckoo egg has a
smaller fresh weight and its shell weight is
lower ! |

Surniculus lugubris stewarti

CEYLON DRONGO-CUCKOO

BREEDING. Brood-parasitic on babblers, in
general similar to the Indian race. A nestling
of this cuckoo was collected by W. E. Wait

BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS

at Anasigalla, Sri Lanka in March 1918 in
the nest of the Ceylon Blackheaded Babbler
Rhopocichla atriceps. Its skin is in the B.M.
collection, Tring, under Reg. no. 1924.9.5.2
and the classification of the skin is confirmed
by me (Becking). ,

Season, probably from December to May.

Eges, probably identical to the Indian egg-
iypes of this cuckoo.

CONCLUSIONS

From the foregoing it is evident that the

brood-parasitism of the Indian cuckoos is very
imperfectly known. Many of the data present-
ed by Baker (1934, 1942) are rather doubtful
and many of his egg identifications are erro-
neous. Baker’s classification is often based on
insufficient grounds or on flimsy evidence.
_ For instance, the plain blue egg attributed
to the Large Hawk-Cuckoo Cuculus sparve-
rioides does not belong to this species but
probably to the Khasi Hills Cuckoo Cuculus
eanorus bakeri. On the whole the presence and
frequency of the blue egg-type of Cuculus
canorus (so well known in temperate regions)
is underestimated for the Indian region, al-
though blue eggs have regularly been reported
in this region (Mackenzie, 1918; . Livesey.
1935 a,b). The egg of the Common Hawk-
Cuckoo Cuculus varius is unknown or con-
fused with the supposed eggs of the Hodgson’s
Hawk-Cuckoo Cuculus fugax. Although the
latter is apparently nowhere common (Ali and
Ripley, vol. 3, 1969) far more eggs are attri-
buted to it in the Baker collection than to the
Common Hawk-Cuckoo. The eggs described
by Baker as belonging to the Indian Bay Band-
ed Cuckoo Cacomantis sonneratii are in fact
those of the Drongo Cuckoo Surniculus lugu-
bris. Drongo Cuckoos do not parasitize dron-
gos (despite unfounded statements in liteia-
ture !), but babblers.

The biology, distribution and parasitic be-
haviour of Clamator jacobinus and. other
Clamator species are extremely complex. The
occurrence of partly discontinuous distribu-
tions, the presence of various colour morphs,
and differences in eggshell ultra-structure, sug-
gest that there may be more distinct species
in this group than are at present recognized.
Eggshell structure and host specificity may bz
conservative characters and may be useful
clues for separating this group. Work on these
lines is in progress. There are no irrefutable
eggs of the Emerald Cuckoo Chrysococcyx
maculatus or the Violet Cuckoo Chrysococcyx
xanthorhynchus, in spite of the fact that the
eges of these two species are different in ultra-
structure and in numerical characteristics.
Both species parasitize approximately the same
host species. On the basis of numerical fea-
tures of the eggs and the birds, and supported
by field observations of Inglis (1908), the
main collector of these eggs, a provisional
classification is made which needs to be veri-
fied by letting such eggs hatch, before it can
be accepted with any confidence.

Owing to the fact that some collectors did
not always collect their eggs personally but
paid the local people for eggs, and paid espe-
cially well for cuckoo eggs, a large number
of supposed cuckoo eggs are in fact not cuckoo
eggs at all, but odd clutches (or falsifications)
of Passerine eggs. In the Baker collection this
is in particular the case with the eggs of the
Indian Cuckoo Cuculus micropterus, brood-
parasitic on drongos, and the Drongo Cuckoo
Surniculus lugubris (described by Baker as the
eggs of the Bay Banded Cuckoo Cacomantis
sonneratii), brood-parasitic on babblers. The
falsifications are drongo eggs fiom. other
clutches and pycnonotid eggs, respectively.

Some of the oviduct eggs are also of doubt-
ful origin or do not belong to the cuckoo
species to which they are attributed, e.g. in the

227

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

case of the Common Hawk-Cuckoo Cuculus
varius. In the case of oviduct eggs it is im-
portant that the skin is preserved in a well-
known museum as proof and for possibility
of future verification.

In spite of the immense size of the collections
of Indian cuckoo eggs built up in the past
(Baker collection: more than 2,000 eggs of
the Khasi Hills Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus
bakeri), these collections have contributed
little to our knowledge of cuckoo biology. For
some species there are no irrefutable eggs or
breeding data, and eggshells by themselves
have no value. It will be far more profitable
in future not to collect supposed cuckoo eggs
but to let them hatch in order to determine
the identity of the cuckoo species involved.
The identification of adult cuckoos is some-
times difficult, and of fledglings even more so;
even experienced taxonomists have made
errors, e.g. Robinson (1927) and Chasen
(1939) with regard to Cuculus saturatus versus
Surniculus lugubris. Therefore in cases where
the identification is not unambiguous the help
of a museum should be asked.

Hence, an extensive area for field studies
lies open for future research. Data on the
incubation, nestling and fledgling periods of
Jndian cuckoos are by and large lacking.
Nothing is known of the ecology, the be-
haviour of individual cuckoos, number of eggs
(clutches) produced per season, laying inter-
vals and the interrelations of cuckoo species
and their hosts within a biotope. An evalua-
tion of all these aspects would be necessary
to preserve these species in their natural habi-
tats, which in South-East Asia are surely much
endangered by man. A more exact knowledge
of their breeding habits would result in a bet-
ter classification and therefore a more profit-
able use of existing egg collections in various
museums.

228

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to the curators of the egg
collection of the British Museum at Tring,
England, Dr. C. J. O. Harrison and Mr. M.
P. Walters, for their patience and allowing me
to examine the extensive collections under their
care. I thank also the curators of various other
museums as mentioned in the text for sending
me skin material on loan or allowing me to
examine egg material.

I am much indebted to Dr. Irena Anatol-
jewa Neufeldt (Zoological Institute, Academy
of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., Leningrad) for
the photographs of the Cuculus micropterus
nestling and fledgling and those of Cuculus
poliocephalus. 1 likewise thank my friend Mr.
J. G. Kooiman (The Netherlands) for the
photograph of the Cacomantis variolosus and
merulinus nestling.

I wish to thank Mr. M. W. Woodcock
(Staplehurst, Kent, England) for some minor
corrections, mainly of the soft part colours in
Barruel’s water colour painting.

I also gratefully acknowledge the kind help
of Dr. D. Snow (British Museum of Natural
History, Tring, England) for reading and cor-
recting the English of the text and making
useful comments on an earlier draft of the
tnanuscript. )

As a youth of 17 years I watched a Common
fora feeding a Cacomantis sonneratii fledgling
within a few feet (Bogor, Western Java, Indo-
nesia, 16 July 1941, see Plate 1), since when
I have been in the grip of the problem of the
biology of brood-parasitism in Asiatic cuckoos.
A new dimension was added to this interest
dy the development of new techniques such
as scanning electron microscopy and protein
electrophoresis, which enabled me to distin-
suish between cuckoo eggs and fosterer eggs
and sometimes to classify cuckoo eggs to the
species level.

BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS

REFERENCES

ABDULALI, Hl. (1943): The eggs of the Indian
Bay-Banded Cuckoo (Penthoceryx sonneratii). J.
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ALI, S. AND RIPLEY, S. D. (1969): Handbook of
the Birds of India and Pakistan, vol. 3. Bombay:
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Aut, S. A. (1931): Notes on the Pied Crested
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1071-1072.

ANDREWS, M. I. AND Naik, R. M. (1970): The
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BAKER, E. C. S. (1906-07): The oology of Indian
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————— (1907-08) : Additional cuckoo notes.
ibid. 17: 867-894, and 18: 275-279.

(1908): The oology of Parasitic
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(1934): The Nidification of Birds
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Francis.

(1942): Cuckoo Problems. London:
H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd.
(1944): Catalogue of Cuckoo Eggs,
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England.

BaTEs, R. S. P. (1938): On the parasitic habits
of the Pied Crested Cuckoo [C/amator jacobinus
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BECKING, J. H. (1975a): The ultra-structure of
the avian eggshell. Ibis 117: 145-151.

(1975b): New evidence of the spe-
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275-284.

BLENCOWE, E. J. (1960): Hinde’s Pied Babbler
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248.

BROMLEY, E. H. (1948): Two Banded Bay Cuc-
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153.

BuTLer, A. L. (1899-1900): The Birds of the
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CHANCE, E. P. (1940): The Truth about the
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CHASEN, F. N. (1939): The Birds of the Malay

Peninsula, vol. 4: The Birds of the Low-country
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COLEBROOK-ROBJENT, J. F. R. (1977): Cuckoos
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GasTon, A. J. (1976): Brood parasitism by the
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(1977): Social
groups of Jungle Babblers
Anim. Behav. 25: 828-848.

-—————— (1978) : Demography of the Jungle
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845-870.

GriMEs, L. G. (1976): Co-operative breeding in
African birds. Proc. 16th Int. Orn. Congress, Can-
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HARRISON, C. J. O. (1970): The identification
of the eggs of the smaller Indian cuckoos. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 66 (3): 478-488.

HELLEBREKERS, W. P. J. (1963): Vreemd_ sta-
diumi van bebroeding van een ei van de koekoek
(Cuculus canorus). Limosa 36: 410.

HERKLotS, G. A. C. (1953): Hong Kong Birds.
Hong Kong: South China Morning Post Ltd.

Histor, J. A. (1956): Notes from the National
Park. 3. Cuckoo in the nest. Malay. Nat. J. 10:
123-124.

HOFFMANN, A. (1950): Der Indische Kuckuck
(Cuculus micropterus Gould). Bonner Zool. Beitr.
IT: 21-30.

Hopwoop, J. C. AND MACKENZIE, J. M. D. (1917):
A list of birds from the North Chin Hills. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 25 (1): 72-91.

HumME, A. O. AND OaTES, E. W. (1890): The
Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds, 2nd ed., vol. 2.
London: R. H. Porter.

INGLIis, C. M. (1908): The oology of Indian
parasitic cuckoos. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 18
(3): 681-682.

JENSEN, R. A. C. AND JENSEN, M. K. (1969):
On the breeding biology of Southern African cuck-
oos. Ostrich 40: 163-181.

Jones, A. E. (1941): Presumptive evidence of
the nidification of the Indian. Cuckoo (Cuculus
micropterus Gould). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 42
(4): 931-933.

Jones, H. (1936): A cuckoo (C. canorus Linn.)
incident. ibid. 39 (1): 175-177.

behaviour within
(Turdoides striatus).

229

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

KOBAYASHI, K. AND ISHIZAWA, T. (1932-40):
Eggs of Japanese Birds. Rokko, Kobe, Japan: priv.
publ.

La ToucHE, J. D. D. (1931):
Birds of Eastern China, vol.
Taylor and Francis.

LIVERSIDGE, R. (1961): Pre-incubation develop-
ment of Clamator jacobinus. Ibis 103a: 624.

(1969): The biology of the Jacobin
Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus. Ostrich, Suppl. 8:
117-137.

Livesey, T. R. (1935a): Habits of the Burmese
Stone Chat (Saxicola caprata burmanica Stuart
Baker). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38(2): 398-401.

A Handbook of the
2, part 1. London:

- (1935b): Cuckoos in the S. Shan
states. ibid. 38 (2): 401-403.
(1936): The Burmese Plaintive
Cuckoo (Cacmantis merulinus querulus Heine).
ibid. 39(1): 177-178.
(1939): Egg stealing by Khasia

Hills Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus bakeri Hartert).

ibid. 40 (4): 561-564.

Lourt, H. (1979): Untersuchungen am Kuckuck,
Cuculus canorus (Biologie, Ethologie and Morpho-
logie). J. Orn. 120: 139-173.

MACKENZIE, J. M. D. (1918): Some further notes
on cuckoos in Maymyo. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
25 (4): 742-745.

. MEDWAY, LORD AND WELLS, D. R.
Birds of the Malay Peninsula, vol.
H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd.

Munns, F. A. C. (1939): On cuckoos in Sugaon,
Champaran district, Bengal. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 40 (4): 576-577.

NEUFELDT, I. (1966): Life history of the Indian
Cuckoo, Cuculus micropterus micropterus Gould..
in the Soviet Union, ibid. 63 (2}: 399-419.

(1971): Der Kurzfliigelsanger
Horeites diphone (Kittlitz). Falke 18, Heft 11:
364-375.

O’DoneEL, H. V. (1936): The Indian Cuckoo
(Cuculus m. micropterus Gould). J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 39 (1): 175.

OSMASTON, A. E. (1912):
Hawk-Cuckoo (Hierococcyx sparverioides).
(4): 1330-1331.

CSMASTON, B. B. (1916): Notes on cuckoos in
Maymyo. ibid. 24 (2): 359-363.

PAYNE, R. B. (1974): The evolution of clutch
size and reproductive rates in parasite cuckoos.
Evolution 28: 169-181.

PAYNE, R. B. AND PAYNE, K. (1967) :

(1976): The
5. London:

Eggs of the Large
ibid. 2/

Cuckoo

230

hosts in Southern Africa. Ostrich 38: 135-142.

PERRINS, C. M. (1967): The short apparent in-
cubation period of the Cuckoo. Br. Birds 60: 51-
52

PHILLIPS, W. W. A. (1944): Nests and eggs of
Ceylon birds (Muscicapidae, Laniidae, Campepha-
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(2): 197-234.

—————— (1948): Cuckoo problems in Gey
lon. Spolia Zeylanica 25: 45-60.

RATCLIFFE, D. A. (1970): Pesticides and egg
breakage in birds, J. appl. Ecol. 7: 67-113.

RAJ, P. J. S. (1964): Communal breeding in the
Whiteheaded Babbler [Turdoides affinis (Jerdon) ]
in Tambaram, Madras State. J. Bone nat. Hist.
Soc. 61 (1): 181-183.

Rey, E. (1894): Beobachtungen iiber den Ku-
ckuck bei Leipzig aus dem Jahre Wee Uae Mon.
19 (5): 159-168. ;

- (1897): _Beobachtungen iiber den
Kuckuck bei Leipzig in den Jahren 1895 und 1896.
J. Orn. 55: 349-359,

REYNOLDS, J. F. (1965): Behaviour of Black-
lored Babbler. E. Afr. Wildlife J. 3: 130. |

RipGway, E, (1912): Color Standards and Color
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ROBINSON, H. C. (1927): The Birds of the Malay
Peninsula, vol. 1: The Commoner Birds. London:
Whitherby & Co. Ltd.

SEEL, D. C. (1973): Egg- laying by the Cuckoo.
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SHARPE, R. G, (1879): Contribution to the orni-
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SHAW, T. H. (1938): Nowdctinecische Blauelstern
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SIBLEY, C. G. AND AHLQUIST, J. E. (1972): A
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SIMMONS, R. M. (1930): Migration of the Pied
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SLATER, P. (1971): A Field Guide te Australian

BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS

Birds. Non-Passerines, Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.

SmyTHies, B. E. (1953): The Birds of Burma,
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STEYN, P. (1973): Some notes on the breeding
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STEYN, P. AND HowELis, W. W. (1975): Sup-
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Storrs, H. T. (1944): Indian Cuckoo (Cuculus
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Suter, M. F. (1945): Plaintive cuckoo (?). para-
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Tutr, H. R. (1955): Deposition of eggs by the
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VERNON, C. J. (1970): Pre-incubation embryonic
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Voous, K. H. (1951): The egg of Cacomantis
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WELLS, D. I. AND BECKING, J. H. (1975): Vocal-
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WHISTLER, H. (1928): The migration of the Pied
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WYLLIE, I. (1975): Studies of cuckoos and reed
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YAMASHINA, Y. (1961): Birds of Japan. A. field
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ZACHARIAS, V. J. AND MATHEW, D. N. (1977):
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231

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY—
The Founders, the Builders and the Guardians

Part 2
SALIM ALI
(With Three Plates)

[Continued from Vol. 75 (3). 569]

I had originally thought to deal separately
with the Founders, the Builders and _ the
Guardians of the Society. However, except
for the Founders as listed chiefly in Part 1
of this paper, it is difficult to tell the other
two categories apart considering that their
activities overlap so closely. Both are there-
fore being treated together henceforth.

The Builders and the Guardians
CHARLES LIONEL AUGUSTUS DE NICEVILLE
1852-1901 (Vol. 14: 140) Anon.

The scion of a noble Huguenot family long
domiciled in England, and the last Baron of
his line. From his early schooldays de Nicé-
ville showed a decided bent for entomology
and spent all his spare time in studying in-
sects instead of participating in the ordinary
school games. He came out to India in 1876
and held several minor non-scientific appoint-
ments, one of the last being as Clerk in the
Calcutta Small Causes Court! He employed
his holidays and daily leisure in the study of
Oriental butterflies, on which he published over
70 papers, and came to be recognized as ‘the
greatest authority’. By experimental breeding
de Nicéville proved that in many cases season-
al forms of the same butterfly had been wrong-
ly separated as species, and by the same
method he was also able to _ elucidate
the biology of many other forms. His
entomological researches in the East extend-
ed far and wide—from Ladakh to Sumatra
and Japan. He described many new species

232

of butterflies and contributed much to our
knowledge of the distribution of these insects.
His work for many years—apparently part-
time and voluntary—was carried out in a room
allotted to him in the Indian Museum, and
the very fine and extensive collection which
he kept there was later acquired by that in-
stitution. He was a frequent contributor to
various scientific journals including those of
the Asiatic Society of Bengal and the Bombay
Natural History Society. His papers in the
latter, mostly on insects, chiefly butterflies,
are spread between Volumes 2 and 13. He
was of the greatest assistance to the editors of
the Journal as he long undertook the correct-
ing of proofs, a task in which he was most
painstaking and assiduous. The qualities of
method and industry were characteristic of the
man and make his publications of the very
highest value. His great work on the Buitter-
flies of India, Burma and Ceylon was un-
fortunately never finished, but such portions
of it as were published have been of very
great usefulness. For the three years 1881-
1884 de Nicéville was put on special assign-
ment in the Indian Museum for the arrange-
ment of its butterfly collection. It was only
a few months before his untimely death in
December 1901 that he had the satisfaction
of being officially appointed to the Indian
Museum in the newly created post of Gov-
ernment Entomologist. His singularly kind
and genial disposition had endeared him to
all. With a wide capacity for enjoyment of life
he combined singularly simple tastes, and both

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

in this and in the equanimity of his temper
and cheerfulness he showed himself a true
philosopher.

RoBert A. STERNDALE 1839-1902 (Vol. 14.
804) by Editors

Mr. Sterndale came to Bombay soon after
the Bombay Natural History Society was form-
ed (1883) and at once joined it, and worked
for it with characteristic enthusiasm. That it
rose so rapidly from the littleness and obscuri-
ty of its origin must be attributed in a great
measure to its good fortune in having among
its members a naturalist of Mr. Sterndale’s
distinction, and one so exceptionally qualified
by his versatile gifts to popularize its work.
The list of contributions from his pen (in
Vols. 1 and 2) gives no idea of the extent to
which the Society was indebted to him. The
idea of starting a journal originated with him
and proved practicable only because of the
way in which his ready pen and pencil solved
all difficulties. Mr. Sterndale’s presence at the
monthly meetings also added to much of their
interest. He was not a museum naturalist but
a lover of animals, and he imparted a living
interest to every creature about which he dis-
coursed. He continued to edit the Journal till
he left Bombay in 1887 to become Governor
of the island of St. Helena.

R. A. Sterndale was the author of A NATU-
RAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMLIA OF INDIA AND
CEYLON published in 1884—a popular work
which was well received and is still of great
relevance and usefulness to the student of
Indian Mammals.

CHARLES THOMAS BINGHAM 1848-1908
(Vol. 19: 214) by H.M.L.(efroy)

Lieut.-Colonel, late Bengal Staff Corps and
Conservator of Forests, Burma. Widely known

as a keen naturalist who during his long ser-
vice in Burma devoted himself to the study
of Natural History. Though his work was not
crowned by academic honours or the fellow-
ship of learned societies, it will rank with
that of Wood-Mason and de Nicéville, and to
no one has it been possible to so signally
advance the study of the subject to which he
devoted himself. The large collections made
by him formed the basis of much of the FAUNA
OF BRITISH INDIA volumes on butterflies, bees
and wasps. As a keen and dedicated observer
he added much to our knowledge of the ways
and habits of bees and wasps. His earlier
papers related to birds and were published in
Stray Feathers between 1876 and 1881. After
the founding of the Bombay Natural History
Society, by which time his interest seems to
have switched mainly to insects, he published
frequently in the Journal. Col. Bingham had
the rare distinction of combining the rigid
accuracy of the systematist with the breadth of
view and power of observation necessary for
studying the living insect in its many activities
and varied habits. The two volumes of the
FAUNA dealing with the Aculeate Hymenop-
tera of India and Burma represent the result
of his special study. Col. Bingham undertook
the completion of the unfinished work of
Lionel de Nicéville on the FAUNA Butterfly
volumes after the latter died in 1901. The
two volumes dealing with the Nymphalids,
Papilionids, Pierids and part of the Lycaenidae
were published, and the final volume was in
preparation at the time of his death.

He succeeded Dr. W. T. Blanford as Editor
of the FAUNA OF INDIA in 1905, and workers
in Indian entomology owe a great debt to his
untiring efforts to secure the cooperation of
authorities in Zoology and to give help of
every possible kind to workers in India.

Col. Bingham joined the Society in 1887
and remained an active member until his death

233

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

in England in 1908. Between Volumes 3 and
13 of the Journal there are 14 papers and notes
by him chiefly on Hymenoptera, includ-
ing a very useful one on their collection and
preservation.

EUGENE W. OATES 1845-1911 (Vol. 21: 651)
by W.R.O.-G. (Ogilvie-Grant)

Died 16th November 1911 aged 66. Served
in the Public Works Department in Burma
from 1867 to 1899, and was Chief Engineer
at the end of his service. He was an ardent
naturalist with few equals as an ornithologist,
and devoted all his spare time to the study
of his favourite science. When in England in
1882-3 he spent much of his time at the Bri-
tish Museum, Bloomsbury, in preparing his
first well-known work A HANDBOOK OF THE
BIRDS OF BRITISH BURMAH. Subsequently he
wrote the first two volumes on Birds in the
FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA series edited by W.
T. Blanford. On page 290 of Vol. 2 of this
otherwise admirable work there is a ridicul-
ous and puzzling description of the call of
the Streakeyed Wagtail (Motacilla ocularis)
as ‘‘a prolonged Pooh’’. ‘The explanation of
this remarkable statement may now be given
the author and editor, as well as the perpetra-
tor of the joke being now, alas, dead’ writes
his obituarist. ‘When Oates was in the middle
of preparing his second volume, at the Natural
History Museum, the writer and the late
Dr. Sharpe happened to pass the table cover-
ed with his manuscript on their way to lunch,
and Sharpe, who loved a joke, said “‘let us
add something funny to Oates’s description
of this Wagtail’’, little thinking that his re-
marks would get into print. He never doubted
that the eagle-eye of the author would detect
and strike out the line, after having a laugh
over it, knowing the source from whence it
came’. The incident was forgotten, the volume

234

completed and Oates returned to India. The
long forgotten joke unfortunately went un-
noticed in the revises of the proofs; thus has
the impossible call of the wagtail remained a
standing perplexity to ornithologists and ‘a
warning to all practical jokers’. Oates’s other
well-known books included a second edition of
Hume’s NEST AND EGGS OF INDIAN BIRDS and
A MANUAL OF THE GAME BIRDS OF INDIA. He
also wrote the first and second volumes of
the CATALOGUE OF THE COLLECTIONS OF BIRDS’
EGGS IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM, covering about
50,000 specimens, and was joint author with
Capt. Savile G. Reed of the third and fourth
volumes of the same work. In the last years
of his life Oates became deeply interested in
the difficult group of Kalij and Silver Pheas-
ants of which his fine collection was transfer-
red to the Natural History Museum shortly
before his death.

Oates is described by those who knew him
as being a lovable but at times a hot tempered
man. The fact that Hume made over to Oates
the whole of his notes and correspondence
when the latter was preparing his work on
THE NESTS & EGGS OF INDIAN BIRDS testifies
to the high regard he inspired in his contem-
poraries.

Rev. Fr. F. DRECKMANN, S.J. 1840-1917
(Vol. 25: 293—photo) by E.B.(latter)

Born in Soest in Westfalia (Germany).
Joined the Society of Jesus at the age of 19.
After going through the usual comprehensive
course of philosophical, scientific and theolo-
gical studies he was sent out to India in 1874
and posted to St. Xavier’s College in Bom-
bay, soon to be made Professor of Physics,
and 10 years later, Principal of the College.
Fr. Dreckmann was a zealous and enthusiastic
student of natural history and a prominent
member of the Bombay Natural History

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J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 78

Salim Ali

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PLATE II

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 78

BNHS

Salim Ali

Nelson Annandale

(1876-1924)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Society almost from its very beginning. He
contributed some interesting notes to the
earlier volumes of the Journal, and the very
first plate published in it belongs to an article
by Fr. Dreckmann on ‘An undescribed Homa-
lopsida’. For a number of years he was on
the Society’s Executive Committee and Pre-
sident of the Reptile and Fish sections. From
early youth he took a delight in watching rep-
tiles and birds, and later in life he made a spe-
cial study of the snakes of the Bombay Presi-
dency. During his accustomed holidays in
Khandala he would wander about in the wild
romantic ravine that stretches out between
‘Reversing Station’ (now demolished) and the
‘Duke’s Nose’ and study its flora and fauna.
Bloodsuckers, scorpions, spiders, jungle cats,
snakes and other interesting denizens of the
wilds were the most favourite objects of his
observations. He knew how to catch alive the
most deadly snakes with an almost uncanny
calmness, and would watch their habits in
captivity. Fr. Dreckmann was not a writer
and very little has been published under his
name; but many a scientific article written
by others has been enriched by his valuable
accurate observations. He was a man of deep
conviction, transparent sincerity, and unflinch-
ing courage in expressing his opinions. He
hated cant and hypocrisy and liked to deal
with men who were sincere and upright, and
anything savouring of underhand dealing was
detestable to him. :

Lirut.-Cot. K. R. KirtTIKar, M.S. (Retd.)
1849-1917 (Vol. 25: 295) by E.B. (latter)

. Born in Bombay. After medical training in
the Grant Medical College he went to Eng:
land to compete for the Indian Medical Ser-
vice, then virtually a British preserve. Soon
after his return to India he was sent out from
1878 to 1880 on field service in the Afghan

War where he distinguished himself for gal-
lant behaviour in the battle of Maiwand. In:
1902 he became Brigade Surgeon Lieut-
Colonel, and retired from service in 1904 to
take up permanent residence at Andheri (now
in Greater Bombay). Col. Kirtikar’s interests.
were many and varied—social, literary and
scientific. One subject in which he had shown
special interest and marked talent through-
out his carrer was Botany. ‘I found him
amidst his books, chiefly botanic, and he de-
lighted in showing me his valuable volumes,
his microscopes, his collections. of dried:
plants, his water colours of Algae and Fungi,
and many other things that interest only an
enthusiast...He had kept his eyes open, he
had read a good deal, he had seen much in
many lands, he had taken notes on many
botanical subjects and jotted them down in
books and on slips of paper that were scat-
tered all over the library. There is no de-
partment in Botany, except perhaps physio-
logy, which he did not cultivate... The many
contributions to our journal (chiefly in volu-
mes 1-10, especially the serial on “The Poi-
sonous Plants of Bombay’ in 19 parts be-
tween volumes 7 and 11 and then in volumes
14 and 15) were written at a time when pro-
fessional duties claimed all his energy, and
it is astonishing that he has been able to do
so much. A posthumous work of his on INDIAN
MEDICAL PLANTS was published in 1918,
and revised in 1933 by Blatter ef al. and is
recognised as the standard manuai on the
subject. 2

ROBERT CHARLES WROUGHTON 1849-1921
(Vol. 277 929) by Oldticld “Thomas

Born at Nusseerabad, the son of Major-
Gen. R. C. Wroughton, himself an ardent
sportsman and naturalist. Served with distinc-

tion in the Indian Forest Service from 1871-

235)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

1904, starting as Asst. Conservator in Boim-
bay Presidency, and ending as Inspector
General of Forests for India. During his ser-
vice he was specially interested in ants. He
collected abundant material and acquired con-
siderable knowledge working in conjunction
with the well-known Swiss formicologist Forel.
‘Towards the end of his official career he took
to collecting scorpions and myriopods for the
benefit of R. I. Pocock of the British Museum
on the basis of which material the latter pub-
lished two papers in Vol. 7 of the Journal,
the same issue in which also appears a paper
on Scorpions by Wroughton himself. Soon
thereafter he began collecting the series of
bats on which his first mammal paper, “Some
Konkan Bats’ published in 1899, (JBNHS
Vol. 12) was based; and it was in working
out these at the South Kensington Museum
during a furlough in England that Wroughton
found his metier as a mammalogist, a capacity
in which he later did so many years admirable
work.

On retirement he settled near London and
was a regular attendant at the Natural His-
tory Museum. He now turned his attention to
African mammals, large collections of which
were then coming in from colonial Africa. It
was while engaged in their study that he re-
alized, and bitterly deplored the paucity of
material from ‘our greatest dependency’ in the
British Museum collections. And it was in
the collusion between Wroughton and W. S.
Millard, when the latter became Honorary
Secretary of the Society, that the splendid
idea of the Mammal Survey of India, Burma
and Ceylon was conceived and carried through.
‘This Survey is undoubtedly the finest thing
of the sort that has ever been done, if we ex-
cept the American Survey of their own Ter-
ritories, done out of Government funds, while
the Bombay Survey has been mainly carried
out by private generosity. The Survey, the

236

material obtained by it for the benefit of the
National (i.e. British) and Bombay museums,
and the papers written on this material all
together form a monument to Wroughton’s
memory which will remain as long as Zoology
exists... Wroughton’s mental energy was
astounding. No work was too laborious, too
great or too difficult for him to start on. Most
striking of his personal characteristics were
his simplicity, his keen humour and his power
of attracting the willing voluntary help of his
co-workers.

Dr. HENRY NEVILLE COLTART 1873-1922
(Vol. 29: 266) Anon. [E. C. Stuart Baker]

Came to India in 1899 as Medical Officer
to the Makum Tea Company in N. Lakhim-
pur district, Assam and immediately took up
the study of the local avifauna for which his
position gave him exceptional facilities. As
a medical doctor he came into friendly con-
tact with the various tribes of the adjoining
Naga Hills and by his patient attention to
their complaints and illnesses earned their
respect and admiration. It was through them
that he was able to obtain many of his greatest
rarities in birds as well as their eggs, and to
discover the breeding habits of many species
unknown till then. This is how he obtained
his earliest specimens of the hornbill Prilolae-
mus tickellii austeni, then only known from
those obtained by Godwin-Austen and Dr.
Ernst Hartert. The rare laughing thrush
(Ogle’s) Garrulax nuchalis he discovered
breeding within a stone’s throw of his dispen-
sary at Makum, and he was also the first to
unravel the breeding habits of many other
birds such as Alcippe rufogularis, Dicaeum
frigonostigma, Heteroxenicus sinensis, etc.
Amongst his other Assam discoveries, named
in his honour by Dr. Hartert and Mr. Stuart
Baker are Stachyris nigriceps coltarti and

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Alcedo asiatica coltarti. He was a close asso-
ciate and collaborator of E.C. Stuart Baker
who was also in Assam as a Police Officer in
that period. Many of Coltart’s discoveries are
described or recorded by Baker in his various
papers on Assam avifauna in the Journal, and
constantly referred to in the New Fauna, in-
cluding also recollections of dubious sightings,
years earlier, of highly unlikely extralimital
species ““when accompanied by my friend Dr.
Coltart’—long since dead and incapable of
corroborating! In 1900 he moved to Bihar in
a new assignment, but still continued to do
good ornithological work, though in that very
thoroughly worked area, the home ground of
Inglis and others, his opportunities for dis-
covering novelties were greatly inhibited. Dr.
Coltart was a good athlete and excelled in all
outdoor games such as tennis, hockey, foot-
ball and polo. He left India in 1913 to join
his father’s medical practice in England.

ALEXANDER MELFORT PRIMROSE 1872-1922
(Vol. 29: 546) by C.M.I.(nglis)

Came out to India in 1888 aged 16. Started
his career as a tea planter in 1893 on the
Bagh-o-Bahar tea garden in Cachar, a new
garden just being opened up in primeval forest,
where he was able to indulge, to a very large
extent, his taste for natural history and to
spend his most successful collecting days. He
subsequently went to the Surma and Rema
tea gardens in South Sylhet and was there till
early 1902. Thereafter, following a short spell
in tea in the Nilgiris, on the Terramia and
Halashana gardens, he returned to Assam
joining the Mornai garden of the Sonthal Mis-
sion in the Goalpara district where he remain-
ed till January 1908. This was far away from
any railway station, and the proximity of
forests and of the Sankos river gave him good
opportunities for small game shooting and

fishing. It was here that the new subspecies
of Painted Quail, Perdicula manipurensis
inglist was obtained, also the first eggs of the
Emerald Cuckoo, Chalcites maculatus. His
next assignment was on Longview Estate in
Darjeeling district from 1910-1913, after which
he returned to Assam where he remained till
1921, his last garden being Murphulani, also
an opening-up job in the midst of forest. These
historical data concerning Primrose’s move-
ments are important because of the various
dates and localities labelled on his many bird
specimens now in the Society’s collection,
either presented by himself or accessioned in-
directly. Although his principal interest was
birds it was by no means confined to them;
he also made a fine collection of snakes while
he was in Sylhet. ‘As a naturalist he was ex-
ceedingly observant and a true field ornitho-
logist, being no lover of the present day
minute differentialities nor of ‘“‘dry-as-dust”’
lists, and the writer was often chaffed by him
about some of his writings which appertained
to that description’. A.M.—‘Prim’ to his inti-
mate friends—died of typoid fever while on a
visit to his brother Colin at Bhind in Gwalior.

JoHN DUNCAN INVERARITY 1847-1923 (Vol.
29: 822) Anon.

Born in Bombay, educated in England. Re-
turned to Bombay in 1869 where by sheer
force of character and brilliancy of intellect
he soon established himself as one of the lead-
ing lights of the Bombay Bar. He was a great
lawyer who, according to the then Chief
Justice of Bombay High Court ‘for thirty years
had no equal in India’. But outside the law
Inverarity’s reputation rested on his prowess
as a big game hunter and naturalist. He was
closely associated with the Society almost from
its inception in 1886, and was Vice President
from 1897 to the time of his death. His varied

237

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

and exciting adventures while hunting big
game are recounted by him in a number of
articles in the Journal in a plain matter-of-
fact style which speak more for the high
courage of the man than pages of superlative
description could have done. These include
the behaviour of a gaur when he charges—
how he commences by running at you with
his head well up and nose in the air and only
kicks his head down for the final toss when
a few yards off, ‘At least that is the way the
ones that charged me behaved’. He also tells
you how it feels when being charged and
mauled by a wounded lion (Somaliland). “The
claws and teeth entering the flesh does not
hurt so much as you would think. The only
really painful part of the business is the
squeeze given by the jaws on the bone...
The power of the lion’s jaw may be conceived
from the fact that the lioness that seized me,
although it had a broken jaw, scored deep
grooves in the barrel of my rifle with her
teeth’. Inverarity’s many articles in_ the
Journal, coming from a man who combined
the highest ethics of sport with the keenest
power of observation and a great love of
nature and outdoor life, would make an ex-
cellent guide book for sportsmen in India.

NELSON ANNANDALE 1876-1924 (Vol. 30:
213) Anon.

Eldest son of Professor Thomas Annandale,
a distinguished Edinburgh surgeon. He came
to India in 1904 as Deputy Superintendent in
the Natural History Section of the Indian
Museum, Calcutta. In 1916 Dr. Annandale
achieved one of his. principal aims in the
foundation of the Zoological Survey of India,
and as an institution with research as its main
object and the entire ‘Indian Empire’ as its
field of work. He was a very versatile scientist
and a prolific writer on zoological and anthro-

238

pological subjects. Though a highly reputed
taxonomist, he considered taxonomy as only
a means to an end and not the end: itself.
The subject which held his particular interest
and devotion was Ecology—the study of
faunas as a whole: of the animal in its environ-
ment, its response to changes in that environ-
ment, its relations with its neighbours and its
adaptations to special localities and peculiar
conditions. He was an emphatic advocate of
field work in which he himself—in spite of a
snawing physical malady which carried him
oft at the early age of 48—was indefatigable.

Dr. Annandale was an authority of world-
wide reputation on such diverse animals as
sponges, polyzoa, barnacles and molluscs, but
there is scarcely a group in the animal king-
dom on which he did not make original obser-
vations. He penetrated to all corners of the
‘Indian Empire’ and acquired a personal
knowledge of its fauna which has surely never
been equalled. Much of his later work con-
sisted of a comparative study of the faunas of
Asiatic lakes. He had personally investigated
the Sea of Galilee in Jordan, the Hamun-i-
Helmand in Seistan, the Chilka Lake in
Orissa, the Logtak Lake in Manipur, the Inle
Lake in Burma, and others in the Malay
Peninsula, China and Japan. His numerous
faunal papers were published mostly in the
Records and Memoirs of the Indian Museum
and in the Journal and Memoirs of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal; some also in the Journal
of the Bombay Natural History Society be-
tween Vols. 18 and 28, and a particularly in-
teresting posthumous one on “Vermice Mounds’
in Vol. 30. Annandale was of a highly strung
temperament with a prodigious capacity for
work and physical exertion when in the field.
He was the first Director of the Zoological
Survey of India, and perhaps the most suc-
cessful and inspiring one among his succes-
sors.

PAKS

2h

rae

ot aes
rst
Posi:

J. Bomspay NaT. Hist. Soc. 78 PLATE Ill

Salim Ali : BNHS

= 7 par ees

Harold Maxwell Lefroy
(1877-1925)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Harotp MAXWELL Lefroy 1877-1925
(Vol. 30: 899) Anon.

Imperial Entomologist to the Government
of India from 1907 to 1912, during which
time he was a member of the Managing
[Advisory?] Committee of the Society and a
frequent contributor to the pages of the
Journal in which he published several notes on
the life histories of Indian insects, particularly
those of economic importance. His method
was to study the life history of the insects in
the field as he believed there could be found
some weak link in the chain—some phase in
ihe insect’s life—in which it could be most
casily attacked if it were noxious, or encour-
aged if it were useful. He followed this up
by translating the methods he devised from
a state in which they could be applied only by
highly skilled persons to a form suitable for
mass application. Lefroy believed that it was
often possible to encourage the natural insect
enemies of insects, and some of his most in-

teresting work was the result of observations
in the field of what insects preyed on others
and how these benefactors could be transfer-
red to areas in which their services were re-
quired (Biological Control). But his favourite
method was the employment of suitable che-
mical poisons, and his investigations of these
led him deep into purely chemical work. In
fact it was while experimenting on chemical
insecticides in his private laboratory at the Im-
perial College in London that he was over-
come by gas fumes and met his tragic death.
In addition to many official papers in the
Memoirs of the Agricultural Department in
India. Lefroy wrote three books of great im-
portance: INDIAN INSECT PESTS (1906),
INDIAN INSECT LIFE (1910), MANUAL OF EN-
TOMOLOGY (1923). Jointly with C. W. Mason
the ornithologist of the Pusa Agricultural In-
stitute (Bihar) he published a seminal paper
on “The Food of Birds’ (1912) which remains
a classic of its kind even today.

(To he continued)

we)
od
Ne)

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF THE RHESUS AND
THE BONNET MONKEYS IN WEST CENTRAL INDIA’

NAOKI KOYAMA? AND P. B. SHEKAR?
(With four text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

Two species of macaques, namely the bon-
net macaque (Macaca radiata) and_ the
rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), occur in
West Central India. The distribution of the
bonnet macaque is confined to the southern
peninsula, whereas that of the rhesus is wide-
spread throughout northern India. It is well
known that the rivers the Tapti and the
Godavari form boundaries which separate the
two species allopatrically (Fiedler 1956, Pra-
ter 1965). However, these two rivers are not
effective barriers in limiting the distribution
of hanuman Jangurs (Presbytis entellus) which
inhabit almost the whole of India. The rivers
never join each other and the minimum dist-
ance between them is about 130 km. Little
field research has been conducted on the dis-
tribution of macaques in this region. The area
sandwiched between the two rivers was the
focus of our field-survey. The purpose was to
clarify the present distribution-patterns of the
above-mentioned species of macaques and
hanuman langurs, and to elucidate their group
composition and habitat ecology.

METHODS

In the States of Maharashtra, Gujarat and
Madhya Pradesh, a vehicle (jeep) was used

1 Accepted July 1980.
2 Primate Research Institute,
Inuyama, Aichi 484, Japan.

Kyoto University,

240

for transportation of personnel during the sur-
vey. Information on the general distribution
of the two species of macaques was collected
from the office of the Chief Conservator of
Forests in each State, and several Divisional
Forest Offices were selected as places worth
visiting. Interviews were conducted in each
area with local forest officials and non-official
persons. The questions asked were related to
the occurrence or absence of diflerent types
of species and, when their occurrence was con-
firmed, on the place, time and number of ani-
mals seen. Regarding the type of species, three
different photographs of bonnet macaque, rhe-
sus macaque and hanuman langur, respectively
were shown during interviews in order to avoid
confusion. Most of the people interviewed were
able to distinguish the ‘black-face monkey’
(=hanuman lJangur) from the ‘red-face mon-
key’ (=bonnet and rhesus), although they
were not capable of distinguishing bonnet
macaques from rhesus monkeys. Queries were
also addressed to forest officials regarding
dominant tree-species and the forest-condi-
tions prevailing in each area.

The survey-period conducted by jeep lasted
for 101 days from August 17 to October 15,
1972 and again from December 5 to January
i4, 1973. The total area covered was 9900 km.
Besides this survey, the senior author made a
preliminary survey in the State of Andhra

3 Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill
Hotise. Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400023.
India.

DISTRIBUTION OF RHESUS AND BONNET MONKEYS

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DISTRIBUTION OF RHESUS

Pradesh for 23 days from November 6 to
November 28, 1972, using local transport.

STUDY AREA

Although the study area covered southern
Gujarat;; Maharashtra, southern Madhya Pva-
desh and Andhra Pradesh, detailed survey was
conducted only in the region surrounded by
the Narmada, Wainganga and Godavari
rivers. The relief of this area and the survey-
route traversed by jeep is shown in Figs. |
and 2. As shown in Fig. 1, the area consisted
of four major divisions based on relief, name-
ly, the Satpura range, the Konkan coastal
strip, the Western Ghats and the Deccan Pla-
teau. Forming a physical boundary between
North India and the Deccan Plateau, the
source of the river Narmada is located in an
area of the East-Central Highlands known as
Maikala range. The total length of the Nar-
mada, the fifth longest river in India, is about
1310 km. The Tapti flows for a distance of
about 670 km from east to west, originating
from the Satpura range. The Godavari, the
fourth longest river of the country, runs across
the Deccan Plateau from the Western Ghats.
One of the sources of this river is located on
the side of a hill named Trimbakeshwar, about
8) km from the shore of the Arabian sea.
Another source is at Kalsubai, a peak 1646 m
above the sea level and the highest in Mahara-
shtra State. The total length of the Godavari is
about 1465 km. The Wainganga originates
near the town of Seoni in the Satpura range
and flows for about 546 km before joining the
Wardha. The Pranhita, at the confluence of
the Wainganga and the Wardha, is a tributary
of the Godavari.

According to the classification proposed by
Champton and Seth (1968), 16 climatic forest

+ Troop = bisexual. ® Group = unisexual.

AND BONNET MONKEYS

types can be differentiated in India. The fol-
lowing six forest types occurred in the main
study area: (1) Evergreen forest. Found along
the western face of the Western Ghats, the
extent of this type of forest is very limited.
(2) Semi-evergreen forest. This type of - forest,
also of limited distribution, occurs mostly on
the Western Ghats between the evergreen and
the moist deciduous forests.

(3) Moist deciduous forest. Found both in
the hilly areas of Western Ghats, Chikalda,
Pachmarhi, as well as in the plains of Chanda,
in a rainfall zone of 1500 to 2000 mm. In
general, the height of this type of forest ranges
from 30 to 36 m.

(4) Dry deciduous forest. This type of forest
is common throughout the Deccan Plateau.
The typical annual rainfall ranges from 1000
to 1300 mm. The height of this type of forest
Vatics com 13 to 20 m.

(5) Thorn forest): Found ‘throughout the dry
peninsular tract of Central India, this type is
characterized by the abundance of Acacia
species reaching 6 to 9 m in height.

(6) Littoral and the swamp forests. Found
along the coastal area of the sandy beach and
the river mouth, it also has a limited distri-
bution. It 1s characterized by various species
of mangroves.

RESULTS

Distribution and composition of hanuman
langur troops and groups:

As shown in Fig. 3, a total of 59 troops*
and groups’ were observed during the survey-
period. Hanuman langurs were distributed
throughout the study area, although the popu-
lation density was not uniform within this
range. The species inhabited moist deciduous
forest, dry deciduous forest and even thorn
forest, but, were very rarely found in ever-
green or semi-evergreen forests along the

243

Vol. 78

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

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244

DISTRIBUTION OF RHESUS AND BONNET MONKEYS

Western Ghats where macaques were of fairly are listed in Table 1, together with the date of
common occurrence. Data on size and com- observation, locality number and the name of
position, available only for 24 troops and three the place. Of the 24 troops, six (25%) con-
unisexual male groups (=all-male groups), tained more than two adult males each

TABLE |

COMPOSITION OF TROOPS AND ALL-MALE GROUPS OF HANUMAN LANGURS

Date Locality Place Adult Sub-Adult Juvenile Infant Total

No.* Male Female Male Male Female Male Female
1972
Aug. 23 1 Daulatabad 5 3 1 10 29
29 2 Ellora | 13 6 5 25
30 3 Ajanta 3 22 6 1 32
3] 4 Khupta 1 10 6 3 20
+ Ses 9 9 S) 18
Sep. 2 6 Neri 1 12 1 11 3 28
1! (/ Akot 1 9 2: 12
4 S** L 9 3 12
3 9 5 1 14 1 10 1 4 31
10 10 Chikalda 1 3 1 1 2 8
12 fs e 7 2 9
13 12 Kondhali 1 10 ii 2 20
14 13 Ramtek l 20 15 8 4.
a 14 si 1 9 3 1 1 15
es 15 Ramtek-Nagpur 2 10 1 2 15
3 16 F 1 6 1 2 10
24 17 z 1 15 5 4 yi 32
17 i8 Deori-Durg 1 7 1 3 2 14
» 19 5 3 13 5 21
5 20 3s 1 23 8 10 42
19 21 Simga 1 10 4 2 17
‘ 22 Kawardha 3 10 1 3 2 19
Z 7 1 2 2
1 3 1
3 23 Borla 4 10 1 5 20
Oct: 2 24 Chanda 1 9 2 6 5 3 26
Dec. 26 25 Usumari, Pal 1 5 3 9
27 26 Nimbola 1 6 5 1 13
28 Ai Harsud-Harda 1 4 3 8
all-male group ( 3 groups) 25 14 39
(8. 33) (4.67) (13)
bisexual troop (24 troops) 38 263 4 11s) 54 72 9 49 10 510
(1.58) (10.96) (0.17). (5.71) (2.83) (21.25)
TOTAL 63 263 4 151 68 549
** All-male group * See Figure 3.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

(“multi-male troops’) and the remaining
eighteen (75%) included only one adult male
each (‘“‘one-male troops’). At the outskirts
of the town Kawardha (Locality No. 22), two
sub-troops were once observed resting sepa-
rately in two trees about 50 metres away from
each other. One sub-troop was composed of
two adult males, seven adult females, one sub-
adult male, two juvenile females and two in-
fants whereas the other was one-male sub-
iroop, consisting of one adult male, three adult
females and one juvenile female. Finally, the
smaller sub-troop joined the bigger one result-
ing in the formation of one multi-male troop.

The average number of individuals per
troop was 21.25, consisting of 1.58 adult males

(7.5%), 10.96 adult females (51.6%), 0.17

subadult male (0.8%), 5.71 juveniles (26.9%)
and 2.83 infants (13.3%). Adults accounted
for about 59 per cent of the total troop mem-
bers. The mean value of the socioeconomic
sex ratio, i.e. number of adult females per one
adult male, for these 24 troops was c. 6.9.
As in unisexual male groups, the average num-
ber of individuals per group was 13.0 com-
prising 8.33 adult males (64.0%) and 4.67
juveniles (36.0%).

Distribution and composition of bonnet
monkey troops:

Bonnet monkeys were confined to the well-
forested narrow belt along the Western Ghats
(Fig. 3). South of the Tapti, the northernmost
limit for bonnet was 21°05’N, 73°35’E near
Songadh in Gujarat State. They occurred in
the moist deciduous and the dry deciduous
forests, but never in the dry scrub or thorn
forests where the height of the trees does not
exceed 50 feet. In some areas, such
as Dangs and Dharampur forests of Gujarat
State, many troops of bonnet monkeys still
exist. Adjacent to these forests, Surgana, Peint
and adjoining forests belts extend upto East

246

Nasik, West Nasik and West Dhulia Divisions
of Maharashtra State. However, due to the
poorer forest conditions, the population den-
sity in these areas does not seem to be as high
as in Dangs and Dharampur.

During the survey, a total of eight troops
of bonnet monkeys were observed in all. One
troop inhabiting the Elephanta island in the
Bombay harbour, for which the information
available is incomplete, is also included in this
treatment of the results. Excepting this troop,
complete counts were made for the other
seven. Table 2 shows the composition of the
latter troops; the average number of individuals
per troop was 25.7 which included 4.29 adult
males (16.7%), 8.14 adult females (31.7%),
0.714 subadult male (2.8%), 3.43 juvenile
males (13.3%), 4.71 juvenile females (18.3%)
and 4.29 infants (16.7%). Adults accounted
for about 48.3 per cent of the total number
of troop members. The mean value of socio-
economic sex ratio was c 1.9.

Changes in troop membership were record-
ed for two troops from Trimbak (Locality
No. 1) and Khandala (Locality No. 2), res-
pectively. On August 19th, the Trimbak. troop
(Locality No. 1) contained 25 individuals but
by December 17th, i.e. four months later, one
subadult male joined and four infants disap-
peared, while there were two births. The Khan-
dala troop contained 25 individuals on October
13th, but on January 13th, i.e. three months
later, one new-born infant was seen in this
troop. Besides the above mentioned births, four
other new-born were seen at Matheran in
January.

Distribution and composition of rhesus
monkeys: ire
Rhesus monkeys occurred along the Satpura
range in the region north of the river. Tapti
and its tributary, the Purna. North of
of the Tapti, the westernmost limit for the

DISTRIBUTION OF RHESUS AND BONNET MONKEYS

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-

247

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

distribution of rhesus was 21°20’N, 73°30’E
in Kherwada forests of Gujarat State. They
also occur in east Maharashtra and in north
Andhra Pradesh as far south as 16°30’N,
80°35’E, crossing the river Godavari (Fig. 3).
The names of the places which were noted to
be inhabited by free-ranging rhesus monkeys
are Balkonda, Alisagar (about 5 km from
Nizamabad), Raigir and Vijayawada. Mon-

keys, one more troop inhabited the Borivli
National Park about 35 km north of Bombay.
This is also an artificially introduced troop.
During the survey period, nine troops of
rhesus monkeys were encountered. However,
complete counts were made only for one habi-
tuated troop. Near a temple in Vijayawada
(Locality No. 1 in Table 3), one rhesus
monkey troop, occurred together with a troop

keys in these localities must have been the of bonnet monkeys (Locality No. 4 in
artificially introduced ones. Besides these mon- Table 2). As shown in Table 3, this
TABLE 2
TROOP COMPOSITION OF BONNET MONKEYS

Locality

Adult

Sub-Adult Juvenile Infant Total

Date Place
No.** Male Female Male Male Female Male Female
1972
Aug. 19 1 Trimbak 5 9 3 5 5 7435)
Oct. 13 2: Khandala 5 4 2; 5 6 1 D 25
Nov. 17 3 Nandyal 3 A 4 2 1 1 15
21 4 Vijayawada 3 6 23 3 3 1 3 21
Dec. 17 5 Trimbak q 14 2, 8 2 4 37
17 1 Trimbak 3 G 1 3 5 ae 1 24
18 6 Vani 5 9 1 5 1 2, 23
1973
Jan. 12 7 Matheran 4 1] 6 4 1 4* 3 33
13 2 Khdndala 5 4 2 5 6 1 1* 2 26
TOTAL 30 Si 5 24 33 7 7q 16 179

* New-born Infant
** See Figure 3.

(4.29) (8.14) (0.714) (3.43) (4.71) (1.0) (1.0) (2.29) (25.7)

TABLE 3

TROOP COMPOSITION

OF RHESUS MONKEYS

See re
i |

Sub-Adult

Date Locality Place Adult Juvenile Infant Total
No.** Male Female Male Male Female Male Female

1972 %

Nov. 21 1 5 6 1 3 19*

Vijayawada 4*

* The number includes one bonnet monkey
** See Figure 3.

248

DISTRIBUTION

OF RHESUS AND BONNET MONKEYS

TABLE 4

FOREST TYPES OCCURRING IN MAHARASHTRA STATE
NAME OF Forest TYPE: (3B/C1) SLIGHTLY MOIST AND MOIST TEAK FOREST

East West
Nasik Nasik

Forest Division
or Sub Division anu
Tectona grandis
Terminalia tomentosa
Anogeissus latifolia

x x x
x
x
Dalbergia latifolia x
x
x
x
x

x
x x x
x

Adina cordifolia
Lagerstroemia parviflora
Mitragyna_ parvifolia
Pterocarpus marsupium
Albizzia lebbek x
Albizzia procera x
Garuga pinnata x
Lannea coromandelica
Acacia catechu
Holarrhena antidysenterica
Dillenia pentagyna
Careya arborea

Butea monosperma
Diospyros melanoxylon
Carissa carandas
Terminalia paniculata
Salmalia malabarica
Terminalia belerica
Grewia tiliaefolia

Xylia xylocarpa

Bassia latifolia
Dendrocalamus strictus
Boswellia serrata
Schleichera trijuga

Ai
\

x x

x
KX Xe Ke XK
KE OG OS OK

x

Dah- Thana Shaha- Kolaba Roha Bhan-
pur

Chand-Yeot> South Alla-
dara rapur mal Chanda pall

xX
x

xX xX x x
x x x K
x x

ENE SS
SCRE SO
x

<x

XX EX

x x Xx

<x
KX ENS
Xa x

Se XS Ka

x xX
ee SAS

x xX

troop consisted of nineteen individuals. How-
ever, the highest-ranking adult male of this
troop was a bonnet which may have immi-
grated from the troop of bonnet monkeys liv-
ing in the same place. No hybrids of bonnet
and rhesus could be seen, suggesting that the
bonnet male had immigrated to this troop
fairly recently.

Distribution-patterns and forest-conditions:
Characteristic species of trees from slightly
Moist and moist teak forests occurring in each

Forest Division or Subdivision of Maharash-
ira State are shown in Table 4 and typical
species of trees from dry deciduous forest are
shown in Table 5. From these tables it is evi-
dent that teak (Yectona grandis) and ain
(Terminalia tomentosa) are abundant through-
out the moist deciduous and the dry decidu-
ous forests. Distribution of these forests, sur-
rounded by the rivers Narmada, Wainganga
and Godavari, is shown in Fig. 4. Occurrence
or absence of two species of macaques in dif-
ferent forest-types of each forest division of

249

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Maharashtra State is summarized in Table 6.
From this table, it is clear that the incidence
of the two species of macaques is highly de-
pendent on the presence or absence of moist
deciduous or mixed deciduous forest with
trees exceeding 50 feet (c 15 m) in height.

DISCUSSION

Although hanuman langurs occupy a
broader spectrum of habitats than macaques

(Vogel 1977), data collected during the sur-
vey period suggest that macaques and langurs
have different habitat preferences. While maca-
ques are limited to areas with moist deciduous
and dry mixed deciduous forests, langurs in-
habit dry mixed deciduous and dry scrub
forests. In a broader sense, it seems likely that
the places where the population of macaques
is dense, langurs are less common. Absence or
naucity of hanuman langurs in the areas along

TABLE 5

FOREST TYPES OCCURRING IN MAHARASHTRA STATE (1)
NAME OF FOREST TYPE: (5A/C1) DRY TEAK-BEARING FORESTS

Forest Division
or Sub-Division

East North West
Nasik Dhulia Dhulia

Tectona grandis x x x aX
Terminalia tomentosa x Xx x
Ougeinia oojeansis x

Dalbergia latifolia x x
Pterocarpus marsupium x «
Adina cordifolia S< x
Grewia _tiliaefolia x

Latinea coromandelica »<
Salmalia malabarica

Acacia catechu

Sterculia urens

Diospyros melanoxylon

Bassia latifolia

Boswellia serrata ~<
Anogeissus latifolia

Hardwickia binata

Emblica_ officinalis

Garuga pinnata

Lagerstroemia parviflora
Mitragyna parvifolia

Butea frondosa

Zizyphus jujuba

Lannea grandis

Acacia leucophloea

Buchanania latifolia

Chloroxylon swietenia

Cleistanthus collinus

nk cnc eC

NGG

Kee eX

Jalgaon

West Buldhana

Fast West Amra- Buld- yeot- &
Melghat Melghat vati hana mal Akola
x x x x x x

x x x x x
x x
x x x x
x
x x ~
xK ~
sé x
x x x
x
4 x K Xx
x
x
x

DISTRIBUTION OF RHESUS AND BONNET MONKEYS

TABLE 5 (contd)

FOREST TYPES OCCURRING IN MAHARASHTRA STATE(II)
NAME OF Forest TyPE: (5A/C1) DRY TEAK-BEARING FGRESTS

East &
West
Yeotmal

Forest Division
or Sub-Division

Tectona gradis x Xx Xx
Terminalia tomentosa »< x x
Ougeinia oojeansis

Dalbergia latifolia

Pierocarpus marsupium

Adina cordifolia

Grewia tiliaefolia

Lannea coromandelica

Salmalia malabarica

Acacia catechu

Sterculia urens

Diospyros melanoxylon x x x
Bassia_ latifolia

Boswellia serrata x x x
Anogeissus latifolia x x x
Hardwickia_ binata

Emblica_ officinalis

Garuga pinnata

Lagerstroemia parviflora x x Xx
Mitragyna_ parvifolia

Butea frondosa

Zizyphus jujuba

Lannea grandis x x
Acacia leucophloea

Buchanania latifolia S< x <
Chloroxylon swietenia

Cleistanthus collinus

Wardha Nagpur Nagpur Wardha Rajura

South West South
Cha- Cha- Cha- Nand-
nda nda nda €

x x x x x x

x
x
x
x

x
x

x
x

x

xX
x

the Western Ghats may due to the hunting by
tribes and the predation by wild animals. Many
tribes such as Bhil, Gond, Varli and Kokna
live along the Western Ghats. Accord-
ing to the 1961 population census, the popula-
tion of scheduled tribes in Maharashtra was
2,397,000. Within Maharashtra, the Bombay
division contained 70.39 per cent of the 1961
scheduled tribes population. Krishnan (1971)
Teported that tribal hunting exterminated the

langurs in Sholinghur within — half-a-dozen
years. [t seems that it is easier to hunt langurs
than to hunt macaques, due to the larger body
sizes and the smaller home ranges of the for-
mer. At Kanha National Park of Madhya
Pradesh, langurs are commonly captured by
tigers (Schaller 1967). Tigers and leopards still
occur in the well-forested areas along the
Western Ghats, at least in Dangs of Gujarat
State. In connection with habitat preference,

Dal

78

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

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252

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DISTRIBUTION

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253

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78&

it. may be possible to hypothesize that once
the Nilgiri langurs (Presbytis johnii) inhabited
the humid zone along the Western Ghats as
far north as the river Tapti. Due to unknown
reasons, they disappeared from this region leav-
ing the vacated area available to langurs. Nil-
girl langurs occupy the moist evergreen forest
in the southern strip of the Western Ghats
(Poirier 1970, Kurup 1977). Also, as suggest-
ed by Fooden (1975), lion-tailed macaques
(Macaca silenus) must once have inhabited
the rain forest along the whole part of ihe
Western Ghats. With the recession of the rain
forest and an increase in human population,
lion-tailed macaques disappeared from this
resion and, consequently, the bonnet macaques
might have filled the vacant habitat.

With respect to the distribution patterns of
some macaques in peninsular India, Fooden
(1976) suggested that M. silenus may have
dispersed first followed by M. radiata and re-
latively recently M. mulatta. He also suggested
that the inferred recent spread of the fascicu-
laris (crab-eating macaque) group (including
mulatta) may have been responsible for the
reduction and disjunction of the range of the
sinica (toque monkey) group (including
radiata and assamensis. In accordance with
this hypothesis, it may be possible to specu-
late on aspects of inter-specific competition
between the bonnet and the rhesus. If it is
assumed that the Narmada and the Wain-
ganga functioned as an outer moat, and if the
Tapti and the Wardha are considered as an
inner moat, the present distribution-patterns
indicate that the troops of rhesus monkeys
crossed over these barriers through the ‘gates’
located at Mandla and Chindwara, moved en
masse to the Western Ghats where advance
troops of bonnet monkeys were stationed.

The present study revealed that not only
the rivers Tapti and Godavari, but also the
semi-arid zone of the Deccan Plateau of cen-

254

tral India acted as barriers isolating the dis-
tribution ranges of the two species. The rhesus
monkeys were artificially introduced to the
region south of the river Godavari. In some
places such as Borivli and Vijayawada, the
bonnet monkeys and the rhesus monkeys are
co-existing. North of the Tapti, the western-
most limit for the distribution of the rhesus
is 21°20’N, 73°30’E in the Kherwada forests
of Gujarat State, whereas south of the Tapti,
the northernmost limit for the bonnet is 21°
O5’N, 73°35’E near Songadh, Gujarat State:
Bonnet monkeys are found mostly in hilly and
sporadically forested areas of the Western
Ghats. Hanuman langurs are distributed not
only in the dry deciduous forests but also im
the dry scrub forests of the Deccan Plateau
which is not an effective barrier for making
the distribution of this species isolated into
populations like those of macaques.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was conducted in collabora-
tion with the Bombay Natural History Society
(B.N.H.S.), Bombay, and the Forest Depart-
ments of the States of Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh and Gujarat. Mr. J. C. Daniel, Cura-
tor of the B.N.H.S. and Mr. S. S. Buit, Chiet
Conservator of Forests (C.C.F.) of Maha-
rashtra State, gave us their overall support
for carrying out this field survey. The authors
are indebted to Messrs R. N. Indurkar, S. B.
iKulkarni, J. K. Khilare, A. D. Mshraw, V. B.
Joshi and G. B. Dashputre from the Forest
Department of Maharashtra State. In Madhya
Pradesh, Messrs. S. Pasupathi, H. S. Panwar
and M. M. Tripathi gave us valuable infor-
mation whereas in Gujarat State, we received
the kindest support from Mr. R. D. Joshi. Drs.
Y. Sugiyama and K. Wada, associate profes-
sor and research associate of the Primate Re-
search Institute of Kyoto University (P.R_I.
K.U.), who gave us the opportunity to work

DISTRIBUTION OF RHESUS
together with them, commented on the draft
of this manuscript. Mr. Baldev Singh Grewal,
P. R. I. K. U. and Dr. Othmar Buchmann,
University of Tasmania, helped us in prepar-
ing the English version of this paper. We

AND BONNET

MONKEYS

would like to express our heartfelt thanks to
the above-mentioned persons and organiza-
tions. This study was supported by grants from
the Ministry of Culture, Science and Educa-
tion, Japan.

REFERENCES

CHAMPION, H. G. AND SETH, S. K. (1968): A
Revised Survey of The Forest Types of India. The
Manager of Publications, Delhi, pp. 404.

DESHPANDE, C .D. (1971): Geography of Maha-
rashtra. National Book Trust, India, New Delhi,
pp. 218.

FiepLer, W. (1956): Ubersicht tiber das System
der Primates. Primatologia I, pp. 1-266.

FoopEN, J. (1975): Taxonomy and evolution of

liontail and pigtail macaques (Primates: Cercopi-
thecidae): Fieldiana Zool. 67: 1-169.
— (1976): Provisional classification

and key to living species of macaques (Primates:
Macaca). Folia primatol. 25: 225-236.

Dixsuir, K. R. (1970): Geography of Gujarat.
National Book Trust, India. New Delhi. pp. 260.

Karve, I. (1968): Maharashtra—land and _ its
people. Directorate of Government Printing, Station-
ery and Publications, Maharashtra State, Bombay,
pee 201.

KRISHNAN, M. (1971): An ecological survey of
the larger mammals of peninsular India. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (3): 503-555.

Kurup, G. U. (1977): Distribution, habitat and
conservation of the rain forest primates in the
Western Ghats. India. In: Use of Non-human Pri-
mates in Biochemical Research, M. R. N. Prasad
and T. C. A. Kumar (Ed.), pp. 62-73. Indian
National Science Academy, New Delhi.

Misra, S. D. (1970): Rivers of India. National
Book Trust, India, New Delhi. pp. 188.

Poirigr, F. E. (1970): The Nilgiri langur (Pres-
bytis johnii) of South India. In: Primate Behavior:
Developments in Field and Laboratory Research,
L. A. Rosenblum (Ed.), Vol. I, pp. 251-383. Aca-
demic Press, New York.

Prater, S. H. (1965): The Book of Indian Ani-

mals. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
pp. 324.
SCHALLER, G. B. (1967): The Deer and The

Tiger: A Study of Wildlife in India. Univ. of Chi-
cago Press, Chicago. pp. 370.

Sippiet, M. F. AND SouTHWIcK, C. H. (1977):
Population trends and dynamics of rhesus monkeys
in Aligarh District. Jn: Use of Non-human Pri-
mates in Biomedical Research. M. R. N. Prasad
and T. C. A. Kumar (Ed.), pp. 14-23. Indian
National Academy, New Delhi.

SuGirvAMA, Y. (1968): Ecology of the lion-tailed
macaque (Macaca silenus Linnaeus)—A pilot study.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 65 (2): 283-293.
(1971): Characteristics of the social
life of bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata). Primates,
12 (3-4): 247-266.

VoGEL, C. (1977): Ecology and sociology of
Presbytis entellus. In: Use of Non-human Primates
in Biochemical Research, M. R. N. Prasad and T.
C. A. Kumar (Ed.), pp. 24-45. Indian National
Science Academy, New Delhi.

=

TAXONOMIC NOTES OF THE GENUS PORTULACA
LINN. IN INDIA’

V. V. SIVARAJAN2

Geesink (1969, 1971), while revising the genus Portulaca Linn., of Indo-Australia
and the Pacific has amended the circumscription of the species drastically and con-
sidered the genus (formerly believed to include about 200 species) to have not more
than 40 ‘good species’. In this note in accordance with Geesink’s concept of species,
four species in India are recognised, where formerly 7 species were reported. This
paper also attempts to discuss Geesink’s concept of infraspecific categories and has
made certain deviations for reasons discussed in the text.

INTRODUCTION

Portulaca Linn. is a tropical and subtropi-
cal ‘heliophilous’ genus of succulent and
semisucculent herbs’ with a preference for bare
places’. This genus, previously considered to
have about 200 species (Santapau & Henry
1973), is of very limited economic importance.
P. pilosa ssp. grandiflora is grown widely as a
summer ornamental, while P. oleracea is eaten
as a vegetable.

von Poellnitz (1934) monographed the
genus and recognised 104 species to which
abcut 30 species were added later by subse-
quent workers. He also proposed a subgene-
ric classification which was found to be un-
tenable by Geesink (1969). who in turn pro-
posed its subdivision into two subgenera, viz.
subg. Portulacella and subg. Portulaca. The
former restricted to Australia, exhibits the
most primitive inflorescence structure in the
genus and hence it is suggested that the an-
cestral lineage of the genus is found in Aus-
tralia (Geesink 1969).

The predominently autogamous breeding

1 Accepted March 1980.
2Department of Botany, University of Calicut,
Kerala 673 635.

296

system has played an active role in isolation
and divergence in this genus and has resulted
in the emergence of homogenous populations
with ‘sharp delineations against each other’
and constant in their details. This probably
prompted the earlier taxonomists to recognise
each one of these ‘pure-lines’ as a distinct
species, taking the total number of them as
high as 200. The concept of species has how-
ever, undergone drastic changes in the recent
past. Geesink (1969) has suggested that in the
genus there are ‘not more than 40 good spe-
cies’. Consequently, several of Poellnitz’s spe-
cies are lumped together or reduced to sub-
specific taxa, and some are even considered
not deserving any ‘systematic recognition as
formal taxa’.

This shift in the concept of species and
subspecific taxa in this genus has warranted
a reconsideration of its Indian species too.
The 7 species reported from India (Santapau
& Henry 1973), have been reduced to 4 ‘good
species’, namely P. oleracea, P. pilosa, P. qua-
drifida, and P. wightiana.

While broadly in agreement with Geesink’s
concept of species in the genus, I find it dif-
ficult to accept his treatment of certain ‘pure-
lines’ which were originally described as dis-
tinct species, for obvious morphological dis-

GENUS PORTULACA IN INDIA

tinctiveness, as ‘races’ of no taxonomic con-
sequence. Under P. pilosa ssp. pilosa, he has
recognised 6 ‘races’ of which race pilosa and
race tuberosa are represented in India. While
the former was considered to be a species by
itself the latter included in it two different
species namely, P. tuberosa and P. suffruticosa,
as recognised by most systematists. P. tubero-
sa was set apart on account of its tuberous
roots, diffuse or prostrate habit and non-
tuberculate seeds, while the latter had branch-
ed woody roots, suffruticose habit and tuber-
culate seeds. However, they intergrade so
much, that their separation seems to be un-
justified even at subspecific levels. Even when
one accepts that self-pollination explains the
‘profuse occurrence of more or less purelines
...in nature which keep constant details’ and
that their distinctiveness is governed by only
a few genes (Geesink 1969), one doubts the
very expediency of keeping such populations
out of bounds for the taxonomists, dumping
them as ‘races’ of no formal taxonomic status.
The primary task of the taxonomist is to re-
cognise plant groups as they exist in nature
and to give names to different plant popula-
tions, so that their properties can be record-
ed, information tabulated and detailed phyto-
geographical studies made. Even if a species
is polymorphic, some grouping of the variants
is still necessary if this primary aim is not to
be lost sight of (Verdcourt 1970, p. 236).
Morever, the term ‘race’ has been rather
confusing and ‘it is worth realising now that
fe LOGIN aCe a). ; is seldom found in re-
cent literature......it is sometimes translat-
ed as meaning subspecies and lead to serious
problems of interpretation and nomenclature’
(Davis & Heywood 1963, p. 100). The Inter-
national Code of Botanical Nomenclature
(1972) also does not recognise ‘race’ as a
formal taxonomic category. So it seems worth-
while, to bring the various groups (‘races’)

under formal taxonomic terminology. I pro-
pese varietal rank for the so called ‘races’ and
consequently new combinations are proposed.

KEY TO THE SPECIES AND SUBSPECIFIC TAXA

1. Leaves flat:
2. Flowers in heads:
3. Leaves’ obovate-spathulate ........... ie

P. oleracea var. oleracea
3. eavesilinear-oblong, acute... ..)........%%.
DOSES IN eae em p. oleracea var. linearifolia

2. Flowers solitary:
4. Weaves concealed Oy ‘scales 0. 0...
Ra Ses te esa A) eeu tc mG Ree A P. wightiana
4, Leaves not concealed by scales..........

P. quadrifida

Sc¥ecie\4e) (ome) 2) Me) (0) fe felnelse-\ei ds temislllehic\ elles Je) ens

1. Leaves linear, terete or subterete:
5, Flowers small, less than 2 cm across........
J oploes nea pestle eS ne Core Ch P. pilosa ssp. pilosa
6 Flowers pink. 7.40 | AONE Mapa var. pilosa
6.4. Flowers yellow.) 398... var. tuberosa
5. Flowers large, 4-5 cm across..............
He CARI OP Re enger P. pilosa ssp. grandiflora

SYSTEMATIC TREATMENT

P. oleracea Linn. Sp. Pl. 445. 1753; Dyer in
Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1: 247. 1874: Cooke.
Fl. Pres. Bomb. 172. 1901; Gamb. FI. Pres.
Madr 66,1915; Poellm: in. Fedde: Rep. (37:
258. 1934: Geesink in Blumea 17: 292. 1969
& Fl. Males. 7: 129. 1971; Khoshoo &
Singh in Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 8 : 278-286.
1966.

var. oleracea :

Leaves fleshy, obovate-cuneate, truncate,
obtuse or retuse at tips, up to 2x1 cm in
size; flowers bright yellow (Hiralal 15969,
Lucknow 1s recorded to have white flowers)
crowded at the tips of branches; capsules
ovate-acute 7-8 mm long: seeds 20-25 in each
capsule, minute, shining black, tubercled.
Specimens examined:

Andamans: Bhargava 2384, 1802. Balakrish-
nan 57. Thothathri 10800. Andhra Pradesh:

257

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Sebastine 5982, Narayana Swami 145; Tho-
thathri 9679; Balakrishnan 1147; Krishanan
Sn. 80380 (Cuddapah), Murty 137 (Waltair).
Arunachal: A. S. Rao 48156 (NEFA); Jo-
seph 48445 (NEFA); Hare 1898 (NEFA); Bor
1118 (Aka Hills). Assam: Mann (Sn. 43688;
Craib 277; Panigrahi 14332; R. S. Rao 9906;
Gill 43; Nath 13360; Masters 44; Srivastava
79919 (Jorhat); Nayar 51247 (Kamrup);
Panigrahi 11417; Verma 41770 & 46545;
Joseph 38205: (Nongpoh) Beb 35192. Bihar:
Prain Sn. 43682 (Ranchi), Shetty 227 (Cham-
paran). Srivastava 46611 (Patna). Gujarat:
Rao 1911; Kaul 9188 (Girmar). Goa: Eradi
2421 (Panaji). Jammu & Kashmir: Saran
39900, 29869; Vohra & Wadhwa 767. Karna-
taka: A. S. Rao, 80243. Kerala: Sivarajan
633, & 1309 (Calicut); Calder & Narayana
Swami 1568. Madhya Pradesh: Kaul 5366
(Machaghat): Maharashtra: Santapau 283
(Bombay), Saran 61524 (Lonavala), Patil
2349 (Patil has recorded that ‘the plant is use-
ful in Scurvy and liver diseases. The juice of
the stem applied to prickly heat and to hands
and feet where burning sensation is felt’).
King 227, Wadhwa 64309 & 68656, Billore
116213. Manipur: Deb 343. Meghalaya: Deb
29253 (Garo Hills): Sharma 18674 (Khasi &
Jaintia Hills), Deka 1647 (Khasi & Jaintia
Hills). Orissa: Panigrahi 23828 & 8516, Raju
7521, Panigrahi 23468; Saran 58609, G. V. S.
Rao 30403. Punjab: Kaul 22995 (Jullundur).
Rajasthan: Nanteyal 25428 (Jodhpur), Singh
3243; Verma 588; Singh 319. Tamil Nadu:
Sebastine 186 & 580. Tripura: Debbarnian
290 (Agartala), Uttar Pradesh: Bell 180; T.
A. Rao, 11633; Mackinnon Sn. 43669: Misra
9783: Srivastava 24600 (Lucknow), Hiralal
15969 (Lucknow): Duthie 6331 (Itawah),
43201 (D. Dun), Saxena 1989 (Mussoorie),
Ashraf Alam 72012 (Rai Bareli); West Ben-
gal: Ghosh, Mukherjee 5331 & 5947 (How-
rah).

258

var. limearifolia Sivarajan et Manilal, New
Botanist 4: 30. 1977.

This variety differs from P. oleracea var.

oleracea in having linear leaves and 55-
75 seeds in each capsule which are much
smaller than those of the latter.
Ecology: In fields and gardens along with the
typical form of the species mainly in N. India.
This has been reported from U.P., Punjab,
Bihar, Maharashtra and Gujarat. |

Specimens examined:

Bihar: Srivastava 46612 (Patna). Rajasthan:
Singh 3213. Sharma 477; Roy 2163: Shetty
3312, 1848. Uttar Pradesh: Coll. ? Sn. 43671
records that it is “‘cultivated form known as
‘Kulfa Sag’ and eaten as pot herb in United
provinces” Nair 14739; Chandra 42790 (Sah-
ranpur—type), Coll. ? Sn. 146 (Kanpur),
Kapoor 18891 (Lucknow), Hiralal 15970
(Lucknow), Kaul 47601 (Allahabad), Saran
26628 (Lakhimpur Kheri), Delhi: Kaul 8317,
Lecality: ? Royle Sn. 43703, Gustavmann 52,
W. Bengal: Chatterjee 90 (Purulia), Assam:
Kurz. Sn. 43687, Orissa: Panigarhi 8276.

P. wightiana Wall. (Cat. 6842. 1828, nomen.)
ex Wt. & Arn. Prod. 356. 1834; Dyer I.c. 247;
Cooke, jI.¢,,72..Gamb. Jc: 3114; Poelln. ie. 314:
Geesink /.c. 290. 1969.

Branched, prostrate herbs, branches angled,
jointed; leaves fleshy, ovate-acute, nodal ap-
pendages silvery white; flowers terminal, soli-
tary, sessile: capsule globular, operculum straw
coloured.

Ecology: A heliophilous semisucculent herb
common along the sandy sea coast, chiefly
along the eastern coast of S. India.

Specimens examined :

Andhra Pradesh: Fischer 4341 (Chittoor Dt.).
Tamil Nadu: King Sn. ? Fischer 2154 (Coim-
batore), Gamble 17771 (Bellary), Lawson
Sn: 2:

GENUS PORTULACA IN INDIA

P. quadrifida Linn. Mant. Pl. 1:73. 1767;
Dyer I.c. 246; Cooke I.c. 72; Gamb. I.c., poelin.
lic. 275;>Geesinks /.c. & Bl.Males. 7: 127. 1971.
P. meridiana Linn. f. suppl. Sp. Pl. 248. 1781.
P. geniculata Royle, Ill. Bot. Himal. 1:221.
1839, nomen.

Diffuse or prostrate herbs, rooting at nodes
with fleshy ovate or elliptic, acute leaves up to
6x3 mm; nodal hairs silvery white; flowers
yellow, solitary; capsules conical, 5 mm long;
seeds black, tubercled.

Ecology: In moist grasslands, garden premi-
ses, waste places and railway embankments.
Quite variable in their hairiness.

Specimens examined.

Andhra Pradesh: Murty 1881 (Waltair),
Thothathri 9678; Balakrishnan 1157. Bihar:
Srivastava 46737. Banerjee 316. Gujarat: Deo
14293 (Somnath), Srivastava 14223. Kerala:
Lawson 328 & 329. Maharashtra: Rao 2309
& 2214. Madhya Pradesh: Kaul 18142. Orissa:
Srivastava 93905 (Puri), Abraham 33 & 280;
Mukherjee 6065, Annandale 1216. Punjab:
Aitchison 1024. Rajasthan: Hiralal 34425
(Alwar), Raizada 23763 (Rajkot), Tiwari
1124; Duthie 4520. Uttar Pradesh: Hiralal
15971 (Lucknow), Kohli 44521 (Meerut),
Ratanlal Sn.? (Dehra Dun), Arora 4793 &
3882. Tamil Nadu: Lawson 328 (Cape como-
rin), Sebastine 8308 & 673, Fisher 122; Perot-
tet 422, Subramanyam 141 & 829; Wight Sn.
43716.

Fevgilosa Linn. Sp. Pl. 445. 1753; DC. Prod.
Beoo4+ 13828. Pociln. in Pedde, Rep. 37:261.
1934; Bailey, Man. Cult. Pl. 365. 1949; Gee-
sink in Blumea 17: 294. 1969.

leaves spiral, with conspicuous axillary
hairs, capituli 1-12 flowered; flowers sur-
rounded by membraneous bracteoles and
hatrs; capsules ovate or obovate.

Tropics, some are grown as ornamentals
and very often escape cultivation.

ssp. pilosa: Geesink in Blumea 17: 295-97.
1969.

Leaves usually linear-acute, subterete;
flowers yellow or pink, crowded in 2- many
flowered heads: fruit globose.

var. pilosa :

P. pilosa sensu Poelln. Lc. 261; Bailey, Man.
Cult. Pl. 365. 1949. P. pilosa, ssp. pilosa, ‘race’
pilosa Geensink in Blumea 17: 94. 1969 &
Fl. Males) 7s 13.197.)

Herbs with linear. subterete leaves and pink
flowers, roots not tuberous; capsules globose,
2-3 mm, across: , testa, cells elliptic , stellate,
tubercled.

Ecology: on bare rocky laterite and sandy
beaches.

Specimens examined:

Andhra Pradesh: Balakrishnan 1102. Brhar:
Panigraht 11697. Kerala: Nair 19090. Rajas-
than: Shetty 1249, Wadhwa 8370. Uttar Pra-
desh Prasad 327. West Bengal: Dutt 478,
Nuskar Sn. 43739.

var. tuberosa (Roxb.) Sivarajan, Stat. nov.
P. tuberosa Roxb. FI. Ind. (ed. Carey) 2:464.
1325) Dyer, Vc. 246) Cook. c. 73: :Gamb. Ic);
Poelin: [clt312. ke suffruticosa, Wall (Cat.
6844. 1832, nomen. nud.) ex Wt. & Arn. Prod.
S901, 1834. Dyer t6:247;, (Cooke, lic: Gamb.
Lie Poelim’ re. (313; P, pilosa, ssp. pilosa,
(race ‘tubcrosa’) Geesink in Blumea 17: 296.
(8609) Soun eliiMales: 7:..130. 197.

A semisucculent herb with tuberous or
woody much branched roots, leaves subterete,
linear-acute, axillary hairs short; flowers usu-
ally solitary: seeds usually tubercled.
Ecology: On wet, moist rocky laterite and
sandy sea coasts.

Studies on herbarium materials and in the
field have shown that there are a number of
intermediates between P. tuberosa Roxb. and

29

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

P. suffruticosa Wall. ex Wt. & Arn. making
a distinction very difficult.
Specimens examined:
Andhra Pradesh: (Waltair) Murty 189, CHy-
derabad) Kaul 4696. Bihar: Mukherjee 4454;
Kerala: (Calicut) Sivarajan 1169, 1170; Lac-
cadives: Coll.? Sn. 43712. Maharashtra:
Wadhwa 69863; Orissa: Abraham 263, Rao
5977. Punjab: Ramlakhan 9717, Kaul Sn.
29715 (Jullundur). Rajasthan: (Ajmir)
Sharma 100288; Tamil Nadu: Rao 1434, Ma-
jeed 15504 (Courtallam); Uttar Pradesh:
(Kukrail forests) Umashankar 1010, (Unnao)
Kanjilal, Sn. 96816, Prasad, 328, 329.
P. pilosa ssp. grandiflora (Hook.) Geesink in
Blumea 17: 297. 1969 & in FI. Males. 7:
131. 1971. P. grandiflora Hook. Bot. Mag. n.s.
2. t. 2885. 1829; Poelln. Ke: 264

Diffuse succulent herbs with linear, subte-
rete leaves, and axillary hairs up to 5 mm
long: flowers 3-4 cm across, in clusters of 4-6,
sessile, colour variable; capsules subglobose.
Specimens examined:
Kerala: Sivarajan 1725 (Calicut). Tripura:
Deb 267 & 2198. Uttar Pradesh: Kapoor
20405 (Lucknow), Umashankar 3590. Sn. 149,
150 (Kanpur), Rajkumar Sn. 37387 (Naint-
tal); W. Bengal: Coll.? Sn. 43741.
Nate: This tropical American taxon very
widely cultivated throughout India falls under
two categories.
1. Annuals—Solely propagated by seeds.
2. Perennials—those that do not set seeds and

are propagated vegetatively.

Since, basically the species is an annual,
ihe perennial nature might have been produced
as a result of constant human selection to
prefer certain cultivars, which otherwise break-
down and segregate.

Several cultivars, chiefly distinguished by
their flower colours and numbers of petals
are under cultivation. Genetic experiments
have shown that the double flowered form is
conditioned by a dominent allele (Yasui
1920). Katsuyoshi and Harding (1969) have
also. demonstrated the genetic varibility of
petal length, width and number in commercial
populations of this taxon. All flower colours
and form variations are found to be differ-
ences in the genic Jevel, but for one cultivar,
‘jewel’ which has a chromosome number n=5,
while the basic number of this taxon is n=9
(Sultana Rizvi et al. 1972).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I acknowledge the kind help and facilities

7 provided by the Officers in-charge of the fol-

lowing Herbaria during the course of the
work; Central National Herbarium, Howrah;
Botanical survey of India, Eastern Circle,
Shillong; Botanical survey of India, Southern
circle, Coimbatore: National Botanic Gardens,
Lucknow: Forest Research Institute. Dehra
Dun. Thanks are also due to Dr. Geesink,
Rijkherbarium, Leiden for his kind help during
the course of the work, and to Prof. K. S.
Manilal for encouragement.

REFERENCES

Davis, P. H. AND Heywoop, V. H. (1963): Prin-
ciples of Angiosperm Taxonomy, New York.

GEESINK, R. (1969): An account of the genus
Portulaca in Indo-Australia and the Pacific (Por-
tulacaceae). Blumea J7 275-301.

—-——__———- (1971): Portulacaceae: in van Stee-
nis (Ed.), Flora Malesiana 7: 121-133, Djakarta.

KATSUYOSHI, K. AND HARDING, JAMES (1969):
Genetic and environmental variations for corolla
traits in Portulca grandiflora. J. Hort. Sci. 44: 37-
AT,

260

SANTAPAU, H. AND HENRY, A. N. (1973): A Dic-
tionary of the Flowering plants of India, New Delhi.

SULTANA Rizvi, T. N., KHOOSHOO AND PAL, M.
(1972): Cytotypes within the annual ornamental
Portulaca. Caryologia 25: 9-15.

VERDCOURT, B. (1970): Studies in Leguminosae:
Papilionoideae II. Kew. Bull. 24: 235-307.

VoN PoELLNITz, K. (1934): “Versuch einer
Monographe der Guttung Portulace’. Fedde Rep.
34: 240-320.

Yasur, K. (1920): Genetical studies in Portulaca
grandiflora. Bot. Mag. (Tokyo). 34: 55-65.

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF
THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY— 23

CAMPEPHAGIDAE: (Cuckoo-Shrikes, Minivets):
IRENIDAE: (Fairy Bluebirds, Ioras, Leaf Birds).

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

[Continued from Vol. 77 (1): 99]

This part covers 1007 specimens of 59
species and subspecies. After the main work
was completed 32 specimens of 16 species and
subspecies mostly collected by Salim Ah in
different parts of India, and a few erroneously
unregistered have been formally added to the
collections. These have been examined and
entered under the appropriate headings, but
all have not been included in the tables of
measurements.

1 am grateful to Mr. Nosherwan Setna who
helped me with the measurements and other
work for several months.

1064 Hemipus picatus capitalis (Horsfield)
(Assam) Brownbacked Pied Flycatcher-Shrike
2: 307

5: 10.7.6 6, 1 by pl.) 4.92 1 0?
2 Bhagat State, 1 Simla Hills; 1 Tama, 1 Mang-
dechu, C. Bhutan; 1 Dehra Dun, U.P.; 1 Dibrugarh,

2 Sadiya, 1 Martam, Rongni Valley, 2 Silchar,
Assam; 2 N. Shan States; 1 Jade Mines, Upper
Burma.

Unsexed specimen No. 4818 collected by
C. M. Inglis (probably at Cachar where he
obtained No. 4819) has the upperparts black-
ish brown, i.e. a mixture between capitalis
and picatus which replaces it in Southern
Burma.

Measurements on p. 279.

[392]

1065 Hemipus_ picatus picatus (Sykes)
(Dukhun) Blackbacked Pied Flycatcher-Shrike
2: 306

A DT a a 1 3e 29) Ora od

3 Kolkaz, 1 Rangobeli, Melghat, Berar; 1 Male-
gaon, Surat Dangs; 1 Canacona. Goa; 1 Karwar,
1 Balemani, 2 North Kanara; 1 Sethipalli 2500’,
Shimoga; 1 Begur, Manantoddy, | Padagiri, Nel-
liampathis, Cochin, 1 Thekaddy, Periyar Lake,
Kerala; 1 Coonoor, Nilgiri; 1 Shambaganur, Palnis;
1 Billigirirangans, 2 Chitteri Range, Salem district;
2 Anantgiri, 1 Lamasinghi. 3 Sankrametta 3500’,
i Upper Sileru, Vizagapatam district; 1 Gurguria,
Simlipal Hills, 3 Badrama (Bamra), Orissa; 1
Mandikheri, Piparia; 1 Geedam, 1 Makri, 3 Anta-
garh, 1 Bailadila, Bastar, M.P.;.1 Khayauk Chaung,
| Sedan Chang, Thayetmyo, 2 Tonya, Prome,
Burma.

Laid on their backs, both sexes show con-
siderable variation in the extent of the white
on the chin and the vinaceous brown on the
underparts. Four from North Kanara (2 o' co’
2 @¢) collected at the turn of the century
by T. R. Bell and E. H. Aitken can be picked

out by their pale yellowish almost unmarked

underparts. A recent specimen from Goa does
not show this difference.

No 4831 from Khayauk Chaung, Thayetm-
yo, Burma, originally marked 9? is in of
plumage.

Stuart Baker (FAUNA, 2, p. 307) refers to a

261

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

perfectly typical specimen of picatus from
Darjeeling and Mt. Victoria in Chin Hills and
an equally typical specimen of capitalis from
Malabar and wonders if they are wanderers
or aberrants.

Among those in female plumage, only 4
(1 & 2 © 2 1o?) have the head concolorous
with the back, all the others, including two
young males, from Chitteri Range, Salem
district, having distinctly darker caps.

The tails of birds along the western side of
the country (Kolkaz to Billigirirangans in the
above list) average shorter than those from
Vizagapatam hills, Orissa and eastern Ma-
dhya Pradesh.

Measurements on p. 279.

1066 Hemipus picatus leggei Whistler
(Ohiya, Ceylon) Ceylon Pied Flycatcher-
Shrike
nil.

This subspecies is separated from nominate
picatus by the single fact that the sexes are
alike, i.e. the female acquires the male plu-
mage.

It was originally confined to Ceylon, but
in INDIAN HANDBOOK (6: pp. 3-5) it is said
to occur in southern Kerala, where “‘the sexes
are however dimorphic’’!?*

The southernmost female available is from
Padagiri, Nelliampathis, Cochin, which does
not differ from other females of picatus.

1067 ‘Tephrodornis gularis pelvica (Hodg-
son) (Nepal) Nepal Wood Shrike 2: 309

30°" 20" 3 a2 by pls, 4° imi) "9 272) (2) imam)
1 0?

1 Sukna, 2 Sevoka, Darjeeling, 4 Ranibagh,
2100’ U.P.; 4 Kameli (Bailadilla) Bastar, M.P.;
| Sankrametta, Vizagapatam, A.P.; 3 Gurguria,
2 Mahendragiri, Simlipal Hills, Orissa; 1 Gaumara,
Jalpaiguri; 1 Dibrugarh, Assam; 1 Roopachena,
Cachar; 1 Jungle, N. Shan States; 1 no data.

*See remarks by S. Dillon Ripley, JBNHS 78:
168-9.

262

immature males have horny bills (contra
black) and little or no grey on the upperparts.
Their wings and bills average slightly less than
in the adults, and they are excluded from the
measurements.

8 (5 go 3 ¢ 2) obtained in Bhutan in
1966 have only recently been registered. In
series the grey heads and brown backs of the
males appear duller than those of other pel-
vICd.

The measurements (p. 279)
placed, are also a little smaller.

1068 TYephrodornis gularis sylvicola Jer-
don (Malabar Coast) Malabar Wood Shrike
P28 SII

separately

PURE NPE VSS ts) QE QD) (UR)

1 Waghai, Surat Dangs; 2 Canacona, Goa; 1
Kodra, 1 Karwar, 1 Balammani, N. Kanara; 1
Kuriarkutti, Cochin; 1 Padagiri, Nelliampathis; 2
Thattakad, 1 Tenmalai, 2 Ponmudi, 2 Thekaddy.
Periyar Lake, 1 Kalekare, 1 Begur, Manantoddy,
2 Manalur, Kerala; 1 Kannampalli, Nilgiri, 1 Palni
Ghats; 1 Ulavi, Sorat Taluka, Mysore.

Measurements on p. 279.

EL Tephrodornis gularis jugans Deignan
[Doi-Langka = Khao Pha Cho (19°N, 99°25’
E) Thailand].

Diu iGucd oy (eam) ss Or
2 Mindan Yoma Reserve, Thayetmyo, 1 near
Jebawgyi, 2300’ Sandoway; 1 Nyaunggyo, 2500’,

1 3000’, Prome dist., Burma.

Except that the males appear to show less
grey on the head, these birds are barely sepa-
rable from _ pelvica.

Measurements on p. 279.

1069 Tephredornis pondicerianus pallidus
Ticehurst (Larkhana, Sind) Sind Wood Shrike
2: 314
29:14 23, (1% fledgling) <9 -9 2 11 uv) @2,
1 Sind*; 3 Ambala, Punjab; 5 Meerut, U.P.;
2 Delhi; 1 Bharatpur; Rajasthan; 1 Narwar Fort,
Gwalior; 7 Bhuj, Kutch; 1 Jawar, Jaswantpura,
Jodhpur; 1 Mathar, Narbudda Valley, Bhopal; 2
Deesa, Palanpur, I Nadiad, Kaira, Gujarat.

[393]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION —23

As accepted by earlier workers, the two races
pallidus and pondicerianus recognised in
Indian limits are not easily separable, particu-
larly without any topotypical material to hand.
The single specimen from Sind is a fledgling
which is very much paler than 3 others in the
same stage of plumage from southern India,
but it is dated 4 May 1877 and much of the
saleness may be due to fading.

Measurements on p. 279.

1070 ‘Tephrodornis pondicerianus pondi-
cerianus (Gmelin) (Coromandel) Indian Wood
Shrike De BAZ

61: 29 @é4 (1 fledgling) 25 2@@ (2 fledglings)
7 0?

1 Songadh, Navsari, Gujarat; 1 Raipur, 1 Dhar-
garh, Melghat; 1 Santa Cruz, 1 Bandra, Bombay
City; 2 Khandalla, 1 Talegaon, 2 Poona; 1 Ratna-
girl; 3 Karwar, 1 N. Kanara; 3 Murgimatia, Mysore;
1 Anaikatty, Gudalur, Nilgiris; 1 Palnis, 1 Rajani-
pure, Panthaiam Hills; | Akkakulam, 1 Nettayam.
Kerala; 1 Nillapuria, foothills near Jamestown,
Kanyakumari; 1 Gingee, S. Arcot, 1 Kurumbapatti,
Salem; 5 Seshachalam Hills, 1 Koduru, 2 Palkonda
Hills, S. Cudappah: 1 Nallamalai Range; 1 Anant-
girl, Vizagapatam; 2 Jabalpur, 2 Bhanuprattapur,
Kanker, 1 Golapalli, Bastar, M.P.; 3 Barkot (Bam-
ra), 2 Band, 1 Kutri, Daspalli, 1 Samastipur, 1 Cha-
hala, Simlipal Hills, Orissa; 1 MRajputee, Saran,
3 Baghownie, Darbhanga, Bihar; 1 Cawnpore, 1
Pilibhit Terai, 1 Kalkuna, foot of Kumaon Hills,
U.P.; 1 Tribani, Nepal; 1 Maymyo, Upper Burma;
2 Kandi, Prome dist.; 1 Kyibin, Henzada, Burma.

Reference has already been made to the
differences which cannot be localized. ‘The
5 from Seshachalam Hills in south India
appear paler than the others from the sur-
rounding areas, but these skins are excellently
prepared, by Lapersonne, which in itself sepa-
rates them from the others.

Two fledglings taken on the same day at
Khandalla by T. Yamamoto are probably of
the same brood and age, but show a difference
in the extent of spotting on the head.

In some birds the head appears darker than

[394]

the back, while in others it appears to be
streaked. A male, No. 4880, from Baghownie,
Bihar, has the eye-brows creamy white, a
character shared with another < (No. 17088)
of pallidus trom Ambala, Punjab, and seen in
others near Bombay .

Birds from Burma cannot be separated. The
measurements show wide variation which it
is not possible to associate with place or plum-
age. Larger series from the same place ob-

tained over the whole year may _ perhaps
provide some explanation.

Measurements on p. 279.

1071 ‘Yephrodornis pondicerianus — affinis

Blyth (Ceylon) Ceylon Wood Shrike 2: 313

nil.

1072 Coracina novaehollandiae macei
(Lesson) (Calcutta, Bengal) Large Cuckoo
Shrike 2: 343

2626, 6G ve Ciiby, spl, .9 adults) 10.09

i Patan, Mehsana, 1 Dalkhania, Amreli, 1 Juna,
Rajpipla, 1 Ajwa, Baroda; 1 Meskhatri, Surat
Dangs; | Jaithari, Bhopal, C.I.; 1 Andheri, Bom-
bay; 3 Ratnagiri; 1 Kumta, 2 North Kanara; 1
Mercara, Coorg, 1 Trivandrum; 1 Mudumalai; 1
Shevaroy Hills, 2 Nallamalai Range, South Kur-
nool; 1 Antagarh, 1 Kanta, Bastar, 1 Kanker, M.P.;
1 Balasore, 1 Dapur, 1 Chilka, 1 Maidapur, Angul,
Orissa.

The single adult male from Trivandrum
has the underparts more closely barred than
in any of the others in this plumage, and a
159 mm _ wing.

There is considerable variation in_ the
amount of barring on the underparts but,
except that the females and immature males
from Orissa and Bastar, M.P., appear to be
more closely barred on the underparts, and
also show wider bills, it is not possible to
isolate any of the differences.

Measurements on p. 280.

263

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

1073 Coracina novaehollandiae nipalensis
(Hodgson) (Nepal) Nepal Large Cuckoo
Shrike 2: 344.

Seal pp o8h 1 PaO elo?

1 Ambala*, 1 Kalka, Punjab; 1 Madhubani, Dar-
bhanga, Bihar; 1 Goalpara, 1 Doyang, Sibsagar,
Assam.

I So (wing 181) grey throat and upper
breast, no barring on underparts.

3 @ (wings 168, 169, 178). 1 with chin
barred, 2 grey; all three with grey upper
breast, and varying amount of barring below.

* Whistler (JBNHS 36: 346) stated that
in this form the throat/chin is never barred,
either in the female or first year plumage. In
Sp. No. 17215 from Ambala, Punjab, the chin
is barred, followed by a grey upper breast
and further barring on the underparts. In the
absence of any such specimen among macei
in this intermediate plumage, and the large
169 mm wing, it is left with nipalensis.

Measurements on p. 280.

1074 Coracina novaehollandiae — layardi
(Blyth) (Ceylon) Ceylon Large Cuckoo Shrike
2: 345

nil.

1075 Coracina novaehollandiae andamana
(Neumann) (Andaman _ Islands) Andaman
Large Cuckoo Shrike

M30 Oy OSS Oa on

1 Long I, 1 Maya Bunder, North Andaman; 2
Middle Andaman; 3 South Andaman.

These birds are similar to nipalensis and
siamensis (as below) but the upper and lower
parts are a clearer grey, and the belly a purer
white than in any of the others. The two adult
males (one with enlarged testes) show no bar-
ring on the underparts, while traces show in
the other three, being least noticeable in a
female with developed ovaries. Their bills are
larger than in both nipalensis and lushaiensis.

Measurements on p. 280.

264

1075a Coeracina novaehollandiae lushaien-
sis (Koelz) (Sungau, Lushai Hills = Mizo).

GF PS Sy oe

I Sadiya, U. Assam; 1 N. Cachar, 1 Upper Bur-
ma, | Kamaing, Myitkyina; 1 Loi Kan, N. Shan
States, 1 Pankkaing, Prome, Burma.

The males are very different from both
nipalensis and siamensis from the north and
south, being much darker on the underparts,
the grey deepening to black at the tip of the
chin.

Koelz (1954, Contrib. Inst. Reg. Expl. 1 p.
15) described Jushaiensis (Sungau, Lushai
Hills, Assam) which he said was darker than
siamensis and extended through the Naga Hills
to Kohima, presumably north to Sadiya (east
of Sibsagar in the plains) and west to the
Jaintia Hills. This has been synonymised with
nipalensis (SYNOPSIS, p. 322 and IND. HAND-
nook) but unless found to be identical with
some other race from outside India, it appears
to be separable not only from nipalensis but
also from siamensis further south.

Measurements on p. 280.

EL Coracina novaehollandiae siamensis
(Baker) (Krabina River).

Siam Ont JUS)

2 Thayetmyo dist., 1 Henzada dist., Burma.

They are very close to andamana but less
grey above and with smaller bills.

Measurements on p. 280.

1076 Coracina striata dobsoni (Ball) (An-
damans) Barred Cuckoo Shrike 2: 346
2: 1 6 12 Wrightmyo, South Andaman.

IND. HANDBOOK (6: 18) refers to the under-
parts of the females, “‘below the breast’? being
barred, implying that the chin and upper breast
are not barred. In the single specimen avail-
able, the entire underparts from chin to vent
are barred.

Measurements on p. 280.

[395]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—23

1077 Coracina melaschistos melaschistos
(Hodgson) (Nepal) Dark Grey Cuckoo Shrike
Ze337]

26-4 21a © by. pl)i1s 92 .(3.by pl)

1 Dungagali 7500’; 1 Murree, | Dakuri, 1 Almora,
Punjab; 1 Koti State 6500’, 1 Jabli 3500’, 2 Simla,
{ Patiala State 4500’; 1 Chamoli, Garhwal, 1 Ku-
maon, Naini Tal, 1 Bankulwa Morung, Nepal; 1
Bhapalapatnam, | Amraoti, Bastar, M.P.; 2 Badrama
(Bamra), 1 Korai (Bonai), 2 Chahala, Simlipal
Hills, Orissa; 1 Baghownie, Tirhut, Bihar; 1 Sukna,
Darjeeling; 1 Peshoke 2600°, Sikkim; 1 Tama, 1
Gedu, West, 1 Shamgong, Central Bhuian; | Bara
Pani, Shilong, 2 Dibrugarh, 2 Margherita, 1 Mar-
tan, Rongni Valley, 1 Lohit Valley, 1 Assam;
1 Bagho-Bihar, Cachar; 2 N’Kraung, Upper Burma.

The grey of the upper and underparts varies
appreciably and the latter carry different mark-
ings in white which are referred to hereunder
but their significance is not understood.

The females are generally paler than the
males and differ in the more extensive barring
on the underparts, particularly on the under
tail-coverts. The statement in IND. HANDBOOK
(6: 19) separating the females by the roundish
white patch on the wings is not quite correct,
for several young males with brown primaries
or barred underparts have similar patches.

Several females have fine white streaks be-
low and behind the eyes, which character 1s
entirely lacking in the maies.

No: 5i37 <unsexed) from, “Dungagali
N.W.F.P. is barred over most of the under-
parts but marked ‘Nesting’? indicating that
birds breed without acquiring the adult plum-
age.

Two females No. 5128, Margherita, Assam,
and 5143, Kumaon, Naini Tal, lack the white
spots on the wings and are exactly like some
of the males. This is presumably the final
plumage in both sexes and one is inclined to
accept Blanford’s statement (FAUNA 1: 492)
to this effect, and to which he adds ‘Fully
adult females are however seldom met with’’.

Some of the males show unmarked white

[396]

under tail-coverts and it has not been possible
to determinate the position of this phase in
the sequence of plumages.

INDIAN HANDBOOK (1971, 6: 20) refers to
the southernmost records. as from Londa c.
15° 30’N on the west coast. The BNHS Bird
Migration Camp at Pt. Calimere, 10°15’N., on
the east coast claims to have ringed 70 birds
passing through in autumn and 7 in spring.
This would indicate its visiting Ceylon, where
it has not yet been recorded!?

Measurements on p. 280.

EL Coracina melaschistos avensis (Blyth)
(Arakan) | ;

1 @ Tonbe, Prome, Burma.

The undersurface of the tail is not black
as in all phases of nominate melaschistos, and
the bird is paler all over.

Measurements on p. 280.

1078 Coracina melanoptera melanoptera

(Ruppell) (Bhadwar, Punjab) Himalayan
Blackheaded Cuckoo Shrike 2: 340
nil.

1079 Coracina melanoptera sykesi (Strick-
land) (Dukhun) Peninsular Blackheaded Cuc-
koo Shrike

36 21 Sa (6: juve) T5492 2. (ea juv.)

1 Gujri, Dhar, C.I.; 2 Dabka, Baroda; 1 Wada,
Bhiwandi, | Vikhroli, 1 Trombay, 2 Andheri, Bom-
bay; 1 Santgol, 1 Alanki, 1 Karwar, 2 Kumta Div.,
2 N. Kanara; 1 Molem, Goa; 3 Bangalore, 1 Kolar,
Mysore; 1 Gudalur 3000’, 1 Segoor, 3500’, 1 Coo-
noor, Nilgiris; 1 Mercara, Coorg; 1* Cape Como-
rin, 1* Sheshachalam Hills; 1 Kurumbapatti, Salem;
1 Dantewara, 1 Antagarh, 2* Dantewara, Bastar,
M.P.; 1* Bengasai, Mahendragiri, 1 Berbera, Puri,
Orissa; 2. Kumaon, Naini Tal, 1 Kesarwala, Dehra
Dung (ULP.

The key to subspecies in INDIAN HANDBOOK
(6: 20) separates males of nominate melanop-
fera from sykesi by their darker colour and

larger wing, 107 mm or over, but later in the

265

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

text the males are said to measure 98-110.
Four males from Orissa, Central Provinces,
Karnataka and as far south as Cape Comorin,
have wings 109-111 mm and the underparts
strikingly darker than in the others. In the
absence of any topotypical material from the
Himalayas or the Punjab, it is not possible
to determine the identity of these four, which
are marked* in the list above. Their measure-
ments are also separately placed.

In adult males both the upper and lower
mandibles are black, except in 5165 (20 Nov-
ember). In the juveniles they are both yellow,
with the upper mandible horny in 5151 and
5149 (29 April and 10 April).

In the females, the 4 juveniles are browner
above, contra grey in the adults, and also have
a slight fulvous wash on the underparts.
No. 5166 marked as with soft skull (7 Septem-
ber) has traces of barring on the upper
plumage.

Measurements on p. 280.

1079a Coracina nigra’ davisoni (Kloss)
(Nicobar Islands) Nicobar Pied Cuckoo-Shrike.

Og ONO Le uD On

2 Nancowry, | Trinkut, 3 Camorta, Central Nico-
bars.

Both the unsexed birds are barred below as
in females; one of them, No. 22623, has black
patches on the back suggesting a change of
colour into the male plumage.

Measurements on p. 281.

1080 Pericrocotus flammeus speciosus
(Latham) (Darjeeling) North Indian Scarlet
Minivet 2: 319

De WB sgude tt OO OF

1 Mussoorie, 3 Dehra Dun; 2 Nawacot, 2 Lohari-
powa, Nepal; 1 Rangpo, 1 Kalijhora, 1 Singtam,
1 Tista, Sikkim; 1 Tama, C., 1 Deothang, E. Bhu-
tan; 1 Sevoke, 1 Longview, Darjeeling; 1 Buxa
Duars, 1 Hazarpatha, Bengal; 1 Mishmi, 1 Rotang,
Abor Hills; 1 no locality.

266

The twelve males in red plumage all have
the outer web of the first two primaries un-
marked, while of the six females, two are
similar to the males but the other four have
three. The latter include a juvenile with traces
of barring on the neck, and an orange wash
on the underparts, suggesting that adults of
both sexes have two unmarked primaries.

Four males have all black central tail-
feathers, while the others have a_ varying
amount of red on the outer webs.

The bird trom Mussoorie has an exeptional-
ly curved bill, 19.5 mm. from feathers, and
this figure is excluded from the table of
measurements.

The key in INDIAN HANDBOOK (6:25) says
this is larger than fraterculus (1082) with the
wing 96 mm and over, contra fraterculus 90-
98, but later p. 29 Deignan is quoted indicat-
ing 96-103 for the latter.

3 No. 4952 from Mishmi, Abor Hills, is
pinkish on the right wing and body and on
the whole tail (except 2 central feathers which
are black).

See remarks under 1082 below.

Measurements on p. 281.

1080a_ Pericrocoius flammeus andamanen-
sis Beavan (Andaman Islands) Andaman Scar-
let Minivet 23322

(Ree AG. OO Ole shy)

3 Wrightmyo, 1 Pochang, Shoal Bay, 2 Pyinma-
nala, 1 Chirria Tapoo, South Andaman.

The males have the first three primaries un-
marked on the outer webs and the central
tail-feathers all black. The two females have
the same characters. Of 2 0S and 2 9? 9?
examined at the Zoological Survey in Calcutta,
the males were similar but the females (1
Wrightmyo; 1 Bonnington, N. Andaman) had
the first four primaries unmarked as required
in IND. HANDBOOK.

Measurements on p. 281.

[397]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION-—23

1081 Pericrocotus flammeus flammeus
(Forster) (Ceylon) Peninsular Indian Orange

Minivet M2 B21);
43: 23 646 (3 imm. yellow) 20 @ 9
1 Galkund, 2 Mbheskatri, 3 Waghai, 1 Mahal,

Surat Dangs; 1 Suriamal, Thana; 1 Bhimashankar,
2 Khandala, Poona; 1 Mahableshwar, Satara; 1
Savantwadi; 2 Kadra, 2 Karwar, 1 Kumta, 1 Castle
Rock, 1 North Kanara; 1 Molem, Goa, 2 Murgi-
matta, 1 Keegore, Jog Road, Sagar, Shimoga; 1
Bandipur, 1 Bababudan Hills, Kadur district, My-
sore; 1 Kodanad, 6400’, 1 Anaikutty, 2 Gudalur,
Nilgiris; 1 Shembaganur, 1 Vengaparai, 1 Kodia-
kanal, Palnis; 1 Palam Ghat, 2 Ponmudi, S. Tra-
vancore, 1 Kumili; 3 Billigirirangan Hills, Coimba-
tore; 2 Shevaroy Hills; 1 Madura.

The majority of males have the central tail-
feathers all black, a few having small orange
tips. Except for one male and one female the
first four primaries in both sexes (not three
as in IND. HANDBOOK) have the outer webs
unmarked.

Measurements on p. 281.

1082 Pericrocotus flammeus fraterculus

Swinhoe (Hainan) Hainan Scarlet Minivet
2: 320
i= 8) 67d) Cl yellow juv.) 3 2°

1 Goalpara, 2 Dibrugarh, 3 Margherita, 2 Tezu,
Lohit Valley; 1 Garo Hills, 1 Haflong, 1 N. Cachar.

As far back as 1877 (Stray Feathers 5:
194) Hume held that birds from Assam and
Burma differed from speciosus in being slightly
smaller and having the outer webs of the cen-
tral tail-feathers red. Subsequent workers have
agreed that birds from Assam are slightly
smaller (wings of & speciosus average 102.7
mm contra 98.8 in these, with some overlap
—H.A.) but there is some uncertainty regard-
ing the name that should apply.

Hume referred to them as McClelland’s
elegans described on pages 156-157 of Proceed-
ings of Zoological Society of London, 1839.
In INDIAN HANDBOOK the reference is changed
to Horsfield P.Z.S., 1840, and this needs clari-
fication. Horsfield reported on a collection

[398]

made by McClelland and described elegans
on pages 156-157 of P.Z.S. for 1839, which
was actually published in 1840. The change of
author is correct according to the rules of no-
menclature but since the journals are referred
io by year, it would, I think be more reason-
able to quote the source as “P.Z.S., 1839
(published 1840)”’.

Hume (loc. cit.) held that speciosus weigh-
ed “nearly double what elegans does.”

Ticehurst in Stanford’s ‘Birds of Prome
District, Burma’ (JBNHS 34: 906), refers to
“11 male fraterculus from the type locality,
having the central tail-feathers black or occa-
sionally red on distal half of the outer webs,
while out of over twenty males from Burma,
only two have them black.”? Among those list-
ed above as speciosus are 11 adult (red) males,
of which 4 single birds from Dehra Dun,
Nawacote, Mishmi, and Hazaria, Patharghatia
have all-black central tail-feathers, while of the
7 red males in this group (1082) one each
from Margherita and Goalpara have similar
tails.

No topotypes of fraterculus are available
and I cannot separate the birds from eastern
Assam from those from further south, i.e.
Garo Hills, Cachar etc., which are said to be
fraterculus in INDIAN HANDBOOK. A\ll-black
central tail-feathers are also a female character
shared with juvenile males and with the mate-
rial and literature available, I would be reluc-
tant to separate them from speciosus. If the
diiferences exist the name e/egans is more ap-
propriate with priority over fraterculus, should
that be identical.

In the birds from Burma and Siam now
available, 7 have the outer webs of the central
tail-feathers completely red. As it is not pos-
sible to call them fraterculus (as was done
by Stuart Baker), IT am leaving them all under
jlammifer q. V.

Again, if the birds from Assam are different

267

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

from those from Burma, the former can hard-
ly have the popular name of “‘Burmese’’ Scar-
let Minivet as in INDIAN HANDBOOK.

The extralimital distribution of this sub-
species is omitted in IND. HANDBOOK (6: 29).

The males have the outer webs of the first
two primaries unmarked and the females
three. In IND. HANDBOOK (loc. cit.) the pri-
maries of the male are compared with the rec-
trices ofthe female. !

Of the 3 males from N’Kraung, Upper
Burma, obtained in July/August, 2 have the
central rectrices black but the third has the
half-grown feathers red. They undoubtedly
belong to flammifer, the black central tail-
feathers in the male being a subadult character
in some races, e.g. semiruber.

As in speciosus some males show yellow
patches on the breast, chin and secondaries,
presumably in the course of changing from
juvenile to adult plumage.

Several females have traces of orange in
the yellow, but this count be due to the same
reason.

Measurements on p. 281.

EL Pericrocotus flammeus flammitfer
Hume (region of the Pak Chan _ Estuary,
Malay Peninsula, at latitude 10°N).

2227 2a o Gl wvellow juve) lO: 9,2

1 Taungdwin Chg., Upper Chindwin; 1 Tongaun-
chy, 1 Yagyi, 1 Kani, Lower Chindwin, 1 Chindwin;
3. N. Kraung, 1 Upper Burma; 1 N. Shah States;
3 Maymyo, 1 Sadan Chang, Thayetmyo, 1 Theme,
1 Thanichaung Pass, 1 Nyaunggyi, Prome, Burma;
3 Lampang, Pangla, 1 Bau, Nong Tong, 1 Siam.

See remarks under 1082 and 1083

These birds do not agree with the descrip-
tion in Stuart Baker’s FAUNA in so far as the
males and females have two and three outer
primaries unmarked and not three and four
as stated therein. Juvenile @ 4955, N. Shan
States has the wing and tail both 98 mm.

The Siam birds (3 ¢o' ¢ 2 2 @) are brighter
than those from Burma.

268

Measurements on p. 281.

1083 Pericrocotus flammeus — semiruber
Whistler & Kinnear (Sankrametta, Vizagapa-
tam) East Indian Scarlet Minivet

16; ieee O @ imim: yo one

1 Anantgiri, 3000’, 1 Dharakonda, U. Sileru.
Vizagpatam; 1 Lohattar. Kanker; 3 Daiba, 1 Makri,
1 Kameli (Bailadila), 2 Antagarh, 3 Chota Dongar.
Bastar, M.P., 1 Tigiria, 1 Kutri, Daspalla. 1 Cha-
hola, Simlipal Hills, Orissa.

Of the 9 red males, eight have the outer
webs of the two outermost primaries unmark-
ed and the outer webs of the central tail-
feathers red for most of their length. Two im-
mature males (both yellow with an orange
tinge) have 3 unmarked primaries and the
central tail feathers black, as in the ninth red
male No. 17118 which has three unmarked
primaries; this is as in four of the five females,
one having only two unmarked.

The birds from Thailand under flammifer
above are marked semiruber by Deignan and
the distribution in Peters’ CHECKLIST is extend-
ed to “Southern Burma, southward to Central
Tenasserim (where intergrading with flammi-
fer); Thailand (except to southwestern and
peninsular provinces); Indo-China (except the
area occupied by elegans)”’.

Semiruber is however distinctly larger and
the Thailand birds referred to above agree
more closely with what I have placed under
flammifer, than with semiruber.

Measurements on p. 282.

1084 Pericrocotus brevirostris brevirostris
(Vigors) (Himaiayas=Sikkim foothills) Short-
billed Minivet 2: 324

iS) ovo oho

1 Rangpo, 1 Pashok, 1 Penionche. 1 Rinchingpong,
Sikkim; 2 Tama, 1 Shamgong, Central Bhutan. 2
Deothang, E. Bhutan: 1 Huchugaon, Goalpara, 1
Margherita, Assam.

Both sexes average slightly smaller than
ethologus. The males can be identified by the
absence of red running backwards along the
edges of the inner secondaries. In the females

[399]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

the yellow on the forehead extends on to the
crown. The yellow on the outer web of the
second innermost rectrice extends to the tip,
while the inner web either has a small yellow
spot or a wedge of yellow at the tip (Mayr
1940) ps 713),

Measurements on p. 282.

1085 Pericrocotus ethologus — favillaceus
Bangs & Phillips (Koolloo Valley, northern
India) West Himalayan Longtailed Munivet.

74: 38 @& (6 imm. yellow, including 2 barred
above, 1 partly red) 31 9 @ (1 chick 1 juv. barred
above) 5 o? (1 juv. barred above).

1 Wana, S. Waziristan; 2 Ajun, 3 Chitral; 1 At-
tock, 1 Ambala, 1 Rawalpindi, 1 Lahore, 1 Pipli,
Karnal: 1: Nankhniy 8000” (7). 2 Chini, 22 ‘Simla
Hills; 1 Padar, Kishtwar, 1 Srinagar, 1 Yusmarg,
1 Kashmir; 3 Jajjah, 2 Bahawalnagar, Bahawalpur;
| Surwaya, Gwalior; { Pili, 1 Kolkaz, 2 Rangobel1,
Melghat; 1 Jubbalpore; 9 Meerut, 1 Salukapur,
U.P.; 1 Darmar, Ranikhet, 1 Konain-Jamsar, | Gup-
takashi, 2 Lambathach, Kumaon; 1 Partapur, 1
Sipuri, Nepal, 2 Dhanaulti, 2 Mussoorie, 2 Shikar-
pur (F.J.R. Field 1891?).

The birds collected in the plains and obtain-
ed between 9th November and 21st March
are no doubt winter migrants. Four females
with the lightest grey upperparts are from Sim-
la, Bahawalpur, Jubbalpore and Melghat, while
two males from Rawalpindi and Lahore ap-
pear to be the deepest red. Two females from
Simla (No. 17132 incubating) and Partapur,
Nepal (4973) have their underparts tinged
with orange. In the latter, the orange wash
extends on to the forehead.

The present identifications are mainly on
geographical grounds, though in series, males
of daetus (infra) are a slightly deeper red,
particularly on the rump, and the females a
deeper yellow.

In Stray Feathers 5, p. 414/5, V. Ball has
referred to the chin and throat of young males
of P. speciosus (now Pf. semiruber) from
Sambalpur being mottled with, if not wholly,
scariet before showing any sign of the ultimate

[400]

COLLECTION—23

black. Stuart Baker in FAUNA (2, p. 320) says
“the change of plumage in all Minivets is very
interesting, aS specimens are numerous which
show signs of attaining an increase of red in
the old feathers prior to the moult. Birds in
this stage show no signs of the barring on the
upper surface and are obviously undergoing,
or about to undergo, the second moult.”
Juvenile cGuiiNo. 17137. from Simla, (Sth
July) is barred on the head and upper back.
No. 17135 dt/11th July from Simla a yellow
juvenile g has patches of black on the back
and head, and red on the breast and rump.
The 7th to 9th primaries are barred red and
the others yet yellow.
In JBNHS 41, p. 93 is a note regarding a
yellow bird marked <, moulting to yellow.
Measurements on p. 282.

1086 Pericrocotus ethologus laetus Mayr
(Jeyluk, Sikkim) East Himalayan Longtailed
Minivet

loredOnd 3G yellow) 69:9

{ Chungthang, N. Sikkim; 1 China Kothi, | Ha
Road, West Bhutan, 1 Khosela, 6 Rongtong, E.
Bhutan; 1 Goalpara, 3 Shillong, 1 Dibrugarh, 1
Margherita, Assam.

Juvenile < 21719 from Chungthang, N.
Sikkim, is marked Pericrocotus solaris by
Salim Ali, but this appears to be in error, be-
cause of a) the large 92 mm wing; 5) presence
of a slight yellow on forehead, and c) the ab-
sence of yellow tips to the second innermost
KE CURICES:

The females have an olive tinge on the
back.

Measurements on p. 282.

1087 Perierccotus ethologus mariae Ripley
(Phek, eastern Naga Hills) Nagaland Long-
tailed Minivet

nil.

EL Pericrecotus ethologus yvettae Bangs
(Ma-li-pa, Kokang, Burmese Wa States) North
Burmese Longtailed Minivet

269

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

PLAN Ve eee Ped
2 N. Shan States, Burma
Measurements on p. 282.

1088 Pericrocotus solaris solaris
(Darjeeling) Yellowthroated Minivet

1g a CaS) eae

1 Temi, 2 Tung, Sikkim; 1 Honka W., 3 Gom-
chu, | Deothang, E. Bhutan; 1 around Bewehaung,
Sarag country, | Shillong, Assam.

The five males show bright orange-red
(“‘red-orange’”’, Deignan, BIRDS OF NORTH
THAILAND, p. 277) and not scarlet or red as
referred to in Indian literature. In BIRDS OF
MALAYA (2: 150) the immature male of P.
solaris montanus Salvadori is said to be “‘At
first like the adult female, but gradually ac-
quiring the scarlet plumage of the male, in
part by moult, but in part it would appear by
a direct change in the pigment of the feather,
passing through orange to the pure scarlet.”

The females are distinguished from etholo-
eus by the total absence of yellow on the
forehead and the yellow tip to the second
innermost tail feathers (as in brevirostris q.v.).
They are also a brighter vellow below.

Measurements on p. 282.

Blyth
2: 326

1089 Pericrecotus roseus roseus (Vicillot)
(Bengal) Rosy Minivet 2: 328

30.23" Ais dh by aphk)ed -272

1 Dharampur, 2 Koti, 2 Bhajji State, Simla Hills;
1 Kumaon, Naini Tal Dist; 3 Khandala, W. Ghats;
1 Canacona, Goa; | Kadra, N. Kanara; 3 Darba.
1 Bhopalapatnam, 1 Barsur, Bastar, M.P.; 1 San-
krametta, Vizagapatnam dist., A.P.: 2 Badrama
(Bamra), 1 Kendrapara, 1 Anantpur, 5 Dibrugarh,
1 Shillong, Khasia Hills, Assam; 1 Kani, Lower
Chindwin; 1 Inbin, Henzada, 1 Prome, Burma.

Only three males have red on the rump.
No. 5056 from Kani, Lower Chindwin has a
large patch extending from the rump on to the
upper tail-coverts.

Four males (17 June, Simla; 10th and 12th
September Dibrugarh; 16th October Kumaon)
have yellow patches in the wing, including two

270

with red on the rump (Kumaon and Dibru-
garh).

The winter distribution is more extensive
than suggested in the map in IND. HANDBOOK
(6: 38), the bird having been recorded from
Karachi, Bombay area, Travancore ete.

Measurements on p. 282.

1089a Pericrecotus divaricatus divaricatus

(Raffles) (Singapore) Ashy Minivet 2: 334
1 @ Karnala, Pen, Kolaba, Maharashtra.
Measurements on p. 283.

1090 Pericrocotus cinnamomeus pallidus

Baker (Larkhana, Sind) Sind Little Minivet
22,332

{ @ Bahawalpur, s.w. Punjab.

This specimen is marked pallidus by Whist-
ler and has a grey chin, the least amount of
orange-red on the upper breast among the
adult males available, followed by almost pure
white all over the lower belly, under tail-
coverts and tail. The upperparts are the palest
grey among specimens available and the bar
on the wing is yellow, with almost no trace
of red or orange. It is the only specimen with
the outermost tail-feathers pure white.

One from Karnal, Punjab, and six from
Mecrut, U.P., appear very similar to this spe-
cimen but others from Jagadhri, Ambala and
Delhi lying in-between, are no doubt peregri-
AUS.

In the FAUNA (1924) Stuart Baker said
pallidus was found in Sind, to the extreme
northwest of India, and possibly Mt. Aboo.
Later (1929, Bull. Brit. Orn. Cl. 49, p. 64)
he changed the words to “Sind, the northwest
province and Mt. Aboo”’.

This is confusing, for North-Western Pro-
vinces was the old name for Agra District and
the distribution may be either north-west from
Sind into Baluchistan or eastwards towards
Agra!

[401]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—?23

The distributional map in IND. HANDBOOK
(6: 400) shows this form as extending up to
Rawalpindi, but specimens from this place
appear nearer to peregrinus, the type locality
of which, Ambala, as pointed out by Tice-
hurst (bis 1922, p. 613 & JBNHS 31, p. 496)
is unfortunately too close to Sind. There is
also the possibility of the bird from Bahawal-
pur being wrongly identified and not the same
as topotypical pallidus from Sind, and_ this
matter needs to be re-examined. It is evident
that there is much variety in all the races
and it is difficult to name every specimen by
itself.

In this and subsequent races, the descrip-
tions refer to the males and the differences
among the females, if any, are specifically said
to apply to them.

In all races, the females are pale-brown,
rather than grey above.

Measurements on p. 283.

1091 Pericrocotus cinnamomeus peregrinus
(Linnaeus) (Ambala) Northern Little Minivet
2: 324

627042 GG Si C2 2 0?

Whistler and Kinnear after examination of
the material collected in the Eastern Ghats
accepted peregrinus (type locality Ambala)
as extending over the whole of India, exclud-
ing the ranges of malabaricus (Malabar)
pallidus (Sind) and vividus (Orissa and north-
eastwards) and separated Ceylon birds (cey-
lonensis) as distinct. In IND. HANDBOOK, pere-
grinus is replaced south of about Gujarat by
cinnamomeus named in Ceylon, with ceylone-
nsis aS a synonym of the latter.

The arrangement appeared unlikely for the
birds from Ceylon had at some stage or the
other been said to resemble malabaricus by
Van Schauburg (1930), Whistler & Kinnear,
Whistler, Koelz, Ripley & Salim Ali. No spe-
cimens from Ceylon were available but the

*Three of them are marked malabaricus.

[402]

loan of 10 specimens (5* ¢¢ 5 2 2) from
the British Museum (N.H.) appear to have
provided an explanation confirming that the
earlier isolation of the Sri Lanka birds was cor-
rect (see under 1093). The others from penin-
sular India, with the exclusions referred to
above, are for the moment placed in 3 groups
under this form.

(a) peregrinus, including topotypes

25: 19 826 (1 yellow juv.) 5 22 1 0? (yellow)

1 Choi, Campbellpore; 3 Rawalpindi, 1 Chandi-
garh, 1 Jagadhri, 2 Ambala; 1 Ladwa, Karnal; 4
Delhi; 6 Meerut, 1 Salukapur, 2 Bulandshar, U.P.;
1 Baghowni, Darbhanga, 1 Pilibhit Terai, 1 Rajput-
tee, Saran.

As indicated under 1090 some from the
Punjab are very similar to that marked palli-
dus. Of the 3 males from Rawalpindi two
have black chins and breasts and the third
grey. Some of the skins are in poor condition.

(bP 202 109g 92 9° ft ot

1 Ajmere, 3 Bhuj, | Kutch; 1 Deesa, Palanpur,
1 Cambay, | Bodeli, 1! Ajwa, Baroda; 1 Narwar
Fort, Gwalior, 1 Bijnor, Indore; 1 Jubbalpore, 2
Gondia; 2 Bhanuprattapur, Kanker; 1 Darba, 1
Bhopalapatnam, 1 Konta, 1 Geedam, Bastar.

& 5099 from Bhuj, Kutch, is very close to
pallidus, but another from the same place
agrees more closely with some from Gujarat.
There is some variation in plumage, but in
series most of these would be closer to group
(a) than to the male pallidus from Bahawal-
pur. 2 No. 5116 collected at Ajmere was list-
ed under P. erythropygius.

(co) 9258'S 67 (1 chick) 1° 9

1 Bhiwandi, Thana; 1 Malad, 3 Andheri, 2 Trom-
bay Island. 1 Bombay; 1 Khandala, Pune.

The males have definitely darker grey backs
and blacker throats than (a), and also more
orange and yellow on the underparts. Two
males from Trombay are very close to birds
from Valpoi and Colvalle, Goa with dark grey
chins but the latter are placed with malabari-
cus as other birds from N. Kanara appear to
be of this form.

271

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

(d) sidhoutensis Koelz

Ba 56 dust 2

| Satara, Maharashtra; 1 Gingee, S. Arcot; 1
Palkonda, 1 Koduru, 2 Seshachalam Hills. S. Cud-
dapah; 1 Kolar, E. Mysore; 1 Cumbum Valley,
Kurnool dist.

Birds from Cuddapah district were listed
with peregrinus by Whistler but separated as
sidhoutensis by Koelz, 1939, Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington 52: 69 and later synonymised with
cinnamomeus 1D IND. HANDBOOK. The speci-
mens available have smaller wings, purer white
on the underparts, and paler grey upperparts
than those 1n (b) above. It is possible that this
is another of Koelz’s races which may merit
recognition.

Measurements on p. 283.

1093 Pericrocotus cimnamomeus cinnamo-
meus (Linnaeus) (Ceylon) Ceylon Small Mini-
vet

nil.

The following 10 (5S @4 5 22) were borrowed
from British Museum (N.H.):

2 Uragaha, 1 Gan Maduwa, 1 Nedimala, 2 Wil-
limada, 1 Kumbalgamha C.P., 1 Pusiwalla, 1 Coca-
watte, | Ceylon.

Reference has been made under 1091 to the
confused position regarding the identity of
birds from Ceylon and South India. The males
are almost as deeply coloured as in malabari-
cus but are dark grey contra blackish above,
the orange-red on the underparts is less ex-
tensive, there being more white on the lower
belly and vent.

The females are similar to those of peregri-
nus and the other races in peninsular India
except malabaricus q.v.

The colour differences have been set out in
detail by Whistler in THE AVIFAUNAL SURVEY
OF CEYLON (1944) and the subsequent con-
fusion is partly due to changing the specific
name from peregrinus to cinnamomeus and
partly to the fact that the Ceylon males ap-
proach malabaricus and the females peregri-

x72

nus /sidhoutensis in colour.

In addition to this both males and females
resemble those of malabaricus (and vividus
from the Andamans) in the wings being equal
to or slightly longer than the tails.

Measurements on p. 283.

1094 Pericrocotus cinnamemeus malabari-
cus (Gmelin) (Malabar Coast, restricted to
Mahe) Malabar Little Minivet

Ob dt. SiS aes SOU ROR AGU)

{ Colvalle; 1 Valpoi, Goa; 1 Karwar, IN: ‘Kanara:
2 Murchiston, Ponmudi, 1 Maruthankuzi, 1 Urum-
bikera, Mundakayam, 1 Pambanar, Peermade, 1
Wadakancheri, Kerala.

This race is very distinctive, the males being
distinguished by their almost black backs, the
jet black chin and throat, the bright scarlet
and orange-yellow on the underparts, includ-
ing the under tail-coverts. The females are a
much deeper yellow below than in any other
race, the upper breast is washed with pale
orown rather than yellow. Except in the single
female from N. Kanara, the wing is longer
than the tail, a character not consistent in those
from Goa and further northwards.

Vidal (S.F. 9: 59) has referred to a’ ~ richly
coloured bird” from Ratnagiri, but there is
nothing to indicate what he was comparing
it with. There is an appreciable amount of
variation in the extent of the red on the under-
parts.

Measurements on p. 283.

1095 Pericrocotus cinnamomeus — vividus
Baker (Attaran River, Amherst Dist., Tenas-
serim, Burma, restricted to Pabyouk, 22m SE.
of Moulmein) Eastern Little Minivet 2: 331

QO Qn a eT on OF Ron,

When describing this form Baker (1920)
apparently accepted it for the Andamans also,
but this place is not referred to in the FAUNA
(1924) where he gave the range as “Eastern
Bengal and Assam, Burma, Siam, Cochin

[403]

BUDS: SN BOMBAY TN APU RAIS HISTORY SOCIETY ‘COLEBRCTION—23

China, Yunnan and Annam’’. This has later
been extended westwards to include the birds
from Orissa and northeast Andhra Pradesh,
and also those from the Andamans. In the
absence of topotypical material it is not pos-
sible to settle this matter but the Andaman and
Orissa populations show the following diffe-
rences :

ANDAMANS

1) Chin dark grey

2) Bill longer and heavier

3) Upperparts darker grey

4) Orange-red of underparts extending to vent
5) Outermost rectrices, from below orange-red.
6) Wing equal to or longer than tail

Items 5 and 6 hold good for females also.*

The females are very similar to those from
Ceylon except that the under wing-coverts at
the edge of the wing appear a brighter and
more prominent yellow.

Under these conditions I am leaving the
{two groups separately under the same name:

(ayn Andamans) 04 Aye S029 1 oO?

2 Long I., Middle Andamans; 3 Wimberleyganj.
2 Wrightmyo, 1 Landfall I., 2 South Andaman.

Schauburg (1930) thought that a_ single
female collected at Port Blair, Andamans, by
B. B. Osmaston differed from continental
birds in its larger bill, wholly white underparts
with a faint tinge of yellow on the flanks, and
proposed that it should be named after the
collector, should it be found to deserve sepa-
ration.

(DO Basis tee ial Paaaieye

! Anantgiri, 1 Sankrametta, Vizagapatnam; 2

* On a recent (June 1980) visit to the Zoological
Survey of India at Calcutta, I had the opportunity
of examining and comparing 7 males and 3 females
from the Andamans with 6 males and 6 females
from Orissa and Balaghat, M.P., in their collections,
and the above remarks are supported by this mate-
rial.

[404]

condition. A pair from Maymyo, Burma, 1s

Chota Dongar, Bastar, M.P., 1 Gurguria, Simlipal
Hills, 1 Keonjgarh, 1 Badrama (Bamra) 1 Barkot,
1 Ranipathar, Phulbani Dist., Orissa; 1 Goalpara,
Assam.

Birds from Bastar, eastern M.P., and Viza-
gapainam grade into this form which is very
distinctly brighter on the underparts than those
from the south and others under peregrinus,
This single bird from Assam is in very poor

ORISSA
1) black or darker grey
2) shorter and lighter
3) paler grey
4) lower belly paler, whitish to vent
5) pale, pinkish
6) wing shorter than tail

so different that | am listing them separately
below.
Measurements on p. 283.

EL Pericrocotus cinnamomeus subsp.

Zo} o> Maymyo. Burma.

Both were collected on 25th August 1913.
The ¢ is largely orange coloured below, un-
like any other specimen available, and with
a grey throat much paler than in Andaman
birds. The female is yellow below, not unlike
one from the Andamans. Their tails are 8
and 5 mm longer than the wings, which 1s
more than in any others of the species.

Measurements on p. 283.

1096 ~Pertecrocetus erythropygius
pygius (Jerdon) (S. India =Ajanta)
Whitebellied Minivet

erythro-

Zt as (Se iuve)? 19° Oo Lao?
1 Dhirpur, 2 Ambala, 1 Bunni, Kadwa, Karnal,
Punjab; 1) Ajmere; 3. Delhi; 1 (Meerut; (3: Rapar,

2 Kutch; 1 Kuno, Gwalior; | Malwa plateau, Bho-

pal; 1 Saugor, 1 Mather, Narbada Valley (north):

| Bodeli, Baroda district; 2 Raipur, Melghat, Berar.
Measurements on p. 283.

273

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Aegithina tiphia

Hume as far back as 1877 (Stray Feathers
5: 420-441) examined some 240 specimens
in his collection and after referring in great
detail to the variations and similarities in the
males and females from all parts of its range
Said ().. 1S. it. logical’ on iexpedient sto.) break
this species up into several on the strength
of such very variable and inconstant differen-
ces? In my opinion it is not.”

In 1952, Daniel Marien (Amer. Mus. Novit.
1589) got together some 425 specimens and
made another attempt at clarification. This
was followed by a paper on the taxonomic
importance of variation in non-breeding plum-
age in Aegithina tiphia and A. nigrolutea by
Mrs. BP. Hall (19575 This. 99, pp. (42-156)
and also referred to racial differences in birds
from further east—Burma, Thailand, Malaya
and the Sumatran Islands. This work is based
on the examination of almost 900 skins.

But I have been unable to sort out this
small collection into the five races now ac-
cepted with the certainty or confidence with
which such work is ordinarily accepted, and
part of the present grouping is based on the
geceraphical distribution in INDIAN HANDBOOK
(6, pp. 47-53). Perhaps the 90 specimens are
too few to carry out this work, but where the
specimens do not agree with the literature
available, I have made some small changes
‘tn the accepted distribution and referred to
them under the subspecies.

We have blackheaded males from 30th
January (Orissa) to 16th October (Kumaon)
and males in non-breeding plumage or without
black heads from 16th October to 22nd June
(Cachar) though no specimens obtained in
May or early June are available.

It is curious that in both species the male
wings are slightly (19) larger than in the

274

females, but the latter have their tails about
5% longer than in the males.

1097 Aegithina tiphia septentrionalis Koelz
(Bhadwar, Kangra, Punjab) Northwestern
Jora

AMS Teale Ss) | sO)

1 Madhopur, 3 Chandigarh, Punjab.

These are slightly larger than any of the
others, particularly the bills of the male and
one female. The male obtained on 19th Feb-
ruary has no trace of black above except in
the tail, in which the outermost feathers are
edged with white and the two central feathers
tipped greenish; other males of humei (one
marked juvenile) and deignani have similar
green in the tail.

Measurements on p. 284.

1098 Aegithina tiphia tiphia (Linnaeus)
(Benghala = neighbourhood of Calcutta) Com-
mon Iora 1: 340

62 A é ot Claby ppl:)a. 21010. Co)

2 Naini Tal, Kumaon; | Dibrugarh Assam; 1
Rupachena, Cachar; 1 Rewa Tea Estate, S. Sylhet;
| Sandoway, Arakan, Burma.

One male from Naini Tal (16th Oct.) has
a totally black head while another male ob-
tained on the same day has a green back and
head. Marien has illustrated septentrionalis
and nominate fiphia as races in which the

nale does not acquire a black head, and this
appears to be endorsed by Mrs. Hall. Salim
Ali & Ripley in INDIAN HANDBOOK are not
very definite and as indicated earlier it is ap-
parently possible to separate these races only
on an average with several hundred specimens
im hand ((?).

Measurements on p. 284.

1099 Aegithina tiphia humei Baker (Rai-
pur, M.P.) Central Indian Tora 1: 342

LS ercS ava, ONG TU) iy Cae

1 Narwar Fort, 1 Surwaya, Gwalior; 1 Mandu,

[405]

LIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—23

Dhar; 1 Chikalda. Amraoti, Berar; | Patan, Meh-
sana, | Nadiad, Kaira, 1 Cambay, 2 Gir, Amreli,
1 Dabaka, 1 Bodeli, Baroda, 1 Laochali, Surat
Dangs, Gujarat; 2 Jubbulpore, 1 Dhaura, Bina,
M.P.

The females are a little paler and yellower
than in the other races. The immature male is
slightly darker than the female. All are paler
than those from further east in M.P., Orissa
etc., and I can only see this form restricted
to a relatively small area in Gujarat and ad-
jacent places. There is no doubt that nigrolutea
occurs in the same place, e.g. Deesa.

Measurements on p. 284.

1100 Aegithina tiphia deignani Hall (Yaw-
dwin, Pakokku dist., Central Burma) Peninsu-
lar Indian lora

BDO ese cul SiO ©

| Satara, 2 N. Kanara* 2 Palkonda Hills, 2
Seshachalam S. Cudappah, 1 Gingee, S. Arcot; 2
Nallamalai Range, S. Kurnool; 1* Jeypore Agency,
1 Sankrametta, Vizagapatam; 2 Gondia, 2 Bhanu-
prattapur, Kanker, 2 Geedam, 2 Konta, Bastar,
M.P.; 1 Konai, Bonai, 2 Band, 1 Rampur, 3 Barkot.
1 Badrama (Bamra), Orissa; 2 Shwebo, 1 Upper
Burma; 1 Hsipaw, N. Shan States, 2 Tonye, 1
Kendin, Prome, Burma. *missing.

*Other birds from N. Kanara have been
listed under multicolor, but these two, possi-
bly from the eastern side of the district agree
more closely with this form. The females are
a shade darker than humei, while some of the
males have yellow bases to the black feathers
and are paler than multicolor above. This is
a very difficult race to separate.

Measurements on p. 284.

1101 Aegithina tiphia multicolor (Gmelin)
(Ceylon) Ceylon lora 1: 342

DO ml ody Shs Oot jor

I Pali, Hill) | irombay, 1 Malad, 1 Kurla, 1
Hog I., Bombay; 1 Rajapur, Ratnagiri; 1 Canacona,
Goa; 1 Anshi, 1 Castle Rock. 1 Kudra, 1 Karwar,
N. Kanara; 1 Ulavi, Sorab, 1 Murgimatta, Sagar,
2 Kolar, E. Mysore; 2 Bangalore; 1 Shembaganur,
Palnis; 1 Tirumalai, 1 Thekadi, Periyar, 1 Aram-

1406]

boli, 1 Rampara, Panthalem Hills, Kerala; 1 Ela-
vakulam. 1 Colombo, Ceylon; 4 Kurumbapatti,
Salem; | Kalavachu, Shriharikota.

{ have moved this form as far north as
Bombay on the west for the deep green on
the back is similar to that in birds from the
south, and the amount of black on the head
and back of the breeding male is admittedly
very variable and not a satisfactory character.
The Colombo male (Ist June) is the deepest
yellow below. In this specimen the black on
the head goes down the nape but does not
extend on to the back, which is the deepest
green among the specimens available; the
second wing-bar is restricted to a small white
spot, a character shared with others from
peninsular India, where a double wing-bar
may occur in birds from the same place. The
bird from Anshi, N. Kanara has the most ex-
tensive black on the back, extending almost on
to the rump. Whistler 1935 (JBNHS 38, p.
83) in Birds of Travancore and Cochin came
to the conclusion that the darker and duller
green of the upperparis of the femaic and of
the male in ‘“‘winter plumage’ was the only
satisfactory feature on which this race could be
maintained. Fairbank (1876, S.F. 4, p. 258)
in ‘Birds of Khandala etc.’, says that mature
birds in the zevlonica (multicolor) plumage
are more common at Khandala than at
Ahmednagar (further into the open Deccan
—H.A.).

The @ from Elavankulam, N.W.P., Ceylon
has the underparts the brightest yellow in the
whole series.

Measurements on p. 284.

EL Aegithina tiphia horizoptera Oberhol-
ser (Telok Bluku, Nais I., western Sumatra)

1 @ Singapore
Wing 63 mm Tail 44 mm W/T ratio 69.8

1102 Aegithina nigrolutea (Marshall)
(Meerut) Marshall’s [ora 1: 344
275

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

18219) Gagn 7: S1Obr2 cor

In 1954, Koelz, Contrib. Inst. Regional Ex-
ploration, No. 1:9 separated birds from Sihor
near Bhavnagar, in Kathiawar as_ sulfurea,
“slightly paler, more sulfury above and less
yellow below, edgings of large wing feathers
more white with less yellow wash’. This was
not accepted by Mrs. Hall, (/bis 1957, p. 146)
and later in IND. HANDBOOK, but the birds
from Kutch appear to be outstandingly dif-
ferent from the others both in their paler more
yellow contra green colour above, and smaller
SIZE.

The single bird from Victoria Park, Bhav-
nagar, in Kathiawar has the small wing and
bil of those from Kutch and it is possible
that a re-examination of the measurements
of the type and specimens available abroad will
indicate that the birds from Kutch and Kathia-
war are distinct and Koelz’s sulfurea can be
maintained for that area. [ am for the moment
listing both groups separately under the nomi-
nate form:

ait: 4:98 -°38 3.°90 2 (possibly. sulfurea)

| Bela. Ropar, 1 Godsar, 1 Mandvi, 1 Nakha-
ratna, 2 Bhujia, Kutch; 1 Victoria Park, Bhavnagar,
Kathiawar.

by gig 4 SO Do?

1 Jagadhri, Punjab; 2 Bharatpur;
Bhind, Gwalior, 2* Deesa, Palanpur,
Sarasnoor, Saharanpur, U.P.

Sp. No. 2736*, an unsexed bird from Deesa,
Palanpur with an all-green tail was obtained
by Salim Ali and the label is marked “Shot
at same time as GS 876 (now bearing BNHS
registration No. 2535 and listed above—H.A.)
an undoubted nigrolutea. Is post-juvenal
plumage indistinguishable from A. tiphia—
S.A.” In the Gujarat Survey Report (JBNHS
52, p. 743) he says it was collected on the
same day and in the same locality removing
the first impression that they were together.
In any case, the distribution of nigrolutea and
tiphia overlaps in some places, e.g. West Khan-
desh (Barnes) and Jhansi, Etawah, Saharan-

4° Delhi; 1
Gujarat, 1

216

pur (Hume) and I am not inclined to agree
with S.A.’s acceptance of this bird as a juvenal
form of nigrolutea. In addition to the colour
differences the wing-tail ratio of 77.7% is
much greater than in others of this species and
approaches that of tiphia. With these reserva-
tions I am leaving it with nigrolutea, but re-
cording its measurements separately.

It may be worth noting that the Koelz col-
lection is said to have a & anda ¢ obtained
as far south as Salem, Madras.

Measurements on p. 284.

1103 Chioropsis aurifrons aurifrons (Tcem-

minck) (Sumatra, India =Cachar) Northern
Goldfronted Chloropsis 1: 346
2a 1G Gia A OL IAS oy.
2 Badrama (Bamra), 1 Ranipathar, Phulbhani,

1 Tikerpara, Angul, Orissa, 1 Upper Barakhamba,
Simlipal Hills, Orissa; 1 Lalkua, foot of Kumaon
Hills, 1 Kumaon, Naini Tal, 1 Ranibag 2050’, 1
Pilibhit, Terai, U.P.; 1 Langharjan, 2* Rupchena,
Assam; | Rewa Tea Estate, Cachar; 1 Kanaing, 2
Upper Burma; 1 N. Shan States; 1 Mt. Victoria,
Pokokku, Chin’ Halise) \ (Sse) of Miayimyow nar
Chang, 2 Sadon Chang, Thayetmyo; 1 Panklaing,
Henzada; 1 Ataran, Burma.

Two males from Cachar have a bluish tinge
in the green of the underparts.

Measurements on p. 285.

1104 Chloropsis aurifrens frontalis (Pel-
zeln) (Khelgate near Goa)

See remarks under 1105.

1105 Chloropsis aurifrens insularis Whist-
ler & Kinnear (Cotta, N.P. Ceylon) Ceylon
Goldfronted Chloropstis.

QOix M4: Oi Ga Zio 12 .

Whistler and Kinnear when working out the
specimens from the Eastern Ghats noticed that
they were larger than those from Ceylon and
Travancore, and named the latter insularis
(Type locality in Ceylon), arbitrarily fixing the
northern boundary on the west as the Palghat
Ghat. The birds in the Eastern Ghats and
north of the Palghat Gap on the west were

[407]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—23

left as C. aurifrons davidsoni Stuart Baker
(Type locality, Malabar) which name was
later found to be occupied and changed to
frontalis of Pelzeln (Type locality, Khelgate
near Goa).

In the material available, the birds from
Goa, Western India, southwards into Kerala
show no differences of size which would war-
rant the acceptance of two separate races
from this area. No specimens from Ceylon
are available and unless these are found to
be smaller (which is not suggested by the
figures published by Whistler) or different in
some other respect, insularis becomes a
synonym of frontalis, leaving the larger birds
from north of Goa and the Eastern Ghats
without a name. I am listing the specimens in
accordance with these remarks.

Small Goldfronted Chloropsis = frontails

PAW a Goh 1 On9
1 Molem, Goa; 2 Castle Rock, 1 Karwar, 2 N.
fanara, 1 Jog, Shimoga, Mysore; 1 Wynaad; 2

Edanad, Chengamnur, 1 Tenmalai, | Santhanpara,
Cardamon Hills, 1 Thekady, Periyar Lake, 1 Marai-
yur 3500 ft, Kerala.

Large Goldfronted Chloropsis 12:7¢ ¢ 52 @

(a) from northern portion of Western India 6:
Me GiGi ian e e

1 *Songadh, Navsari, 1 Waghai, Surat Dangs,
Gujarat; 1 Tulsi-Vehar, 2 *Mulund, Salsette; 1
Khandalla, Pune dist. Maharashtra.

*Two males show a yellowish ring after the
black throat, as in aurifrons, but paler. This
character is not visible in any of the smaller
birds from the south.

(b) from Eastern Ghats 6: 3 86 3 @Q

2 Nallamalai, S. Kurnool; 1 Bhanuprattapur.
Kanher, C.P.; 3 Anantgiri, Vizagapatnam dist.

The species has been recorded from Delhi
and it remains to be determined if it is of this
form or nominate aurifrons.

Measurements on p. 285.

1106 Chlorepsis hardwickii hardwickii
Jardine & Selby (Nepal) Orangebellied Chlo-
ropsis 1: 349

1408]

AOse2t SO Si MOy 2 2). Bho?

| Dehra Dun, 2 Gangolinath, Almora, 4 Rani-
bagh, Kumaon; | Kurseong, 1 Singtam, Sikkim; 4
Long View, Darjeeling, 1 Honka, west, 2 Deo-
thang, 1 Narphang, East, 1 Tama, 2 Maie Rivez,
Bhutan; 2 Martam Rongni Valley, 1 Mais, 1 Kalak-
tang, APs, 2 fezu; Lohit Valley; 1 Rotung, 1. Abor
Country; 2 Margherita, Lakhimpur dist., 1 Kohi-
mari 2 Nagas Hills: 1 (Baster,>Cachar,: 1 Wat-
key, Assam; 1 Mogok, 2 Kamaing, 1 Upper Burma;
1 Tago HKA Chindwin River; 2 Katha; 1 Loikaw,
1 N. Shan States; 1 Sandoway, Arakan; 1 Bombay
market.

The immature males with the purplish blue
on the wing edges replaced by green, are sepa-
tavely “measured, Ini’ No. 1737 fromthe
Naga Hills the chin and upper breast are not
yet completely black, and it lacks the dark
blue-black shoulder of the subadult male. ¢
No. 4577 from Tezu, Lohit Valley has a deep
navy-blue line along the shoulder (edge of
wing) lacking in all the other females. The
blue chin stripe is also slightly darker than
in the females and very similar to the male
referred to above. ¢' sp. No. 1730 from Sando-
way dist., Arakan, the southernmost specimen
from Burma in subadult plumage with a very
yellowish head is marked C.h. malayana by
C. B. Ticehurst, but Deignan (BIRDS OF N.
THAILAND, p. 327) states that this cannot be
maintained as a valid form.

Measurements on p. 285.

1J07 Chloropsis cochinchinensis jerdoni
(Blyth) (Central India) Jerdon’s Chloropsis
13352
BOD 3 Cay CS JUVE) 6 LO" 1 OO) MT Ow
1 Bodeli, Baroda, Gujarat; 1 Chanderi, Gwalior;
3 Raipur, Melghat; 1 Borivli, 1 Andheri, Bombay,
1 S. Konkan, 2 Canacona, Goa; 3 Karwar, N. Kana-
ra; 1 Bhadrapur, Shimoga, Mysore; 1 Tope, Palnis;
1 Thattakad, N. Travancore; 1 Anurudipur, Cey-
lon; 1 Kurumbapatti, 1 Chitteri Range, Salem; 1
Koduru, S. Cudappah, 1 Nallamalai, Range; 4 Ja-
balpur, 2 Sonawani, Balaghat, 2 Bhanuprattapur,
Kanker; 1 Bhopalapatnam, 1 Golpalli, 1 Kameli,
1 Konta, Bastar, M.P.; 1 Jeypore, Vizagapatnam;

PAG!

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

1 Baramba State; 1 Bansura, 1 Barkot, 1 Badrama,
Bamra, 1 Berbera, Puri, Orissa.

From the specimens available it would ap-
pear that the juvenile male (No. 1701 Karwar,
N. Kanara, July 1898) first has a blue chin
as in the female, which turns green before
becoming black as in the adult male (No.
24096 of 8 Dec. 1972 from Canacona, Goa).
This bird with the blue chin has a pale colour-
ed bill and slight specks of black on the chin.

Measurements on p. 285.

1108 Chloropsis cochinchinensis cochin-
chinensis (Gmelin) (Cochin China) Bluewinged
Chloropsis 1: 350

Hh GAS SOe DF 2a I 07)

1 Rupchena, 1 Cachar; 1 Singhaling, Kanii,
Chindwin, 1 Mondon Yoma _ Res., Thayetmyo; 1
Mai Village, Sandoway; 1 Kywizin, Henzada;
Burma.

The four males have little yellow on the
breast but the term ‘Goldmantled’ used in
INDIAN HANDBOOK hardly appears appropriate,
and I have changed it as above.

Measurements on p. 285.

1109 {rena puella puella (Latham) (Tra-

vancore) Fairy Bluebird 3:1
20: 10.46 3) Cl imm.): 10) 22° (47 amma)
2 Molem, Goa, 1 Katyal, 2 Anshi, 1 Karwar.

1 Potoli, 3 N. Kanara; 1 Talewadi, Belgam; 1 Bha-
drapur, Shimoga; 2 Coonor Ghat, Nilgiris; 1 Tope.
Palni Foothills, 1 Manalur, Palnis; 1 Maraiyur, 1
Tenmalai, 1 Merchiston. Ponmudi, Travancore, 1
Chitteri Range, Salem dist.

Measurements on p. 286.

278

1110 rena puella sikkimensis Whistler &
Kinnear (Sukna, Darjeeling) Northern Fairy
Bluebird

202) 14) Sde (eins) 6, OO (Gl inamayy)

1 Sevoke, Long View, 5 Darjeeling: 2 Gayleg-
phug, C. Bhutan; | Tezu, Lohit Valley, 1 Chang-
chang Pani, 1 Mayhenta, Upper Assam; | Gunjang.
North Cachar, 1 Chutti Bhil, Cachar; 1 Arakan
Yomas, Bassein; 1 Negapoli, 1 Sandoway dist.; 2
Nyauggvo, Prome dist; 1 Attaran, 1 Hank-Yadoma
Chq., Burma.

See note on validity of this form, p. 381
infra.
Measurements on p. 286.

1110a Irena puella andamanica Abdulali
(Long I., Middle Andamans) Andaman Fairy
Bluebird

1023S eek (2mm) eo SCs mama)

2 Bakultala, 1 *Long Island, Middle Andamans;
3 Wrightmyo, 2 Chouldhari, 1 Landfall I., 1 Chivia
Tapoo, South Andamans. *Type.

ee note on validity of this form, p. 381
infra.

The map in IND. HANDBOOK shows the spe-
cies as occurring in the Andamans and Nico-
bar Islands. There is no authentic record of
its occurrence in the Nicobars.

Measurements on p. 286.

EL Irena puella malayensis Moore (Ma-
lacca)
2

fn

Gore
The long undertail-coverts are distinctive.
Measurements on p. 286.

[409]

BIRDS IN BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY COLLECTION—23

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[410]

SOCIETY, Vol. 78

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[417]

286

OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR OF CERATOSOLEN
FUSCICEPS MAYR (AGAONIDAE: HYMENOPTERA)
AND THE MECHANISM OF POLLINATION IN
FICUS RACEMOSA L.’

MATHEW JOSEPH AND V. C. ABDURAHIMAN2

(With four text-figures)

Ceratosolen fusciceps Mayr breeds in the gall ovaries of Ficus racemosa L. The
Ficus species depends exclusively on the females of these insects for pollination. The
female wasp enters the young syconium through its ostiole which is blocked with
thickly packed bracts. The morphological adaptations of the female for this penetra-
tion and the different stages of oviposition are briefly discussed.

Prior to eclosion from the ripe figs, the female wasps actively load pollen grains
into their paired mesothoracic pollen pockets. Inside the tender figs, they deliberately
unload the pollen grains before the termination of each oviposition. The whole pro-
cess of oviposition and pollen transfer in respect of one ovary takes about 50-70

seconds.

INTRODUCTION

Information on the oviposition and pollina-
tion behaviour of agaonids are scanty. Cer-
tain aspects of the oviposition behaviour of
Biastophaga psenes that breeds in Ficus carica
were observed by Grandi (1920 & 1929) and
Joseph (1958), and of Ceratosolen marchali
in Ficus hispida by Abdurahiman & Joseph
(1976). The pollination behaviour of Cerato-
solen arabicus and Blastophaga quadraticeps,
the pollinators of F. sycomorus and F. reli-
giosa respectively, were studied by Galil &
Eisikowitch (1968a & b, 1969 & 1974) and
Galil & Snitzer-Pasternak (1970). Galil ef al.
(1973) made a closer look on pollination in
F. costaricana and F. hemsleyana by Blasto-
phaga estherae and B. tonduzi respectively.
Chopra & Kaur (1969) made a brief study on
the pollination and fertilization in some Ficus
species like F. carica, F. racemosa, F. tsiela

i Accepted November 1978.
“Department of Zoology, Unversity of Calicut,
Calicut University P.O. 673635, Kerala.

and F. virens. Ramirez (1969) .studied the
mechanism of pollen transfer by some species
of wasp genera including Agaon, Allotriozoon,
Blastophaga, Ceratosolen, Elisabethiella,
Liporrhopalum and Pleistodontes. Galil (1973).
and Galil & Neeman (1977) studied in detail
the pollen transfer and the mechanism of pol-
lination in F. fistulosa by C. hewitti, and in
F. carica by B. psenes. The present studies
comprise a detailed analysis of the behaviour
of oviposition and the mechanism and adapta-
tions involved in pollination in the case of
Ceratosolen fusciceps that breeds in the recep-
tacles of F’. racemosa.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ficus racemosa trees have a fair distribution
in the Calicut University campus, where the
present studies were undertaken. Ripe and
tender figs of appropriate stages were collect-
ed from the trees. The females of C. fusciceps
that eclose from ripe figs penetrate into the
receptive tender figs provided. Such figs con-
taining the females in the act of oviposition

287

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

and pollination were observed under the Ste-
reomicroscope with bright illumination. The
pollen loading behaviour were studied in the
ripe fig halves wrapped in transparent cello-
phane and observed under the microscope in
the early morning. Anaesthetized adult females
stained with alcoholic acid fuchsin (0.5% acid
fuchsin in 70% alcohol) were utilized for the
study of the “pollen pockets’’.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS
The structure of the fig:

F. racemosa is monoecious with the male,
female and ‘gall flowers’ occurring in the same

Fig. 1.

Median longitudinal section of a ripe fig
of Ficus racemosa L.

Abbreviations:
ant, anthers; eh, exit hole; l.s.ov, long-styled ovary;
os, ostiole; os.br, ostiolar bracts; sc. syconial cavity;
s.s.ov, short-styled ovary.

288

syconium (Fig. 1). The male flowers are few
in number and are arranged in 2-3 rows en-
circling the ostiole. The gall and female
flowers are intermingled. The female ‘seed
flowers’ have ovaries with long styles, while
the ‘gall flowers’ have short styles and they
are modified for the development of insects.
The inflorescence is highly protogynous, the
female flowers maturing first and the male
flowers maturing only after 2-3 weeks. The
stigmata of neighbouring gall and female
flowers interconnect forming a ‘syn-stigma’.
Thus the syconial cavity is lined continuously,
which prevents the slipping down of the pol-
jinators between the styles and ovaries.

OVIPOSITION

The eclosion of Ceratosolen females from
tnature figs occurs largely during the morning
hours between 6 a.m. and 11 a.m. In the field,
they fly in search of tender receptive figs for
oviposition. Such figs of the female phase may
be present either on the same tree or on other
nearby trees. The Ceratosolen females wander
over the surface of the tender figs till they
locate the ostiolar opening by their antennac.
Since the ostiole of the young syconium is
thickly packed with overlapping bracts, the
insect struggles hard to enter the syconium.
It raises its abdomen and the head is pushed
into the ostiole. The morphological adaptations
of the insect such as the dorso-ventrally flat-
tened head with serrated mandibular append-
ages and strongly built fore and hind legs,
make its entry easy. The wings and flagella
of the antennae are often lost during this
strenuous effort of penetration. The time taken
for the penetration varies depending on the
age of the young figs, though, it is usually
abcut 8-10 minutes.

After entry, the mutilated female moves on
the surface of the stigmata for a few minutes

OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR OF CERATOSOLEN FUSCICEPS MAYR

and then prepares for oviposition. The ovi-
positor which is kept horizontally ensheathed
in the ovipositor sheaths is taken out by bend-
ing the abdomen and using her hind pair of
legs. The hypopygium forming a triangular
flap that encloses the ovipositor basally, is
lowered and held vertical to the long axis of
the abdomen. This organ supports and guides
the ovipositor shaft during oviposition. The
ovipositor sheaths and remains extended up-
wards from the tip of the abdomen. The site of
penetration, namely, the stigmal opening is de-
tected by the tip of the ovipositor which is
provided with sensillae. The wasp rises on its
legs and the tip of the ovipositor is moved
back and forth on the stigmal surface. On
locating the stigmal opening, the abdomen is
raised and the ovipositor is introduced into
the style of the gall ovary (Fig. 2). It is low-
ered slowly and the further bending of the
abdomen brings about complete penetration
of the ovipositor down the style and the egg

Fig. 2. Ovipositing female of Ceratosolen fusciceps
Mayr at the pollination act.

hyp. hypopygium; l.s.ov. long-styled ovary; ov.
ovipositor; ovi.sh, ovipositor sheath; pg, pollen
grains; pp. pollen pockets; s.s.ov, short-styled ovary;
sy.st, synstigma.

is deposited in the ovule. The abdomen vibra-
tes during oviposition and the wasp is. found
actively engaged in biting the stigmata with
its mandibles. After the deposition of the egg,
she withdraws her ovipositor. The ovipositor
1s not ensheathed and the wasp continues her
egg laying in other ‘gall ovaries’. The whole
process of oviposition in a given ovary of
Ficus takes about 50-70 seconds. After the
oviposition, the female dies within the syco-
mum.

POLLINATION

Prior to their eclosion from mature figs, the
females of C. fusciceps actively load pollen
grains in their specialised organs called ‘pollen
pockets’. These paired thoracic pockets are
seen as triangular depressions on the ventro-
tateral sides of the mesothorax with their
narrow ends directed backward (Fig. 3). Each

Fiz. 3.

Thoracic ‘pollen pockets’ with poilen grains.
cp, cpenings; pg, pollen grains; pp. pollen pockets.

pellen pocket (173 x 155 ») bears two open-
ings, one at the narrow inner end and _ the
other at the anterior inner border.

The thoracic pockets are loaded with pollen
erains in the early morning between 3 a.m.

sy)

IOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

and 6 a.m. After emergence from the galls,
the female approaches the anthers previously
cut down by males and pushes her head into
its median slit. Keeping the anther sacs open
by their antennal scapes, she crumbles the
pollen grains within the anther and then per-
forms the pollen lifting movements. The pol-
len grains are lifted from the anthers to the
underside of the mesothorax by repeated swift
alternating movements of the fore legs, dip-
ping the arolia in the anther and raising them
backward to the thorax. Then the wasp curves
the thorax, and the pollen grains are brushed
into the pockets by the sweeping movements
of the fore coxae and their combs which are
formed of a row of 16 stiff bristles on the
inner margins of the coxae (Fig. 4). This

Fig. 4. Fore leg of Ceratosolen fusciceps Mayr
showing ‘coxal combs’.
shovelling movements are repeated several
times after each sequence of pollen lifting
movements. Such females escape out of the
syconium through the exit holes gnawed by the
males near the osticle.

The unloading of pollen grains and the sub-
sequent pollination of the Ficus infiorescence
occur at the end of each oviposition in the

young syconium. Before the termination of |

290

the oviposition, the female folds up her fore
legs and scratches the pockets 3-5 times with
her arolia and claws (Fig. 2). This simult-
aneous and alternating to and fro movements
of the two fore legs shovel some of the pollen
grains to the stigmata. Then she strikes the
tarsi of the fore legs against each other and
the arolia and claws are rubbed on the stigmal
surface effecting the transference of pollen
grains directly to the stigmata. These repeated
pollination movements of the fore legs take
about 3-5 seconds.

DISCUSSION

Ceratosolen fusciceps deposit their eggs in
between the nucellus and inner integument of
the gall ovaries of F. racemosa, as shown in
B. psenes of F. carica by Joseph (1958) and
in C. marchali of F. hispida by Abdurahiman
& Joseph (1976). The oviposition behaviour
of all the agaonids studied are very similar.
The hypopygium supports and guides the
ovipositor during the process of egg laying.
Unlike in the other agaonids the females of
B. quadraticeps of F. religiosa remain station-
ary and exhibit no stigmal biting during ovi-
position (Galil & Snitzer-Pasternak 1970). B.
estherae of F. costaricana (Galil et al. 1973)
takes 3-4 minutes for the completion of ovi-
position, unlike C. fusciceps and C. arabicus
which need only 50-70 seconds.

The pollination behaviour of C. fusciceps
is akin to that of C. hewitti in the dioecious
fig F. fistulosa (Galil 1973) and C. arabicus
in F. sycomorus (Galil & Eisikowitch 1968,
1969 & 1974). The ‘coxal corbiculae’ as des-
cribed by Ramirez (1969) is absent in C. fus-
ciceps. The closed thoracic pockets with coxal
combs are common features present in these
pollinators. The pollination movements of B.
estherae and B. tonduzi in F. costaricana and
EF. hemsleyana respectively (Galil et al. 1973)

OVIPOSITION BEHAVIOUR OF CERATOSOLEN FUSCICEPS MAYR

are much more complicated by the presence
of ‘coxal corbiculae’. They use these corbi-
culae as shovels in addition to its role in the
storage of pollen grains.

The pollination movements of C. fusciceps
are deliberate, as in other pollinators, such as
B. quadraticeps, C. arabicus and C. hewitti.
The loading and unloading of pollen grains
in the wasps are purposeful movements. Such
a deliberate pollination movement is explained
as ‘Ethodynamic pollination’ by Galil (1973b),
in contrast to “Topocentric pollination’ in F.
carica. B. psenes, the pollen vector of F. carica,
lacks pollen pockets and they carry pollen
grains in the ‘inter-segmental concavities’ of
the body. The passive loading of pollen grains

into these concavities occur when the body
shrinks as a result of water loss following
eclosion. In the young syconium, the body of
the wasp swells due to the higher humidity
and thus pollen grains indirectly come in con-
tact with the stigmas effecting pollination
(Galil & Neeman 1977).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are deeply indebted to Prof. K. J.
Joseph, Head of the Department of Zoo-
logy, University of Calicut for his interest in
the topic and for the facilities for work. One
of us (Mathew Joseph) is grateful to the
U.G.C. for financial assistance.

REFERENCES

ABDURAHIMAN, U. C. & JosEpH, K. J. (1976):
Observations on the Biology and Behaviour of
Ceratosolen marchali Mayr (Agaonidae, Chalcidoi-
dea, Hymenoptera). Entomon, 1(2): 115-122.

CuopraA, R. N. & Kaur, H. (1969): Pollination
and fertilization in some Ficus species. Beitr. Biol.
Plfanzen. 45: 441-446.

GALIL, J. (1973): Pollination in Dioecious figs.
Pollination of Ficus fistulosa by Ceratosolen hewit-
ti. Gardens Bulletin, XXVI (11): 303-311.

GaLiL. J. & Erstkowitrcu, D. (1968a): On the
pollination ecology of Ficus sycomorus in East
Africa. Ecology 49 (2): 259-269.

~-——_———— (1968b): On the pollination eco-

logy of Ficus religiosa in Israel. Phytomorphology,
18 (3): 356-363.
——— (1969): Further studies on_ polli-
nation ecology of Ficus sycomorus L. (Hymenop-
tera, Chalcidoidea, Agaonidae). Tijdschrift voor
Entomologie 112 (1): 1-13.

. (1974): Further studies on pollina-
tion, ecology in Ficus sycomorus. I. Pocket filling
and emptying by Ceratosolen arabicus Mayr. New
Phytol. 73: 515-528. :

GALIL, J. & NEEMAN, G. (1977): Pollen transfer
and pollination in the common fig (Ficus carica
L.). New Phytol., 79: 163-171.

GaLIL, J., RAMIREz, W., & ErsitkowitcH, D.
(1973): Pollination of Ficus costaricana and F.
hemsleyana by Biastophaga estherae and B. tonduzi

in Costarica (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea, Agao-
nidae). Tijdschrift voor Entomologie, 116 (11):
175-183.

GALIL, J. & SNITZER-PASTERNAK, Y. (1970): Pol-
lination in Ficus religiosa L. connected with the
structure and mode of action of the pollen pockets
of Blastophaga quadraticeps Mayr. New Phytol.
69: 775-784.

GraANDI, G. (1920): Studio morfologico e biolo-
gico della Blastophaga psenes (L.). Boll. Lab. Zool.
gen. agr. Portici. 14: 63-204.

(1929): Studio morphologico e bio-
logico della Blastophaga psenes (L.). Bull. Lab. Ent.
R. Ist. Sup. agr. Bologna, 2: 1-147.

Grover, H. (NEE KAurR) & CHoprRA, R. N.
(1971): Observations on oviposition, Nutrition and
Emergence of some fig insects. J. Indian bot. Soc.
SOA: 107-115.

JosePH, K. J. (1958): Recherches sur les Chalci-
dens Blastophaga psenes (L.) et Phytotrypesis cari-
cae du Figuier Ficus carica (L.). Annls. Sci. nat.
20: 197-260.

RAMIREZ, W. (1969): Fig Wasps: Mechanism of
pollen transfer. Science, 163: 580-581.

291

VASCULAR PLANTS OF VEDANTHANGAL WATER
BIRDS SANCTUARY AND SURROUNDING REGIONS
IN CHINGLEPUT DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU’

A. N. HENRY AND M. S. SWAMINATHAN?

208 taxa of vascular plants recorded in the Vedanthangal Water Birds Sanctuary and
surrounding regions including Karikili Water Fowl Refuge are enumerated in_ this

paper.

The urgent need to preserve the existing
flora and fauna has led to the creation of many
Wild life Sanctuaries and National Parks in
India. The Vedanthangal Water Birds Sanc-
tuary is perhaps the oldest Bird Sanctuary in
South India preserved since 1790, but officially
recognised from 1936. The Botanical Survey
of India took up the Survey of this sanctuary
in 1974-1976, on priority basis, to assess its
floristic wealth. Also the data collected by
floristic studies will greatly help in under-
standing plant and bird relationship and con-
sequently in improving the conditions for
mutual benefit.

The Sanctuary is situated 82 km south of
Madras City, in Madurantakam Taluk, Chin-
gleput District. [t is about 120 m above MSL,
and less than 48 km inland from the Coro-
mandal Coast. The Sanctuary includes the 30
hectare Vedanthangal tank. The average an-
nual rainfall is 115 cm, most of which falls
during north-east monsoon from September
to December. The hottest months are April,
May and June.

The countryside surrounding Vedanthangal
is flat comprised primarily rocky plains and
paddy fields interpersed with bushes and
scattered trees. There are a few low ridged
hillocks, and tanks or smail lakes dotting the
landscape like Karikili Water Fowl Refuge.

1 Accepted November 1979.
2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore.

292

The Vedanthangal tank which comprises the
Sanctuary, and Karikili are the only places in
this region that provide compact groves of
Barringionia acutangula trees suitable for
nesting of birds. The western bund of Vedan-
thangal tank impounds the water. Acacia nilo-
tica ssp. indica, Alangium salvifolium, Albizzia
lebbek, Antidesma_ ghaesembilla, Borassus
flabellifer, Cassia fistula, Derris indica, Poly-
althia suberosa and Streblus asper are some
of the trees observed along the slope of the
bund. These trees were often interpersed with
thick growth of Calamus rotang, Derris scan-
dens and Solanum trilobatum. The common
herbaceous plants which colonise the semi-
marshy area of the tank are Chryzophora rot-
tleri, Cleome chelidonti, Coldenia procumbens,
Echinochloa colonum, Eclipta alba, Euphorbia
serpens, Glinus oppositifolius, Heliotropium
mndicum, Marsilea minuta, Panicum repens
and Phyla nodiflora. Aeschynomene_ aspera,
Lemna perpusilla, Limnophyton obtusifolium,
Nechamandra alternifolia and Ottelia aor
des are the aquatics of this region.

Surrounding the Vedanthangal tank, there
are vast stretches of agricultural lands mostly
used for paddy cultivation and these afford
food for the birds gathering here during breed-
ing season. Further the tank water contains
high fertilizing properties due to the droppings
of birds and hence agricultural fields irrigated
from Vedanthangal tank give a good yield.
The birds by eating the pests and insects of

VASCULAR PLANTS OF VEDANTHANGAL

the fields also help man. Thus man and bird
are mutually benefitted.

For an account of the water birds visiting
the Sanctuary, Spillett (1968) may be refer-
red to.

208 taxa of vascular plants have been re-
corded. The specimens are deposited in the
herbarium of the Southern Circle. Botanical
Survey of India, Coimbatore (MH). For each
species mentioned in the list, the collection
number of A. N. Henry is given.

It may be mentioned here that though Wild
Life Sanctuaries and National Parks are creat-
ed, in general, for the protection of wild fauna
and flora, in India much remains to be done
in respect of protection to the flora for the
sake of fauna. Most of the Sanctuaries have
not been kept as exclusive reserves for the
preservation of the local flora and fauna to
improve conditions for their mutual bene-
fit. The overgrazing of domestic livestock in
the Vedanthangal Sanctuary area poses a great
threat to the very existence of the comparati-
vely rare taxa of the local plants; only a few
widespread pantropical weeds are able to re-
sist this threat. Further the rare local plants
which illustrate evolutionary process and poten-
tialities are disappearing and will not be avail-
able for study unless strenuous efforts are made
to preserve them. Hence it is suggested that
restrictions on domestic livestock grazing
be imposed, so that the flora of Vedanthangal
Water Birds Sanctuary is kept in as natural
a state as possible.

ITSOETACEAE
Isoetes coromandeliana Linn. 47080
| MaARSILEACEAE
Marsilea minuta Linn. 47060
ANNONACEAE

Polyalthia suberosa (Roxb.) Thw. 45422, 47008

MENISPERMACEAE

Tiliacora acuminata (Lamk.) Miers 45424
TYinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hk. f.
& Thoms. 45434

CAPPARACEAE

Cadaba fruticosa (Linn.) Druce

(C. indica Lamk.) 45480

Cleome aspera Koenig ex DC. 45468
C. chelidonii Linn. f. 45447

C. viscosa Linn. 45430

VIOLACEAE

Hybanthus enneaspermus (Linn.) F. v. Muell.
(Ionidium suffruticosum (Linn.) Ging ex DC.)
45402

POLYGALACEAE

Poiygala chinensis Linn. 45439

MALVACEAE

Abelmoschus ficulneus (Linn.) Wt. & Arn. ex
Wt.

(Hibiscus ficulneus Linn.) 47068

Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet 47026

Hibiscus micranthus Linn. f. 47038

H. vitifolius Linn. 45511, 47028

Sida cordata (N. Burman) Borssum

(S. veronicifolia Lam.) 47056

STERCULIACEAE
Melochia corchorifolia Linn. 45449, 47015
TILIACEAE
Corchorus aestuans Linn.

(C. acutangulus Lam.) 47040
Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. 47023

ELAEZOCARPACEAE

Muntingia calabura Linn. 45425

293

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Tribulus terrestris Linn. 47078

OXALIDACEAE

Biophytum nervifolium Thw.
(B. sensitivum (Linn.) DC. var. nervifolium
(Thw.) Edgew. & Hook. f.) 45491, 47077

RUTACEAE

Citrus medica Linn. var.? 45436

Giycosmis mauritiana (Lam.) Tanaka

(G. cochinchinensis sensu Gamble p.p. )
45481

Toddalia asiatica (Linn.) Lamk. var. gracilis
Gamble 45517

RHAMNACEAE

Scutia myrtina (Burm. f.) Kurz 47101
Ziziphus oenoplia (Linn.) Mill. 47049

VITACEAE

Cissus quadrangularis Linn. 45464
C. setosa Roxb. 47095
C. vitiginea Linn. 45435

SAPINDACEAE

Allophyllus serratus (Roxb.) Kurz 45518

Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn. var. micro-
carpum BI. 45459

Lepisanthes tetraphylla (Vahl) Radlk. 47105

PAPILIONACEAE

Abrus precatorius Linn. 47018

Aeschynomene aspera Linn. 47104

A. indica Linn. 47046, 47065

Alysicarpus rugosus (Willd.) DC. var. pilifer
Prain 45441

Atylosia scarabaeoides (Linn.) Benth. 47091

Crotalaria linifolia Linn. f. 45488

294

C. verrucosa Linn. 47009

Derris indica (Lam.) Bennett
(Pongamia glabra Vent.) 45405

Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. 45519
Desmodium biarticulatum Benth. 45497
Indigofera linifolia (Linn. f.) Retz. 47088
I. linnaei Ali

(J. enneaphylla Linn.) 45415

I. tinctoria Linn. 45456

Lablab purpureus (Linn.) Sweet
(Dolichos lablab Linn.) 45510, 47019
Mucuna pruriens (Linn.) DC.

(M. prurita Hook.) 47022

Pseudarthria viscida (Linn.) Wt. & Arn. 47017
Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alston
(S$. mucronata Willd.) 45495

Tephrosia hirta Ham. 47097

T. purpurea (Linn.) Pers. 45408
Teramnus labialis (Linn. f.) Spreng. 47006
Vigna trilobata (Linn.) Verdc.
(Phaseolus trilobus sensu Aiton) 47029

CAESALPINIACEAE

Cassia auriculata Linn. 45475

C. fistula Linn. 45414

C. pumila Lamk. 45483

Piliostigma racemosa (Lamk.) Benth.
(Bauhinia racemosa Lamk.) 45516

MIMOSACEAE

Acacia caesia Willd. 47050

A. nilotica (Linn.) Willd. ex Del. subsp.
indica (Benth.) Brenan

(A. arabica auct. non (Lamk.) Willd.) 45401

Albizzia lebbek (Linn.) Willd. 47010

Leucaena leucocephala (Lamk.) de Wit

(L. glauca Benth.) 47109

Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. 47003

DROSERACEAE
Drosera burmanni Vahl 47115

VASCULAR PLANTS OF VEDANTHANGAL

LECYTHIDACEAE

Barringtonia acutangula (Linn.) Gaertn. 45413

LYTHRACEAE

Ammannia baccifera Linn. 47099
Nesaea brevipes Koehne 47051
Rotala verticillaris Linn. 47092

ONAGRACEAE

Ludwigia perennis Linn.
(L. parviflora Roxb.) 47111

PASSIFLORACEAE

Passiflora foetida Linn. 45420

CUCURBITACEAE

Blastania garcini (Linn.) Cogn. 47032

Coccinia grandis (Linn.) Voigt

(C. indica Wt. & Arn.) 45427, 47042

Cucumis melo Linn. var. agrestis Naud.

(C. pubescens Willd.) 45451

Diplocyclos palmatus (Linn.) C. Jeffrey

(Bryonopsis laciniosa sensu Naud.) 47004

Mukia maderaspatana (Linn.) M. Roem.

(Melothria maderaspatana (Linn.) Cogn.)
47016

AIZOACEAE

Trianthema portulacastrum Linn. 45452

MOLLUGINACEAE

Glinus oppositifolius (Linn.) A.DC.
(Mollugo oppositifolia Linn.) 45429
M. pentaphylla Linn. 45492

RUBIACEAE

Borreria articularis (Linn. f.) F. N. Will.
(B. hispida (inn.) K. Sch.) 45453
Canthium parviflorum Lamk.

(Plectronia parviflora (Lamk.) Bedd.) 45410
Dentelia repens (Linn.) J.R. & G. Forst. 45463
Morinda coreia Buch.-Ham.

(M. tinctoria Roxb.) 45412

Oldenlandia herbacea (Linn.) Roxb. 47054
Tarenna asiatica (Linn.) Alston

(Chomelia asiatica O. Kze.) 47073
Thecagonum biflorum (Linn.) Babu
(Oldenlandia biflora Linn.) 45461

COMPOSITAE

Ageratum conyzoides Linn. 47039
Biumea bifoliata DC. 47082

Echipta alba (Linn.) Hassk.

(EZ. prostrata (Linn.) Linn.) 45442
Epaltes pygmaea DC. 47093
Sphaeranthus indicus Linn. 47069
Vernonia cinerea (Linn.) Less. 47036

PLU MBAGINACEAE

Plumbago zeylanica Linn. 47024

EBENACEAE

Diospyros chloroxylon Roxb. 47079

APOCYNACEAE
Catharanthus pusillus (Murr.) G. Don
(Lochnera pusilla K. Schum.) 45484

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Calotropis gigantea (Linn.) R. Br. 45411
Hemidesmus indicus (Linn.) R. Br. 47005
Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov.

(P. extensa (N. Jacq.) N.E.Br.) 45419
Tylophora indica (N. Burman) Merr.

(T. asthmatica (Linn. f.) Wt. & Arn.) 45479

GENTIANACEAE

Canscora heterociita (Linn.) Gilg.
(C. sessiliflora Roem. & Schult.) 47113

295

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Enicostemma hyssopifolium (Willd.) I. C. Ver-
doorn
(E. littorale Bl.) 45496

HYDROPHYLLACEAE

Hydrolea zeylanica Vahl 47075

BORAGINACEAE

Carmona retusa (Vahl) Masamune
(C. microphylla (Lamk.) Don) 45501
Coidenia procumbens Linn. 45432
Heliotropium indicum Linn. 45416
H. marifclhium Retz.

(77. scabrum Retz.) 45466

CONVOLVULACEAE

Argyreia cymosa Sweet 47021

Ypomoea aquatica Forsk.

(J. reptans Poir.) 47098

I. coptica (Linn.) Roth ex Roem. & Schult.

(1. dissecta Willd.) 47085

Merremia hederacea (Burm. f.) Hall. f.

(M. chryseides Hall. f.) 47072

Operculina turpethum (Linn.) Silva Manso
47030

SOLANACEAE

Physalis minima Linn. 45421
Solanum trilobatum Linn. 45403

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Centranthera tranquebarica (Spreng.) Merr.
(C. humifusa Wall. ex Benth.) 45487
Limnophila aquatica (Willd.) Santapau

(L. polystachya Benth.) 47100

L. indica (Linn.) Druce

(L. gratioloides R. Br.) 47071

Striga angustifolia (D. Don) Sald.

(S. euphrasioides sensu Benth.) 45489

S. densiflora (Benth.) Benth. 45467

296

PEDALIACEAE

Martynia annua Linn. 45513
Pedalium murex Linn. 45426

ACANTHACEAE

Asystasia gangetica (Linn.) T. And. 47013

Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees

(Ruellia prostrata Poir.) 47007

Ecbolium viride (Forsk.) Alston

(/. linneanum Kurz) 45508

Hygrophila auriculata (Schum.) Heine

(Asteracantha longifolia (Linn.) Nees) 47076

inconeesiella echioides (Linn.) Sreem.

(Andrographis echivides Nees) 45457

Lepidagathis cristata Willd. 45498

Rostellularia prostrata (Roxb. ex Cl.) Majum-
dar

(Justicia prostrata (Roxb. ex Cl.) Gamble)
47035

VERBENACEAE

Gmelina asiatica Linn. 45490, 45520

Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Greene

(Lippia nodiflora (Linn.) A. Rich.) 45440
Premna corymbosa Rottl. & Willd. 45500

LABIATAE

Anisomeles malabarica (Linn.) R. Br. ex Sims
47027

Basilicum polystachyon (Linn.) Moench.

(Moschosma polystachyum Benth.) 47012

Geniosporum tenuifiorum (Linn.) Merr.

(G. prostratum Benth.) 45486, 47086

Hyptis suaveolens (Linn.) Poit. 45409, 47070

Leucas lavandulaefolia Rees

(L. linifolia (Roth) Spreng.) 45431

NYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhavia diffusa Linn. 45503
Pisonia aculeata Linn. 47048

VASCULAR PLANTS OF VEDANTHANGAL

AMARANTHACEAE

Achyranthes aspera Linn. 47037

Aerva lanata (Linn.) Juss. 45515

A. monsoniae (Linn. f.) Mart. 47089

Ailmania nodiflora (Linn.) R. Br. var. dicho-
toma (Roth) Hook, f. 45470

Amaranthus spinosus Linn. 45423

Celosia argentea Linn. 45485

Pupalia lappacea (Linn.) Juss.

(P. atropurpurea Mog.) 47002

CASSYTHACEAE

Cassytha filiformis Linn. 45469

LORANTHACEAE

Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn. f.) Etting
(Loranthus longiflorus Desr.) 47074

EUPHORBIACEAE

Acalypha lanceolata Willd. 45471, 45509

Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn. 45505

Chryzophora rottleri (Geis.) A. Juss. ex
Spreng. 45450

Creton bonplandianum Baill.

(C. sparsiflorum Morong.) 45407

Drypetes sepiaria (Wt. & Arn.) Pax & Hoftm.

(Hemicyclea sepiaria Wt. & Arn.) 47106

Euphorbia hirta Linn. 45446

E. serpens H.B.K.

(E. microphylla sensu Gamble p.p.) 45428

Jatropha gossypifolia Linn. 45482

Kirganelia reticulata (Poir.) Baill. 45506

Phyllanthus fraternus Webster

(P. niruri auct. plur. (non Linn.) 45433

P. maderaspatensis Linn. 45454

P. virgatus Forst. f.

(P. simplex Retz.) 45458

Sebastiania chamaelea (Linn.) Muell.-Arg.
45494

Securinega leucopyrus (Willd.) Muell.-Arg.

(Fluggea leucopyrus Willd.) 45406

Synostemon bacciforme (Linn.) Webster
(Agyneia bacciformis (Linn.) A. Juss. 45462
Tragia involucrata Linn. 45460

URTICACEAE
Pouzolzia zeylanica (Linn.) Benn.
(P. indica Gaud.) 45463

MorRACEAE

Fiscus hispida Linn. f. 45504

F. racemosa Linn.

(F’. glomerata Roxb.) 47110

F. religiosa Linn. 45404

F. tomentosa Roxb. ex Willd. 47107
Streblus asper Lour. 45514, 47044

HYDROCHARITACEAE
Nechamandra alternifolia ((Roxb.) Thw.
(Lagerosiphon alternifolius Druce) 47059
Ottelia alismoides (Linn.) Pers. 47067

LILIACEAE
Asparagus racemosus Willd. 47031
XYRIDACEAE
Xyris pauciflora Willd. 47116
COMMELINACEAE

Commelina benghalensis Linn. 45473
C. ensifolia R. Br. 45418

Murdannia spirata (Linn.) Bruckn.
(Aneilema spiratum Br.) 47062

PALMAE
Phoenix farinifera Roxb. 45477
P. sylvestris (Linn.) Roxb. 47014
LEM NACEAE
Lemna perpusilla Torr.

(L. paucicostata Hegelm.) 45512

29),

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

ALISMATACEAE

Limnophyton obtusifolium (Linn.) Mig. 47103

ERIOCAULACEAE

Eriocaulon quinquangulare Linn. 47114

CYPERACEAE ©

Bulbostylis barbata (Rotib.) Cl. 45474
Cyperus bulbosus Vahl 45478

C. distans Linn. f. 45472

C. kyllingia Endl. |
(Kyllingia monocephala Rottb.) 45502
Cyperus pumilus Linn.

(Pycreus. pumilus Dom.) 47064

Cyperus rotundus Linn. 45444

C. tenuispica Steud. 47055

C. triceps (Rottb.) Endl.

(Kyllingia triceps Rottb.) 47063
Fimbristylis argentea (Rottb.) Vahl 45417
F. ovata (N. Burman) Kern

(F. monostachya (Linn.) Hassk.) 45476, 47083
Schoenoplectus articulatus (Linn.) Palla
(Scirpus articulatus Linn.) 47058

S. lateriflorus (J. F. Gmelin) Lye
(Scirpus supinus auct. non Linn.) 47066

GRAMINEAE

Alloteropsis cimicina (Linn.) Stapf 45499
Apluda mutica Linn.

(A. aristata Linn.) 47057

Arundo donax Linn. 45507

Bothriochloa pertusa (Linn.) A. Camus

(Amphilophis pertusa (Linn.) Nash ex Stapf)
47112

Chloris barbata Sw. 45455, 47033

Echinochloa colonum (Linn.) Link 45443

Enteropogon monostachyos (Vahl) K. Schum.
& Engl. 47108

Eragrostiella brachyphylla (Stapf) Bor

(Eragrostis brachyphylla Stapf) 45493

KE. riparia (Willd.) Nees 47096

KE. tenella (Linn.) P. Beauv. ex Roem. &
Schult.

(E. plumosa (Retz.) Link) 47025

Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C. E. Hubb. 45445

Oplismenus compositus (Linn.) P. Beauv.
47047

Panicum repens Linn. 45437

Paspalidium geminatum (Forssk.) Stapf 47045

Saccharum spontaneum Linn. 47041

Sporobolus tremulus (Willd.) Kunth 45448

Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash 47084

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Dr. N. C. Nair, Deputy
Director, Southern Circle, Botanical Survey
of India for facilities and to the Wild Life
Warden and staff of the Tamil Nadu Forest
Department for their co-operation and help.

REFERENCE

SPILLETT, J. JUAN (1968):

A report on Wild

Life Surveys in South and West India. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 65 (3): 646-653.

298

AIDS TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF ARTIODACTYLAN
HAIRS WITH GENERAL COMMENTS ON HAIR
STRUCTURE’

B. R. KopPIKER?
AND
J. H. SABNnis?
(With six text-figures)

A system for rapid identification of hair specimens by means of hair impression
studies is outlined. A series of camera lucida diagrams depicting the structure of hairs
of some artiodactylan species is presented. This facilitates identification by permitting
a direct visual comparison with the hair pattern of an unknown hair specimen.

INTRODUCTION

In nature it is very difficult to keep track
of all the animals killed by the Tiger and one
of the important methods of knowing the food
habits is through collection of faeces contain-
ing hairs which will reveal the animal preyed
upon by the Tiger. The prey animals cover
a wide range of species which fall in the cate-
gory of both domestic and wild animals. Pri-
mary need for studying food habit of carni-
vores in general and Felidae in_ particular
prompted the authors to undertake study of
hair structure of some wild Artiodactyla which
forms the prey animals of carnivora.

The present work involves hair impression
study. |

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Initially, all hair specimens were carefully
washed in hot water. They were air dried
thoroughly. The medium for taking hair im-
pression is prepared as follows:

A solution of cellulose acetate is obtained

1 Accepted August 1978.

2 Project Tiger, Melghat, Paratwada.

3 Department of Zoology, Vidarbha Mahavidya-
laya, Amravati.

by dissolving 2.5 g of cellulose in 10 ml of

acetone and 40 ml of ethyl lactate are added

to give a uniform viscous colourless solution.

A drop or two of this viscous medium is
carefully spread over a clean microscope silde
to give a uniform thin layer and a piece of
the hair under investigation is placed on it

immediately and allowed to stand for 10

minutes. The slide is then dried in an air oven

at 55°C for about 30 minutes, when the hair
piece can be easily lifted off. The clear impres-
sion obtained can be examined under a micro-
scope by focussing on the medial region. The
advantages of this method developed in the

Forensic Science Laboratory, Bombay by Dr.

M. S. Madiwale, are:

1. Even a small piece of hair can be studied

as no stretching or fixing of hair is neces-

sary.

As no: stretching is done or pressure is

applied, impressions obtained are repro-

ducible.

3. Drying under reproducible conditions give
faithful impressions which can be re-
peated.

4+. Impressions are suitable for easy handling
and preservation as record for future re-
ference.

ho

299

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

The magnification of diagrams is x 940.
OBSERVATIONS

The structural parts of a hair are cuticle,
cortex. medulla, pigment and hair cells. In
the system of hair identification to be out-
lined only cuticle is important. The structure
of these patterns which form the basis of their
identification under study are given along with
macroscopic characteristics.

BLACK BUCK Antelope cervicapra
Fig. 1.

Gross Appearance:

length 1 to 2 cm. The hairs look slightly
curved and are more or less equal in diameter
throughout except a gradual taper at apex. The
diameter at the proximal end measures 48 uz.
The colour of hair is white in the proximal
region with grayish coloured band immediately
below the distal one third region. The terminal

Rig. 1)

Black Buck (Antelope cervicapra)

300

portion is black. Some hairs are pure light
brown in colour and some pure white and
black.
Microscopic Appearance:

Scales are imbricate with plain borders.

BARKING DEER Muntiacus muntjak
igs 2:

Gross Appearance:

Length 2 to 3.8 cm. The hairs look straight
and more or less equal in diameter. The dia-
meter at proximal region measures 112 ». The
colour of hairs is brown with black tip.
Others are white.

Fig. 2. Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntjak)

Microscopic Appearance:
Scales are imbricate with serrate edges.

SAMBAR Cervus unicolor

Fig. 3.

Gross Appearance:

Length 3 to 5 cm. They are narrow in pro-
ximal region, becoming broader in the medial
and tapering off in the distal region. They
measure 180 yw in diameter in the medial
region. The colour of hair is almost pure
white in the proximal region, gradually chang-
ing to yellowish brown in the medial region.
The distal region is black.

IDENTIFICATION OF HAIRS

eee

Fig. 3. Sambar (Cervus unicolor)

Microscopic Appearance:
The scales are imbricate with dentate edges.
SPOTTED DEER AXxix axis
Fig. 4.

Gross Appearance:

Length 3 to 4 cm. Hair stems are slightly
wavy. The diameter of the hair at the proxi-
mal region is 84 ». The colour of the hair is
white in the proximal region which changes
io brown in the medial region. The distal re-
sion is yellowish brown.

Fig. 4. Spotted Deer (Axis axis)

Microscopic Appearance:
The scales are imbricate serrate.

CHINKARA Gazella gazella

Fig. 3.
Gross Appearance:

Length 18 to 22 cm. The hair measures 54
py in diameter in the proximal region increas-
ing perceptibly in size in the medial region
and then gradually tapering in the distal re-
gion. At the proximal region colour is gene-
rally black, medial region being greyish, and
the distal region is white. Some hairs are pure
white.

Fig. 5. Chinkara (Gazella gazella).

Microscopic Appearance:
Scales are imbricate with serrate edges.

NILGAI Boselaphus tragocamelus
Fig. 6.

Gross Appearance:

Length 23 to 27 cm. The hair at the pro-
ximal region measures 140 » in diameter. Stems
are quite fragile and easily broken. The colour
of the hair is almost white in the proximal
region. In the medial region two third portion
is brown gradually changing to black in the
distal region.

301

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Microscopic Appearance:
The scales are imbricate with flattened edges.

Fig. 6. Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus).

302

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We express our thanks to Shri G. B. Dash-
putre, IFS. Chief Conservator of Forests,
Maharashtra State, Poona for his keen interest
during the progress of this investigation and
giving encouragement from time to time. We
also express our thanks to Dr. K. V. Murthy
and Dr. N. Naimuddin, Principal, Vidarbha
Mahavidyalaya, Amravati for providing neces-
sary facilities to undertake the investigation,
Dr. S. K. Meghal, Deputy Director, and Shri
V. M. Chitale, Assistant Director, Forensic
Laboratory, Nagpur for helping in technique
and material, and to Shri J. C. Daniel, Cura-
tor, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay
for providing hair specimens.

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON NESTING HABITS AND
BIOLOGY OF VARANUS SALVATOR (LAURENT!) OF
BHITARKANIKA SANCTUARY, ORISSA*

S. Biswas? AND S. KAR?
(With a plate & two text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

So far little is known about the nesting habits
and biology of Varanus salvator (Laurenti)
which is mainly distributed in the coastal re-
gion of West Bengal and Orissa and also in
Assam of Eastern India. However some ob-
servations have been made on the breeding
and egg laying habits of the species in capti-
vity in Madras Snake Park (1976 & 1978),
Ahmedabad Zoo (1970) and Nandankanan
Biological Park (1977). The present observa-
tion was carried out in the Bhitarkanika island
situated in the Mahanadi Baitarani estuary of
Orissa. Bhitarkanika, an area of 176 sq Km,
has now been declared as a Crocodile sanctuary
by the Orissa Government. Four nests with eggs
of Varanus salvator were located within the
sanctuary from an area of nearly | sq km ad-
jacent to Dangmal village and four hatchlings
of another species, Varanus flavescens (Gray)
were also collected from the same area (Bis-
was & Kar 1979). The Water Monitor is now
thriving well here, protected from exploitation
by skin traders. It is presumed that mongoose
is the predator of eggs of the monitor as they
are common in this area.

This paper is a preliminary report on ob-
servations on the nesting habit and incubation

1 Accepted March 1980.

* Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

3 Salt-water Crocodile Scheme. Forest
Government of Orissa.

Dept.,

experiment on the eggs of V. salvator, One
clutch of freshly laid eggs was collected which
did not hatch out but another clutch collected
in an advanced stage of development, hatched
out in the hatchery.

Selection of nest site: In Bhitarkanika V.
salvator nests in the month of June during the
wet season. The nesting places are always
selected on high ground in secluded places.
Bhitarkanika estuarine area is inundated by
tide water twice daily and in the full-moon
and new-moon the tide reaches its maximum.
Therefore selection of nest site is made in such
a way that even in maximum high tide, water
does not reach the nest. Almost all the nests
are seen placed in secure places free from
human disturbance since there is no village
situated on the island. All the villages are
either close to or away from the river and its
associated creek systems, which encircle the
main Bhitarkanika island.

The most interesting observation in their
selection of nesting site is that the monitor
invariably selects a termite mound. The nest-
ing mother selects one or two already exist-
ing holes of the mound and enlarges them
into a cavity (Figs. 1 & 2). Though gene-
rally the Nesting “site; 1s “inee, “irom biotic
interferences sometimes it may be situated close
to human settlements inside the sanctuary.
Selection of the nesting site is mainly guided
and determined by the availability of termite
mounds. The monitor prefers termite mound
so much that it does not mind even if the

303

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

ts BUS

\ 4 ee oe. mt he

Left: Fig. 1.
Fig. 2. Diagram of the same dug up mound showing the location of eggs.

Right:

mound is close to the road or houses or in
unused fields.

Nest hole or the cavity: The nest soil is mainly
hard and loamy. The varanus selects a nest-
hole in the slope of the termitarium at a high
level from its base. In two nests measured the
height from the base of the mound to the nest
cavity is 9” and 12”. The mother makes the
hole wider and deeper by scraping soil from
the mound by both fore and hind limbs
and does not spend much energy for prepa-
ration of the nest. The shape of the nest is
somewhat flask shaped, narrow neck with
wide bottom (Figure 2). Four nests of V.
salvator were examined (Table 1).

Wi Loy
Wipe tls. Ca ue
AED, ag

iy a xX :

4 pe ~" \N

Diagram of a termitarium mound.

The nest nos. 1 and 4 are same. It is pre-
sumed that the same monitor utilised the nest
for laying her eggs.

It appears from the Table 1 that the nest
size depends on the size of the clutch.

Egg laying and its collection: Egg laying was
observed on one occasion by a person who
was working a few yards away from the nest
(nest no. 1). On 24th June 1977 near about
7-30 A.M., a female varanus was seen on a
way side termite mound scraping the soil with
her limbs. After sometime she rested, with
her head towards the top of the mound and
the tail on the ground. The presence of the ob-
server disturbed her and she left the nest site.

TABLE |
Nest temp.
No. of Date Nest size No. of at the time Air temp. Time
nests eggs of coll.
i 24.6.77 30 x 21 cm 20 29.5°C 32°C 10 A.M.
2 25248 22:54 17.5 em 9 28.5°C 30°C 1 P.M.
3 18.6.78 20x 19 cm 6 28.0°C LUXE 4 P.M
4 19.6.78 271. <17,.5'em Nil 29.5°C 30°C 8 A.M

304

NESTING HABITS AND BIOLOGY OF

When the site was examined, the nest hole
was seen filled up with scraped up soil and
it is possible that the varanus was observed
when she was filling up the nest hole after
laying the eggs.

Eggs were collected from three nests (nest
nos. 1, 2 and 3) but the eggs of the 4th nest
were found broken. The eggs of nest no. 2
were accidentally collected while some workers

were clear felling an area and digging up a-

termite mound for soil. The nine eggs of this
nest were in an advanced stage of development
and hatched just eight days after they were
placed for incubation. The embryos were al-
ready in a mature stage when three out of the
9 eggs were broken at the time of collection
to ascertain the status of development of the
embryo. One hatchling from these three eggs
died immediately but the two other eggs were

VARANUS SALVATOR (LAURENTI)

The incubation experiment on eggs of nest
No. 1 was unsuccessful. After keeping the eggs
inside the artificial nest for 43 days from
24.6.77 to 5.8.77 the nest was opened for in-
spection but it was found that eggs were all
rotten and the shells were covered with fungal
growth. The eggs of the 2nd nest required only
eight days of incubation and no experiment
was conducted on the eggs of the 3rd nest.

Incubation experiment on the eggs of nest
No. 2 indicated that if the egg is an advanced
stage is broken but the embryo of the broken
ceg case is not disturbed and incubation is
continued, the hatchlings may survive.

The temperature record of the two clutches
of eggs, Nest No. 1 (N-1) sterile and Nest No.
2 (N-2) consisting of eggs in advanced stage
of development, placed for incubation in an
artificial nest is given in Table 2.

TABLE 2
oi Range Average
Nest No. Nest temp. ne 8
255C 8°C 27.6°C N-1 Minimum at 6 P.M.
Bor Maximum at 2 P.M.
24°C 6.5°C 25.8: N-2 Minimum at 6 A.M.
30°C

kept with the other incubating eggs.
Incubation: For incubation of the collected

eggs an artificial nest mound of size, 45 x 30
cm was built with sand in the crocodile hatch-
ery at Bhitarkanika and for recording tempe-
rature inside the nest a hollow bamboo pipe
with a stopper on the top end of the pipe was
inserted in the middle of the mound.

Weight and measurement of eggs:

Maximum at 2 P.M.

The egg is elongated with both ends taper-
ing bluntly and the shell is white, soft and
leathery.

The measurement and weight of the three
clutches of eggs, N-1, freshly laid but sterile,
N-2, in advance stage of development and
N-3, status unknown, is given in Table 3.

TABLE 3

‘Nest Nos. N-1 ; | N-2 ae: | N-3. |
Nos. of eggs 20 6 3
Range of length 68 to 79 mm. 68 to 76 mm. 64 to 77 mm.
Average of length 71.6 mm. 72.3, tm. 75.5 mm.
Range of breadth 38 to 41 mm. 44 to 47 mm. 35 to 38 mm.
Average of breadth 39.16 mm. 46 mm. 36.5 mm.
Range of weight 52.40 to 65.90 gm 77.50 to 87.20 gm 55 to 60.50 gm
Average of weight 58.24 gm 82.35 gm 58.87.gm

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

If the average breadth and weight (39.16
mum. and 58.24 gm) of the freshly laid eggs
are compared with that of eggs of advanced
stage of development (46 mm. and 82.35 gms.)
then it may be presumed that the eggs of the
3rd clutch (36.5 mm. and 58.87 gms) were
also freshly laid. The increase in egg size is
more in width than in the length.
Hatching out of hatchlings out of the egg
case: No indication was available of the time
of emergence of the hatchlings except for the
flow of the egg fluid when the hatchlings made
slits on the egg case with their egg tooth. The
fluid adhering to the thermometer inserted in
the nest gave the indication that the hatchlings
were ready to come out of the egg case. When
the eggs were examined after opening the nest,
2 to 3, 2.5 to 5 cm long longitudinal slits or
cracks on the egg shell were seen. These had
been made by the sharply pointed egg tooth
on the lip below the snout of the hatchling.
After, openin® the! meste onl 4/6.) they inst
batch of. three. hatchlings emerged from the
ege shell. Two of the hatchlings still had
chords “but” these “became. detached arter
45 and 53 minutes and in one case after 2
hours of their emergence. The remaining 5
hatchlings emerged a day later.

Two slightly broken eggs were also kept for
incubation along with the 6 other eggs. These
two also hatched on 6.3.78 but the hatchlings
were very inactive and their stomachs were
swollen with chord attached with the egg
membrane. It took 25 hours for freeing the
chord from the egg cases.

The hatchlings were very active immediately
after hatching. One just after emergence went
up a wooden pole of c 50 cm hight. If disturb-
ed they hissed with swollen neck and raised
head and during this moment the tongue
would be seen darting out very frequently. All
the hatchlings excepting two were very active
and immediately after coming out of the egg

306

shell they started moving about the hatchery
and climbing on its poles and wire netting.

In colour, the hatchlings were very black

with yellow spots arranged dorsally in trans-
verse rows. :
Parental care: Though parental care in vara-
nus was not studied in detail, observations on
the mother varanus were continued after col-
lecting her eggs from the nest on 24.6.77. She
was found on the same night, on the nest for
nearly about one hour scraping soil to fill up
the opened but empty nest hole. On the morn-
ing of 25.6.77 she was again seen near the
nest, disappeared immediately on seeing the
observer. This varanus was kept under regular
abservation upto 2.7.77. Mostly in the even-
ings it was seen in a hole close to the nest,
with the snout protruding from the hole. But
on 3.7.77 it was disturbed during the day by
village boys and from that day onwards she
was not seen coming near her nest.

The observations on the mother varanus
could not be completed to decide whether she
takes special interest in opening the nest to
help the hatchlings to emerge. But it has been
observed in the case of artificially incubated
eggs that the hatchlings produced no noise in-
side the nest as is produced by hatchlings of
crecodiles. Therefore, it is presumed that there
is no parental assistance for opening the nest.
The nature of the soil of the selected nest site
in termitarium, particularly from the soil
used by the mother to close the nest it can
be deduced that there is no necessity for help
for the hatchling to come out of its nest. The
closed nest not being compact, it 1s very easy
for the active and agile hatchling to come out
of the nest without the mother’s help.

It will appear from the table that in
the hatchling there is an approximate equal
proportion between total length of the body
to the weight and the tail to snout vent pro-
nortion which is nearly 1.5.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 78 PLATE
Biswas and Kar: Varanus salvator

Y, WYO ey

pits
Mey

Varanus salvator (Laurenti)
Fig. 1. View of an adult female.
Fig. 2. Dug out egg nest in a termitarium showing actual position of eggs with a
measuring tape. Fig. 3. Showing just hatched out hatchling. Fig. 4. Showing a view of
partially dug out nest in the natural surroundings.

NESTING HABITS AND BIOLOGY OF VARANUS SALVATOR (LAURENTI)

Weight and measurement of hatchling:

Length total _ S.V. Length Weight in Average L & W
in cm. im em: in cm. gm.

I SS PARR 14.0 On? 35.0

Ds 3370 14.0 14.0 30.0 Length=32,3" em:

3 B20 13.4 18.6 SSL Weight=32.80 gm.
4 3230 £3h5 LSns 30.8
5 31.8 13/5 133 32.0
6 32:5 1308 sled 31.0
i 32.0 13.5 13.5 535
8 32.0 14.0 iS. 6

Post hatching care of the hatchling:

The hatchlings were kept in a concrete pool
of the size 3x3x1 m., one side of which
was sloping. The pool was one third filled
with water. Phoenix canes were kept inside
the dry portion of the tank to be used as hide-
out by the hatchlings. On the ground of the
enclosure of the pool some artificial burrows
were provided as it was observed in the wild
condition that varanus hide inside bushes and
five in existing or prepared burrows.

The hatchlings were not provided with any
food till five days after hatching and from the
6th day they were each supplied with prawns,
about 2 gms. each for the Ist fortnight and
3 gms. afterwards. It was observed that nearly
a week after the supply of food they did not
take any but afterwards started feeding.

The hatchling when 80 days old (hatched
out 26.4.78 and reared upto 24.7.78) reached
a length of 37 cm. The average length of a
just hatched out hatchling being 32.3 cm. it
grew about 4.7 cm. during this period in the
abnormal condition of captivity.

It was observed that hatchlings spent more
time in a dry place than in the water and only
occasionally went in to the water. They hide
immediately when some one approached the
enclosure. The experiment could not be con-
tinued further as the hatchlings died during
a period of cyclonic weather in the region

Remarks: YVhe preference for termite mounds
by Varanus for egg laying had been observed
by Annandale (1922) in case of Varanus ben-
galensis (Daudin) at the Barkuda island of
Chilka Lake, Orissa. In September, 1920 a half
srown embryo was dug out of the interior of
a mound of Termes (Odontotermes) obesus.

Biswas and Acharjyo (1977) found eggs of
water monitor in a cage and David (1970)
collected hatchlings which developed out of
the laid eggs in a zoo enclosure probably in a
burrow. So, it may lay eggs during its capti-
vity in abnormal situations. A termitarium is
probably selected as a convenient and safe place
for the protection and development of the
eggs in an esturine condition. Therefore, if an
artificial termitarium is provided for the egg
nest we hope to get good results in egg laying
and incubation of eggs of Water Monitor in
captive conditions.

Biswas and Acharjyo (loc. cit.) recorded
an egg laying incidence on 29th July, 1971 of
a water monitor at Nandankanan Biological
Park and Madras Snake Park (1976 & 1978)
also had mentioned incidences of laying once
of four eggs on 16th June, 1976 at intervals
of two to three hours and another fourteen
eggs on 19th June, 1977. According to Smith
(1935) in Thailand the species lays eggs in
June, at the beginning of rainy season. There-
fora it can be safely deduced that egg laying

307

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

season of this species is June and July.

Further according to Smith (loc. cit.) the
number of eggs laid at a time, i.e. the clutch
size is 15 to 30 whereas in the three nests
we have got only 6 to 20 eggs. The average
measurement of freshly laid eggs of this spe-
cies from the Bhitarkanika is 71.6 x 39.16 mm
which comes very near to the 70x40 mm
mentioned by Smith.

Honegger (1971) mentioned in respect of
incubation experiment on eggs of V. salvator
by incubator in laboratory condition that the
incubation period is 207 to 209 days at an
average temperature of 30°C (range 29°C to
31°C). So, we may presume that when nest
temperature varies between 25.8°C to 27.6°C
in natural condition then incubation period
may be longer than the above mentioned in-
cubation period. In the natural condition when
in winter atmospheric temperature goes down
the nest temperature may not be higher than
25°C:

In this connection we like to point out that
David (loc. cit.) collected hatchlings on Ist
April, 1969; the actual coming out of egg
case may be a few days earlier, when he was
maintaining five Varanus salvator in an en-
closure of Ahmedabad Zoo. Taking into consi-
deration that water monitor lay eggs in June

and the hatchlings come out in the March or
April (David and our observation) we may
presume a prolonged incubation period of eggs
(nearly 270 days) of this species. This obser-
vation is further supported by the report of
the Madras Snake Park (1978) that one egg
took 260 days to hatch out.

According to David (loc. cit.) the size of
the two breeding males and three females
was 1.4 to 1.5 m. Four hatchlings were 30-32
cm long but in the present case the average
length of eight hatchlings is 32.3 cm.

Finally this report shows the importance of
Bhitarkanika sanctuary as a breeding place
for two species of varanus by the location of
four nests of Varanus salvator within an area
approximately | sq. km. near the Dangmal
village within the sanctuary and also the col-
lection of hatchlings of Varanus flavescens
(Gray) within this area (Biswas and Kar
1977).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey
of India and the Chief Conservator of Forest,
Dept. of Forest, Govt. of Orissa for providing
facilities for study, we are also indebted to
Dr. K. K. Tiwari for going through this paper.

REFERENCES

ANNANDALE, N. (1921): The Reptiles and Batra-
chia of Barkuda. Rec. Ind. Mus. 22 (4): 331-333.

ANON. (1976): Births at the Madras Snake Park.
Newsletter of the Madras Snake Park Trust. 1
yea:

——_—-———— (1978): News from the Madras
Snake Park and Crocodile Bank. Newsletter of the
Madras Snake Park Trust. 3 (2): 4.

Biswas, S. AND ACHARJYO, L. N. (1977): Notes
on ecology and biology of some reptiles. occurring
in and around Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa.
Rec. Zool. Surv. India. 73: 95-109.

AND Kar, S. (1979): Two new Re-

308

cord of the species belonging to the genus Varanus
Merrem. 1820 (Reptilia: Waranidae) from Orissa.
Bull. Zool. Surv. India (in press).

Davin, R. (1970): Breeding the Mugger croco-
dile and water Monitor, Crocodylus palustris and
Varanus salvator of Ahmedabad Zoo. International
Zoo. Yearbook, 10: 116-117.

HONEGGER, RENE’ E. (1971): Zoo breeding and
crocodile bank. IUCN Publication New Series.
Supplementary paper. 32. Morges, Switzerland,
pp. 86-97.

SmitH, M. A. (1935): Fauna of British India.
Reptilia and Amphibia, Vol. TI-Sauria.

A SURVEY OF THE CEYLON FROGMOUTH (BATRA-
CHOSTOMUS MONILIGER) HABITAT IN THE WESTERN

GHATS OF INDIA’

R. SUGATHAN?

INTRODUCTION

The Ceylon Frogmouth (Batrachostomus
moniliger Blyth—family Podargidae), is one
of the least known birds species of the ever-
green forest biotope of the Western Ghats.
Though the presence of this species was re-
corded by Salim Ali (1953) during his
bird survey of Kerala and by Vijayan
(1979) during his general survey of wildlife
in the Parambikulam wildlife sanctuary, the
status of the bird in the south-west of India
was uncertain. Hence, to ascertain its present
status, a general survey was conducted during
six months from April to September 1976.
Survey was concentrated on the western slopes
of the western ghats of India in the state of
Kerala.

Batrachostomus moniliger (Blyth) is one of
the two representatives of the Genus Batracho-
stomus (Gould) present in the Indian Sub-
continent, and is restricted to the heavy rain-
_ fall tracts of Western Ghats. The other species,
Batrachostomus hodgsoni hodgsoni is a resid-
ent of the subtropical evergreen forests of
Northern India. Nothing much is known about
the status, distribution, biology etc. of this bird.
The last two reliable records published on the
Ceylon Frogmouth are, by Salim Ali from
Thattakadu in the year 1953 (BIRDS OF KERALA)

1 Accepted January 1981.

2103 ‘Petersburgh’, Coonoor 643101, The Nil-
giris, Present address: Senior Field Biologist, Avi-
fauna Project; Bombay Natural History Society.
Bombay 400 023.

and by V. S. Vijayan from Parambikulam
sanctuary at a place called Varayatumudi in
the year 1976 in Kerala. Both were
accidental sightings or hearing its call
when the bird suddenly flushed out from
a thicket on the observer’s approach. As stated
by Salim Ali in his report, this bird is very
seldom seen even if it is close to the observer
due to its immobility and cryptic plumage.
Calls are very seldom heard and have not yet
been authoritatively recorded. Food and feed-
ing habits, breeding activities and other aspects
of the bird are unknown.

Distribution:

The distributional range of the Ceylon Frog-
mouth is believed to be from the wet ever-
green forests of Karnataka state in the Western
Ghats to the southern tip of the country in
Tamilnadu and Sri Lanka. The elevational
limit of this bird is believed to be 1200 m MSL.
The survey of the bird was restricted to the
heavy rainfall tracts of the Western Ghats,
and was mainly limited to the Kerala forests
—-from the forests of Silent Valley in North
Kerala through Parambikulam, Sholayar for-
ests, Thattakadu, Periyar-Sabarimala forests
etc.

1) Silent Valley :

thew Silent Valley: (1 1°s7.33i N. 76°277
15’E) 8952 ha in extend lies in the Palghat
district of Kerala state. The entire forest is
on a plateau with undulating terrain, at an
average elevation of 2000 m MSL. Silent Val-
ley which contains India’s last substantial
stretch of tropical evergreen forest which is

309

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

perhaps the only near-virgin forest in the
whole of the Western Ghats. The floristic and
faunistic contents of the forest are highly
complex and have not been studied completely.

About half of the total area of Silent Val-
ley forest is occupied by the wet evergreen
type. This is mostly concentrated on either
side of the main river of the area called
Kunthipuzha. Towards the northern side of
the reserve are vast areas of grass covered
hills and in-between the hills occurs shola
type of evergreen forest of the higher altitu-
des. Towards the eastern side of the reserve,
wet evergreen forests merge with semi-ever-
green and deciduous forests.

An extensive study of the flora of Silent
Valley has not yet been done. The main floristic
composition of the whole area is as follows:
Aglaia roxburghiana, Artocarpus hirsutus. Arto-
carpus integrifolia, Aphyllorchis prainii, Bis-
chofia javanica, Calophyllum elatum, Cullenia
excelsa, Dipterocarpus indicus, Hopea wighti-
ana, Euphorbia longana, Knema_ attenuata,
Lansium anamallayanum, Myristica beddomei,
Mesua ferrea, Melia dubia. Lophopetalum
wightianum, Pelaquim ellipticum, Saraca indi-
ca, Spondias acuminata, Trewia nudiflora, Bac-
caurea courtalensis, Chrysophyllum lanceola-
tum, Antidesma menasu, Drypetes macrophyl-
lus, Croton argeratus, Cinnamomum iners,
Hydnocarpus laurifolius, Scolopia crenate, Pte-
rospermum rubiginosum, Diospyros bourdillo-
nii, Apama_ siliquosa, “rvatamia heyneana,
Trichilia connarioides, Polyalthia — fragrans,
Memecylon heyneanum, Sonerila_ versicolor,
Sarcandra grandifolia, Angiopteris evecta,
Cyathea gigantia, Pothomorpha_ subpeltata,
Anaphyllum wightii, Pinanga dicksoni, Lasia-
thus jackianus etc;

Along the river bed large formations of Och-
landra wightti and Schumanianthus virgatus
are met with.

The first Frogmouth in the Silent Valley

310

area was seen among the Ochlandra wightii
clumps, not very far from the proposed dam
site for the Silent Valley Hydroelectric pro-
ject. Three others were located in the forest
areas in-between Silent Valley and Mukkali.
Another one was seen in the forest opposite to
the Mukkali forest rest-house on the other side
of the river. The three birds located between
Silent Valley and Mukkali were among the
solanum and strobilanthus undergrowth. The
one sighted oposite to the rest-house was sit-
ting on a dry tree branch about 15 feet above
ground level. Even though this was visible
from a long distance, I could not make it out
until I approached the tree and saw the bird
flying. In other cases also, I could make out
the presence of the birds only after its flight
due to the disturbance caused by my presence.

Batrachostomus moniliger seen in Silent Valley:
1) By the side of Kunthipuzha, near the

dam-site Si 1

2) Between Silent Valley and Mukkali af 3
3) In the forest opposite to Mukkali

rest house ‘ate 1

Total ony 5

2) Parambikulam area:

The Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary
(10°25’N, 76°43’E) lies in the Palgkat district
of Kerala, at an altitude of 600 m. It has on its
eastern border the Anamalai Wildlife Sanc-
tuary of Tamil Nadu. The Nelliampathy re-
serve forest of Nenmara division of Kerala
forest lies to the north-west of the sanctuary,
and on the south and south-west lie the Vaza-
chal and Sholayar ranges of Trichur district.

Unlike Silent Valley, Parambikulam has a
wide variety of habitats, both natural and
man-made. The natural habitat includes ever-
green and moist-deciduous forests, grasslands
etc. Teak plantations are the important man-
made habitat in the area. Eucalyptus and other
plantations are also met with in certain places.

A SURVEY OF THE CEYLON FROGMOUTH

At the foot of hills with vast grasslands, we
met with extensive areas of swamp which are
the feeding areas for animals such as the gaur
and Indian wild boar.

The moist areas hold evergreen forests and
the much drier hilltops are covered with grass-
land. The important and common evergreen
species are: |
Cullenia excelsa, Myristica fragrans, Hydno-
carpus wightiana, Aporosa lindleyana, Cinna-
momum iners, Herpullia arborea, Diospyros
assimilis, Diospyros malabaricum, Adenosoma
sp., Baccaurea courtallensis, Machilus macran-
tha, Vatica indica, Mesua ferrea etc.

In the moist deciduous areas:

Adina cordifolia, Careya arborea, Grewia tili-
aefolia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Dalbergia
latifolia, Clerodendron infortunatum, Glycos-
mis pentaphylla, Helicteres isora, Lantana ca-
mara, Randia dumetorum etc. are common.
Bambusa arundinacea and Eeta bamboo are
common along the sides of the streams.

During the survey, seven birds were seen
in Parambikulam. Two of them were sighted
at a place called Varayatumudi about 4 km
from the Thunukadavu dam and on the way
to Parambikulam dam. Vijayan (op. cit.) has
also reported the presence of frogmouth from
the same area during his Parambikulam survey.
These birds were seen in the bamboo forest
during day-time. When | threw stones into
bamboo clumps to fiush the birds, one bird
suddenly shot out from a bamboo thicket and
sat on a nearby cane plant. It gave a call
‘Coroo’ and immediately another bird flew
out more or less from the same area and
perched on a nearby tree. They sat quietly
and I was able to see them for about 3 to 5
minutes. They then flew off into the thick
undergrowth of the cane forest which prevented
me from searching further for the birds. On
the opposite side of Parambikulam dam, to-
wards the eastern slope of the highest hill

range ‘Karimala Gopuram’ three more Frog-
mouth were located. This area is less disturb-
ed due to the inaccessibility of the terrain.
This is one of the best Elephant areas of
Parambikulam Wildlife sanctuary. I only had
a glimpse of these birds, but in different areas
on different days. I am therefore not certain
whether they were separate birds. On the way
to Karimala Gopuram from Sholayar two more
birds were seen on the same day in evergreen
biotope. Karimala Gopuram, the highest peak
on the western ridge of Parambikulam has an
elevation of 1440 m. The hill top is grass-
covered and is Nilgiri Tahr country. One day’s
stay at the top of this hill helped me to locate
8 ‘ahr in this area.

Sholayar Vazachal area:

Sholayar is contiguous with Parambikulam
on the west. Sholayar range has an area of
15,513.60 hectares as per the forest records,
and out of this about 1,820.73 hectares have
been leased out for Sholayar dam and for tea
estates. The other portions are thick evergreen
type of forest. It is very unfortunate that the
forest department has started selection felling
of trees in this area. Three birds were seen
on the way from Karimala Gopuram to Sho-
layar dam in thick evergreen forest. This
beautiful strip of virgin forest is now disturbed
by selection felling of trees and a motorable
road has been laid from Sholayar to the foot-
hills of Karimala Gopuram and lorries are ply-
ing up and down the road carrying timber.
Birds in this area were located in cane and
eeta bamboo areas. One bird was seen in the
small strip of bamboo forest at a place called
Orukombankutty in-between the Orukomban
river and the old tramway going to Parambi-
kulam. In-between Vazhachal and Porungal
dam in the eeta forest along the riverside one
more bird was located.

311

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Bairachostomus moniliger seen in Sholayar-Param-
bikulam areas:

1) Parambikulam area
2) Sholayar area

3) Orukombankutty

4) Vazachal area

N = eS W ~)
ls]

3) Thattakadu :

Thattakadu, situated at the foothills of Mun-
nar is on the bank of Periyar river close to
Narayamangalam. The old Munnar road ran

through this forest area. This is one of the best

areas for birds. The forest is semi-evergreen,
but large scale plantations are also met with.
The area is famous for eeta bamboo and cane
forests. When Dr. Salim Ali conducted the
bird survey of Kerala, this area was one of
the best virgin forest areas in Kerala and he
had seen the Frogmouth here. The conditions
have now completely changed and we could
hardly see any untampered forest in the area.
The catchment area of Periyar valley irrigation
project extends up to the eastern side of That-
takadu. This provides water for agricultural
activities, and which has induced people to
invade and encroach the area for cultivation.
This has changed the face of Thattakadu. Ex-
cept for a few plantation and forest areas,
this can be now considered as a village with
coconut and banana pantations.

A two-week survey was conducted in this
area for Frogmouth, but I could not locate
any. Even a suitable habitat for the bird was
not to be seen. However, this is still one of
the best areas for other birds. The animal
population also is very poor.

4) Periyar-Sabarimala areas :

Periyar wildlife sanctuary, situated at 9° 15’
and 9° 40’ north latitude and 76°55’ and
77°25’ east longitude, has varying altitudes
from 900 m to 1800 m. The average annual

312

rainfall is 2030 mm. The topography of the
land is uneven and is covered by forest and
grassland. The rugged terrain, virgin forest,
deep lake and rushing brooks are favourite
haunts for wild animals and birds. The area
has a very pleasant climate. Maximum tempe-
rature is 30°C and minimum 15.5°C. Within
the forest area, there is a conspicuous and
extensive tableland at an altitude of 1400 m
which is covered by grassland and is an ideal
place for Eurostopodus macrotis bourdilloni.
Vellimali is the highest peak in the area hav-
ing an elevation of 2019 m. The Periyar, the
longest river in Kerala, takes its origin from
Sivagiri hills of Periyar sanctuary. The Sabari-
mala-Pamba forests are adjacent to Thekkady
forest. This is one of the undisturbed areas
of the Western Ghats. The famous pilgrim
centre of the God Ayappa is at Sabarimala,
and the present day expansion of Sabarimala
temple is causing considerable damage to the
adjoining forest areas. This forest is continuous
upto Neyyar or even further towards Trivan-
drum side. Inaccessibility, was the main pro-
tective barrier of this area. After the construc-
tion of Pamba Hydro Electric Project, roads
have been run through this forest, and as a
result more and more damage is occurring to
this forest. The forest in this area is typically
Evergreen interspersed with grasslands. Semi-
evergreen type also is met with in certain
places. Important and common flora here are
Artocarpus hirsuta, Acacia intsia, Ailanthus
malabarica, Asparagus racemosus, Bambusa
arundinacea, Bombax ceiba, Butea _ fron-
dosa, Calamus rheedii, Calamus rotang, Cala-
mus travancoricus, Cassia fistula, Cedrela
toona, Cycas circinalis, Dalbergia latifolia,
Eleocarpus ferrugineus, Emblica_ officinalis,
Ficus sp.; Ochlandra travancorica, Rhododen-
dron arboreum, Solanum sp., Strobilanthes
sp; Xylia xylocarpa, etc. The maximum num-
ber of Frogmouth seen during the survey were

A SURVEY OF THE CEYLON FROGMOUTH

observed in the Sabarimalai areas. 16 birds
were located around Sabarimala and Pamba.
Only one bird was seen in Periyar Wildlife
sanctuary. This was located while walking to
Mangaladevi hills from Kumuli along the side
of a seldom-used forest road. I saw this bird
sitting on a bare branch, and was the only one
which I saw in a place where there was enough
light for taking a photograph. Unfortunately,
I did not have my camera with me at that
time!

7 birds were located in Sabarimalai area
between Uppupara and Pamba river. Out of
this 3 were seen in the eeta bamboo forest
on the western side of the temple. Two were
observed among Strobilanthus plants, by the
side of the pipeline road on the eastern side
of the temple. One was seen among the forest
area on the eastern side of Saramkutti
among eeta. Another bird was seen in the
forest area on the way to Pamba at a place
called Appachikuzhi.

9 of them were seen on the other side of
Pamba river, out of which 4 were seen in a
narrow strip of forest near a place called Thri-
vant in Pamba. This area is not very far
from human habitations in Pamba. 5 of them
were seen in the forest area between Pamba
Plapalli and Chalakkayam. The forest in these
areas are very thick at a little distance from
the main road. The main undergrowth is Stro-
bilanthes sp.

All the birds located were seen during the
day. One bird in Sabarmalai was seen during
rain. Vijayan was also with me when I
saw this particular bird, and it was only after
three flights that we could locate the bird. In
this case we went as close as 5 m of the bird,
and it did not move even then. But when we
moved closer, the bird turned its head towards
one side, opened its eyes and flew away.

Batrachostomus moniliger seen in Periyar—Sabari-
malai area:

1) Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary
2) Sabarimalai area

3) Pamba area

HABITAT OF THE CEYLON FROGMOUTH

According to available literature, the Frog-
mouth is a rare resident of evergreen biotopes
of the Western Ghats. Salim Ali notes
tiiem as nocturnal, shy and seldom seen, ap-
parently not very vocal, hence possibly less
rare than it appears. He came across it only
once at Thatakkadu during his survey of the
birds of Kerala. The habitat in which he saw
the bird was dense secondary jungle with cane
brakes. Vijayan saw a speciman flying from
the bamboo forest during his survey of the
Parambikulam Sanctuary.

The 34 birds located during the 6-month
long survey were seen in different habitats.
Bamboo and eeta forest along with Solanum
and Strobilanthes undergrowth nearby, can be
said to be the best habitat for the Ceylon
Frogmouth. A forest disturbed either by man
or by cattle is apparently unsuitable. An ex-
ample is the Thattakad area, which was once
a frogmouth area and now has _ none.
Bamboo and eeta extinction also affects its
population density. Big bamboo, especially the
dead ones, provide them an ideal habitat. This
also provides ample space for them to hunt
their insect food. Plantations of various kinds
are unsuitable. During the survey in Param-
bikulam, old teak plantations were also search-
ed for frogmouth. Even though its natural
habitats are developed in the plantations, I did
not see any there. Highly suitable habitats for
frogmouth were seen in places such as Silent
Valley and Sabarimalai areas. In Parambiku-
lam-Sholayar areas its natural habitat is much

313

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

thinned out, hence they are concentrated in
places where the natural habitat exists.

HABITS OF FROGMOUTH

Being a shy and nocturnal bird, it is very
difficult to study frogmouth during daytime.
Nothing very important was noticed on the
habits of the bird during the survey. It is very
sluggish by nature, hence is easily approach-
able when at rest during daytime. During the
survey I was able to get as close as 2 metres
and even then the bird sat quietly on the
branch. They were seen to rest with closed
eyes and neck slightly pulled downwards.
Salim Ali describes it as perching with its bill
pointing skywards; the birds I saw kept the
bill somewhat parallel to the ground while
resting. They were not seen coming to the
ground at all. When disturbed, they often turn
the head to either side and then bob the head
twice or thrice before flying away. When they
do this they were seen ruffling their neck
feathers and also sometimes, the tuft of
feathers above the eyes would project up-
wards. I think this happens when they are
disturbed, because at rest the feathers lie sleek-
ly against the body.

Field Characters:

The bird is about the size of a Myna, cryp-
tically coloured with vermiculations of grey
and brown streaked with black and white.
They merge perfecily with dry bamboo poles
or lichen-covered tree trunks where they spend
most of their time. The female is slightly larger
than the male, and more dull in colour. The
white band around it’s neck seems extended
up to the hind neck forming a ring. (This is
not visible when seen from a distance. Unless
a bird is in hand one cannot note this cor-
rectly, and during the survey I did not have
an opportunity). The tuft of feathers above

314

the eyes are visible from a long distance. We
(Vijayan and I) noted the iris as golden
when the eyes were open. This was seen on
the bird at Sabarimalai.

Calls, food, feeding and breeding activities
were not studied during the survey. Before the
survey while staying one night, at the Electri-
city Board rest-house at Sholayar with Dr.
Paul Slud, Associate Curator, Division of birds
at the National Museum of Natural History,
Smithsonian Institution, in March we heard a
call “‘Coroo, Coroo, Coroo”’ for a long time
which Vijayan identified as the call of frog-
mouth. This was heard from a bamboo forest
area on a moonlit night. During the survey,
[ also located one frogmouth from the same
area.

CONCLUSION

During the six-month survey of the popula-
tion of frogmouth, thirtyfour birds were seen
in their natural habitat, the Evergreen forests
of the Western Ghats in Kerala State. As
Salim Ali has stated in his survey report
of birds of Kerala, ‘it is possibly less rare
than it appears’. The present survey report
shows that even though they are not very
common, they are not endangered. For the
uninitiated, it is a very difficult bird to locate.
As the time for survey was limited, I could
not study much about its various activities.
It is a cause for concern that it’s natural habi-
tat is being reduced day by day, and hence
possibly the population of the birds also. The
proposed Silent Valley project, if it takes
place, will affect the frogmouths along with so
many other birds and animals which are also
facing the loss of their habitat. Its population
in areas of the Western Ghats other than
Kerala state and in Sri Lanka also, has to be
studied without delay. The best place to con-
duct a study on the frogmouth is the Sabari-

A SURVEY OF THE CEYLON FROGMOUTH

malai area. This area also is now subjected to
high human disturbances for the development
of the famous Sabarimalai temple and _ its
surroundings.

Other interesting birds observed during the
Survey:

BOURDILLON’S GREAT EARED NIGHTJAR
(Eurostopodus macrotis bourdilloni) :

Near Sholayar dam, on a full-moon night,
I heard the continuous calls of Bourdillon’s
Great Eared Nightjar. It was very loud and
I could hear it from the rest house, about a
kilometre away from the place of the calls.
It sounded somewhat like ‘Vie-View, ‘Vie-
View’ of a truck horn. I netted this bird after
a few weeks, along with two Indian jungle
Nightjar from the same area.
BROADBILLED ROLLER (Eurystomus orientalis
laetior):

Four were seen during the survey. We saw
one in Parambikulam Sanctuary on a tall dry
tree by the side of a river. Another was seen
in Thattakadu. Two were seen in Sabarimalai
calling from a tree. It was raining at that time.
The bird came close to the bungalow, where we

were sitting and watching, and sat for a very
long time on the electric wire in front of our
bungalow cocking its short tail up and down.
When it became dark it flew away. A pair
was seen there and we suspected that they
were breeding.

GREAT INDIAN HORNBILL (Buceros bicornis):

..This was one of the commonest birds in
places where I searched for the frogmouth,
except at Thattakadu. In Thekkady, I once
had the opportunity of seeing a flock of about
27 Great Indian Hornbills moving from one
tree to another crossing the lake. I think it
was a most uncommon sight indeed to see
these birds in such a big group.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. Salim Ali for suggest-
ing the problem to me and his advice during
the course of the Survey. I wish to express
my sincere thanks to the following people
and Organisations for the generous advice
ands help during the Survey. Mr. J.C.
Daniel, Dr. V. S. Vijayan, Mr. S. A. Hussain,
Bombay Natural History Society, Kerala For-
est Research Institute and the Forest Depart-
ment persona! of Kerala and Madras States.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

SPECIES MAINLY ENDANGERED SEEN DURING THE SURVEY

Species seen heard Place

Presbytis johni (Nilgiri langur) 196 11 Silent Valley
112 4 Parambikulam

223 19 Periyar-Sabarimalai
Macaca silenus (Lion-tailed Macaque) 96 4 Silent Valley
19 2 Parambikulam

aH 8 Periyar-Sabarimalai
Panthera tigris (Tiger) 1 Fy, Silent Valley
te ol ih: Parambikulam

rl al AY Periyar-Sabarimalai
Panthera pardus (Panther) 1 (Black) ve Silent Valley

1 Parambikulam (Sholayar)

gs i Periyar-Sabarimalai
Cuon alpinus (Wild dog) he un Silent Valley
7 4; Parambikulam

5 ae Periyar-Sabarimalai
Melursus ursinus (Sloth Bear) He Huh Silent Valley
2 ‘ae Parambikulam

1 an Periyar-Sabarimalai
Elephas maximus (Indian Elephant) 56 a Silent Valley
31 oa Parambikulam

67 ie Periyar-Sabarimalai
Bos gaurus (Gaur) 3 i Silent Valley
224] ee gare Parambikulam

a a Periyar-Sabarimalai
Hemitragus hylocrius (Nilgiri tahr) 16 Bs Silent Valley
30 ip Parambikulam

Periyar-Sabarimalai

Animals such as Macaca radiata, Herpestes edwardsi, Otter (Lutra sp.), Funambulus sp., Hystrix indica,
Cervus unicolor, Axis axis, Muntiacus muntjak, Tragulus meminna, Sus scrofa, etc. were also seen
during the survey.

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM (1953): The Birds of Travancore & Henry, G. M. (1971): A Guide to the Birds of
Cochin. pp. 274-75. Ceylon. pp. 162-63.

— (1970): Handbook of the Birds of VIJAYAN, V. S. (1979): Parambikulam Wildlife —

India and Pakistan. Sanctuary and its Adjacent areas. J. Bombay nat. —

Hist. Soc. 75(3): 888-900.

316

FURTHER REPORT ON THE TAXONOMY OF FOULING
BRYOZOANS OF BOMBAY HARBOUR AND VICINITY’

S. R. MADHAVAN PILLAI’
(With nine text-figures)

Nine species of fouling bryozoans from Bombay coast are described. One is a new
subspecies and two are new records from Indian waters.

INTRODUCTION

Studies on the fouling communities of Bom-
bay harbour and vicinity has established that
bryozoans are a major group contributing to
the problem of marine fouling here, perhaps
next in abundance to barnacles ({yengar e/
al. 1957, Gopalakrishnan & Kelkar 1958,
Chhapgar & Sane 1966, Santhakumaran &
Pillai 1970, Pillai & Santhakumaran 1972,
Pillai 1978). In two previous communications
(Pillai & Santhakumaran 1972 and _ Pillai
1978) taxonomic details of 3 species namely
Hinpoporina indica Pillai, Electra belulla
Hincks and Scrupocellaria harmeri Osburn
have been presented. This paper deals with
the taxonomy of 9 more species representing
7 genera which includes one new subspecies
and two new records from Indian waters.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Specimens were collected from timber test
panels and submerged objects from Bombay
harbour area and its vicinity.

To bring out taxonomic characters, the
colonies were treated in sodium hypochlorite
solution and stained lightly with ordinary
fountain pen ink. [lustrations were made from
such treated specimens with a camera lucida.

! Accepted November 1978.
“Forest Research Centre, Coimbatore.

Measurements of the various parts of the
zooids are presented in the following form,
which would be useful in evaluating the con-
stancy of various taxonomic characters and
in comparing populations from different areas,
as suggested by Cheetham (1966): abbrevia-
tion of the item measured; number of speci-
mens measured; mean; standard deviation;
observed range. All measurements are in mil-
limetres. Measurements were made from ran-
dom samples of zooids selected from different
colonies as far as possible. All the zooids
measured were fully grown and mature. The
following abbreviations are used for measure-
ments : —

Lz = Zooid length

Iz = Zooid width

Lo = Primary orifice length including sinus.

lo = Primary orifice width

Lov = Ovicell length

lov = Ovicell width

Lav = Avicularium length

jlav = Avicularium width

Lopes = Opesia length

lop = Operculum width .

SYSTEMATIC ZOOLOGY
Order-—CTENOSTOMATA Busk, 1852.
Suborder—VESICULARINA Johnston, 1847.
Family—VESICULARIDAE Johnston, 1838.

Genus—Zoobotryon Ehrenberg, 1831.

il]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Zoobotryon verticillatum (delle Chiaje),
1828.

(Fig. 1)

Hydra verticillata delle Chiaje, 1828:203.

Zoobotryon pellucidus Ehrenberg, 1831: no

pagination.

Amathia goodie Verril, 1901:329.

Zoobotryon pellucidum Marcus, 1937:139.

Zoobotryon pellucidum Osburn, 1940:341.

Zooboiryon verticillatum (delle Chiaje)

Maturo, 1957:25.

Occurrence: A _ drifting colony from Trom-
bay, found entangled on a nylon rope used
for exposing test panels. Several colonies from
Versova Creek growing on a nylon rope placed
about 2 m deep.

Description: Translucent colonies consisting
of repeatedly and densely branched _ tufts
growing several cm in length. Stolon divided
into sections of 0.2 to 5 cm length with two
to four branches arising from each _ joint;
zooids ovoid or subcylindrical clustered irre-
gularly at the distal ends of younger inter-
nodes, but arranged in two rows on each side
of the older internodes. Polypide with 13 ten-
tacles.

Measurements:

Lz (36)0.441(0.051)mm; 0.343—0.530 mm.

Iz (36)0.204(0.027)mm:; 0.156—0.234 mm.
Remarks:

Considerable differences were noticed in
growth, internoding and distribution of zooids
on the stolon between the colonies from Trom-
bay and Versova. The Trombay specimens
showed liberation of sperm through their ten-
tacles to the neighbouring water. The occur-
rence of sperm liberation in this species was
earlier reported by Bullivant (1967).
Previous records from Indian waters:

Vishakhapatanam harbour (Bay of Bengal)
(Ganapathi & Rao 1968).

Distribution:

Widely distributed in the warm waters of

the world including the Mediterranean and

318

Adriatic.

Order-—CHEILOSTOMATA Busk, 1852.

Suborder—ANaAScA Levinsen, 1909.

Family—MEMBRANIPORIDAE Busk, 1854;

Osburn, 1950.

Genus—Membranipora Blainville,

Osburn, 1950.

Membranipora amoyensis Robertson, 1921,

(Fig. 2)

Membranipora amoyensis Robertson, 1921:

49.

Acanthodesia_ serrata

(not of Hincks, 1882).

Membranipora_ hastingsae Osburn,

29 (not of Marcus, 1937).

Membranipora annae Osburn, 1953:774.
Occurrence:

Several colonies collected from test panels
exposed at Trombay (Bombay Harbour).
Description: 7

Colonies form whitish unilaminar or bilami-
nar encrustations. Zooids moderate in size,
quadrangular in shape, alternately arranged
and separated by conspicuous lines. Gymno-
cyst poorly developed with its distal rim
slizhtly raised and possesses two areas of thin
calcification at the corners—the ‘lacunae’. An
extensive cryptocyst, growing from the proxi-
ma! part extending laterally and reaching up
io the opercular level with regularly spaced
spinules numbering from 7 to 12 extending
from its inner margin, present. Small tubercules
often found on the cryptocyst. “‘Nodules’ as
described by Hastings (1930) developed from
the ‘Lacunae’ of the distal rim in many zooids
and growing as spines forward and backward
with extensive branching. Vicarious avicularia,
usually Jarger than normal zooid, possessing
tongue-shaped mandible, often present. Poly-
pide with 13 tentacles.

Measurements:

Lz(33)0.427(0058)mm; 0.343—0.655 mm.

1z(33)0.211(0.034)mm:; 0.156—0.280 mm.

Lav(10)0.447(0.083)mm; 0.312—0.546 mm.

1830;

Hastings, 1930:707

1950:

BRYOZOANS OF BOMBAY HARBOUR

Fig. 1. Zoobotryon verticillatum (delle Chiaje)
A. Portion cf colony showing internoding and arrangements of zooids. B. An inter-
node bearing zooids,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

WW ¢-O

Fig. 2. Membranipora amoyensis Robertson—Por-
tion of colony with normal zooids and a vicarious
avicularium.

A. Zooid. B. Avicularium.

lav(10)0.242(0.024)mm; 0.202—0.280 mm.
lop(31)0.137(0.009)mm; 0.124—0.156 mm.
Lopes(32)0.327(0.055)mm; 0.218—0.390
mm.

Remarks:

A comparison of the descriptions and
figures given by Osburn (1950 & 1953) with
that of Robertson (1921) clearly indicates
that both are one and the same. Examination
of a large number of the present specimens
showed almost all the characters mentioned
by Robertson (1921), Hastings (1930) and
Osburn (1950 & 1953). In addition, it is notic-
ed that the spines developed from the ‘lacu-
nae’ are capable of growing and branching

320

more extensively. In many cases, they are long
and densely branched and almost cover the
opesia of the zooids from which they grow
by their proximal growth and the proximal
area of the succeeding zooid by their distal
growth. Another difference noticed is in the
size of the avicularia which, on an average,
are larger than the normal zooids. It is report-
ed by Cook (1968a) that Membranipora an-
nae a synonym of this species is found in
warm shallow waters where the salinity is
reduced or variable. A study of the vertical
distribution and seasona! occurrence of this
species at Bombay Harbour area, however,
showed that they occur up to the mud level
at Trombay where the depth is about 9 m
with maximum intensity just below the low
water level and a marked decrease in their
occurrence during the monsoon months when
salinity dropped considerably. Maximum settle-
ment was found to be during the post-mon-
soon period of the year.
Previous records from Indian waters:

Cochin harbour (Arabian sea) (Menon &
Nair 1967).
Distributions:

Chinese coast (Robertson 1921) Panama

canal (Hastings 1930, Osburn 1950, 1953:
Powell 1971) West African Coast (Cook
1968 a).

Membranipora tenuis Desor. 1848.

(Fig. 3)
Membranipora tenuis Desor, 1848:66.
Membranipora denticulata Busk, 1856:176.
Riflustra denticulata Smitt, 1873:18.
Membranipora tenuis Verrill & Smith, 1874:
Ts
Biflustra denticulata Verrill, 1878:305.
Membranipora tenuis Osburn, 1912:231;
1950: 26. ety
Hemiseptella
23274
Acanthodesia tenuis Mercus, 1937:42

tuberosa Canu &_ Bassler,

BRYOZOANS OF BOMBAY HARBOUR

Acanthodesia tenuis Osburn, 1940:353;

1944:35; 1947:9.

Acanthodesia tenuis Hutchins, 1945:539.

Membranipora tenuis Pearse & Williams,

NSEILe 187),

Membranipora tenuis Maturo, 1957:35.
Occurrence:

Several colonies collected from test panels
exposed at Trombay (Bombay harbour).
Description:

Colonies form whitish unilaminar or multi-
laminar encrustations. Zooids moderate in
size, rectangular or quadrangular in shape,
linearly arranged and separated by conspicu-
ous lines; membranous ectocyst present; Gym-
nocyst very much reduced and mural rim
finely beaded; distal wall slightly raised and
arcuate; cryptocyst well developed, extending
from the proximal end narrowly along lateral

0-4 MM

© ad dee REET

Rig. 3.
colony showing the arrangement of zooids.
A. Zooid.

Membranipora tenuis Desor—Portion of a

walls up to the distal end; its surface tuber-
culated and border serrated into short spines
projecting inward; operculum well sclerited.
Tentacle number varies from 10 to 13.
Measurements:

Lz (32)0.417(0.078) mm; 0.310-——0.765 mm.

Iz (32)0.204(0.037)mm; 0.140—0.275 mm.

lop (32)0.146(0.011)mm,; 0.124—0.156 mm.

Lopes (32)0.384(0.079)mm; 0.280—0.640

mm.

Remarks:

An examination of a number of colonies
of the present specimens revealed that the
features exhibited agree with the descriptions
given by various authors for both M. tenuis
and M. perfragilis except for the absence of
avicularia in any of the colonies examined.
Hastings (1945) and Osburn (1950) have con-
firmed in their description the presence of
avicularia in M. perfragilis. Therefore, based
on this difference the present specimens are
tentatively classified under Membranipora
tenuis. This species showed sperm liberation
through tentacles. They occur along Bombay
harbour area throughout the year with maxi-
mum intensity during post-monsoon period.
They are vertically distributed from below low
water level up to mud level at this harbour.
Previous records from Indian waters:

Bombay harbour (Arabian Sea).

(Gopalakrishnan and Kelkar 1958).
Distribution:

It occurs on the Atlantic coast from Mas-
sachusetts to Brazil. :

Mempbranipora savartii (Audouin), 1826.

| (Fig. 4)

Flustra savartii Audouin, 1826:240.

Biflustra savartii Smitt, 1873:20.

Membranipora savartti Osburn, 1914:194.

Acanthodesia savarti Canu & Bassler, 1923:

Ste 1928" 14:

Acanthodesia savartii Marcus, 1937: 40.

Acanthodesia savartii Osburn, 1940:352.

321

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

Acanthodesia savarti Osburn, 1947:9.
Membranipora savarti Osburn, 1950:27.
Membranipora savartii Maturo, 1957:35.
Acanthodesia savartii Chhapgar & Sane
1967:450.

Occurrence:

Several colonies collected from test panels
exposed at Trombay (Bombay harbour).
Description: |

Colonies form whitish unilaminar or multi-
laminar encrustations, zooids moderate in size,
rectangular or quadrangular in shape, alternate-
ly arranged and separated by distinct lines.
Gymnocyst poorly developed and the mural
rim plane; cryptocyst well developed and its
proximal part bears the most distinguishing
part—the denticulate process projecting into
the opesia. This process assumes varying
shapes in different zooids and can be totally
absent in certain zooids as illustrated by Har-
mer (1926). A few small spines may project
into the opesia from its margin. Polypide with
12 tentacles.

WW ec-O

Fig. 4. Membranipora savartii (Audouin)—Part of
a colony showing arrangements of zooids and diffe-
rent types of denticulate processes.

A. Zooid. B. Denticulate process.

Vol. 78

Measurements:

Lz (41)0.329(0.029)mm; 0.280—0.405 mm.

Iz (39)0.237(0.028)mm; 0.171—0.296 mm.

Lopes (39)0.271(0.025)mm; 0.218—0.312

mm.

Remarks:

The variability in the development of cryp-
tocyst and the denticle developed from it is
well exhibited in the present specimens. As
may be noted from the diagram the denticle
may assume the form of a multiserrated pro-
cess or just a bifurcated spine. The mural rim
and cryptocyst of the present specimens are
completely devoid of tubercles. Sperm libera-
tion, in this species is found to be through
tentacles. This species occurs along Bombay
coast throughout the vear with maximum in-
tensity during post-monsoon period. They are
vertically distributed at Trombay from just
below low tide level up to the mud level.
Previous records from Indian waters:

From Indian Ocean (Thornely 1907, as
Membranipora denticulata), Bombay coast
(Arabian sea) (Chhapgar & Sane 1966, San-
thakumaran & Pillai 1970 as Acanthodesia
savartil)

Distribution:

It is a common species around the world

in warmer shallow waters.

Genus Conopeum Gray, 1848.
Conopeum reticulum (Linnaeus), 1767.
(Fig. 5)

Millepora reticulum Linnaeus, 1767: 1284.
Membranipora lacroixii Robertson, 1908:
261. |
Membranipora lacroixii var. triangulata

O’Donoghue, 1923:25. 7k
Conopeum reticulum Harmer, 1926: 211.
Conopeum reticulum Osburn, 1940:350;
19505 31k
Occurrence:
Several colonies collected from test panels
exposed at Trombay (Bombay harbour).

BRYOZOANS OF BOMBAY HARBOUR

Description:

Colonies form whitish unilaminar or multi-
laminar encrustations. Zooids moderate in
size, hexagonal to oval in shape, alternately
arranged and separated by distinct lines; Gym-
nocyst very much reduced and the opesia
occupies the whole of the frontal surface. The
gymnocyst bears the characteristic triangular
area at the proximal corners; short spines
seldom formed from both or one of these
areas: cryptocyst almost uniformly formed
around the opesia and its margin is characte-
ristically crenated with small tubercles on it.
Operculum strongly sclerited.

Measurements:
Lz(35)0.334(0.044)mm,; 0.234—0.437 mm.

0-3 MM

Pig. 5. Conopeum reticulum (Linnaeus)—Part of

a colony showing the arrangement of zooids and

the short spine arising from the triangular area.
A. Zooid. B. Spine.

1z(35)0.171(0.037)mm; 0.078—0.249 mm.
Lopes (35)0.307(0.039)mm:; 0.203—0.405
mm.

Remarks:

It is observed in the present specimens that
the growths from the triangular area assume
the form of short spines, not as tubercles as
described by Osburn in case of his specimens.
The cryptocyst showing conspicuous crenation
is another speciality of the present specimens.
Reproductive habits showed sperm liberation
through tentacles in this species also. At Trom-
bay this species is found to occur throughout
the year with peak settlhement during the post
monsoon period. It is found vertically distri-
buted from low water level up to mud level.
Previous records from Indian waters:

From Chilka Jake (Bay of Bengal) (Annan-
dale 1907).

Distribution:

In American waters it is recorded from
Alaska to Southern California (Osburn 1950)
and in Europe this species extends from Ska-
gerrak and Kattegat down the Atlantic coast
and possibly into Mediterranean (Ryland
1965).

Family ELECTRINIDAE d’Orbigny, 1851
Genus Electra Lamouroux, 1816.
Electra bengalensis (Stoliczka), 1869.
(Fig. 6)

Membranipora bengalensis Stoliczka, 1869:

Dap

Membranipora bengalensis Thornely, 1907:

186.

Electra anomala Osburn, 1950:36.

Flectra bengalensis Cook, 1968b:
Occurrence :

Several colonies collected from test panels
immersed at Trombay (Bombay port).
Description:

Delicate colonies forming whitish unilami-
nar or multilaminar encrustations or bushy

141.

323

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 78

clumps; zooids smooth, relatively large in size,
quadrangular in shape and separated by thin
lines; gymnocyst most pronounced at proximal
part and extends distally in such a way as to
form an oval opesia abruptly narrowing at
the base of the operculum; marginal spines
vary in number from 10 to 20 and of different
size also, depending on the age of zooids. In
older zooids, they form a roof above the
frontal membrane: two short spines always
oresent on either side of the operculum, look-
ing as if arising from the distal zooids; a pair
of characteristic spines, which ramify into
branches in course of growth, present on the

0-3 MM

Fig. 6. Electra bengalensis (Stoliczka)—Part of a
colony showing arrangements of the zooids and
multibranched spines on the operculum.

A. Zooid. B. Multibranched spine.

324

frontal surface of the semicircular operculum;
cryptocyst not evident.

Measurements:

Lz (31)0.614(0.05)mm; 0.468—0.702 mm.
Iz (31)0.283(0.03)mm; 0.218—0.327 mm.
lop (38)0.143(0.01)mm; 0.124—0.156 mm.
Lopes (31)0.543(0.037)mm; 0.436—0.6 mm.

Remarks:

A special feature noticed in the present
specimens is the multibranched nature of the
paired spines present on the operculum in
older zooids, whereas previous authors have
mentioned bifurcated ones for their specimens.
It may be a geographic variation or previous
authors might have observed insufficiently
grown colonies. Sperm liberation is through
tentacles. At Trombay, this species occurs
throughout the year with peak settlement
during the post-monsoon period. It is found
vertically distributed from low water level up
to mud level at this place.

Previous records from Indian waters:

Port Canning ponds (Stoliczka): Snod Island
(Thornely 1907); Visakhapatnam harbour
(Ganapati & Satyanarayanan Rao 1968) (all
from Bay of Bengal), Bombay harbour (San-
thakumaran & Pillai 1970) (Arabian sea).

Distribution:
Balboa (Osburn 1950), Bay of Panama
(Powell 1971), West Africa (Cook 1968a).

Suborder—ASCOPHORA Levinsen, 1909.
Family—SMITTINAE Levinsen, 1909.
Genus—Smittina Norman, 1903.

Smittina smittiella Osburn, 1947.

(Fig. 7)
Escharella landsborovi var. minuscula Smitt,
1873: 690.
Smittina sp. (Marcus), 1938:44.
Smittina smittiella Osburn, 1947:37.
Smittina smittiella Osburn, 1952:404.

BRYOZOANS OF BOMBAY HARBOUR

Occurrence:

A few colonies obtained from a big vertebra
(possibly of whale) collected at 10 fathoms
from Bombay.

Description:

Colonies form light brownish unilaminar or
multilaminar encrustations with tubular ex-
pansions of zooids formed from them. Zooids
distinct; rectangular and serially arranged.
Frontal a tremocyst with a network of pores
borne on small tubercles all over, numbering
about 50; orifice almost circular, slightly wider
than long with a pair of very delicate condy-
les. A broad lyrula with laterally projecting
corners present. Orifice surrounded by a fairly
raised collar. Secondary orifice has inward pro-
jections on its proximal side due to the pre-

0-3 MM

Smittina smittiella Osburn—Part of a colony

Fig. 7.
showing arrangements of zooids and the suboral
avicularium.

A. Zooid. B. Suboral avicularium.

sence of avicularia on it. Distal wall visible
through the orifice due to its proximal incli-
nation. Usually three suboral avicularia pre-
sent on the proximal part of orifice—two
laicrals and one median; avicularia somewhat
triangular with the frontal portion projecting
into the secondary aperture and the rostrum
directed away from the orifice. Lateral wall
has 2 rows of communication pores, each hav-
ing 6 pores. Distal wall with 4-6 pores scat-
tered near the base.

Measurements:

Lz(25)0.477(0.05)mm; 0.343—0.561 mm.

1z(25)0.227(0.02)mm,; 0.187—0.265 mm.

1Lo(25)0.083(0.006)mm; 0.078—0.094 mm.

lo(25)0.089(0.008)mm,; 0.078—0.101 mm.

Lav(25)0.046(0.002)mm; 0.043—0.050 mm.
Remarks:

The present specimens agree in size and
main features with Osburn’s description
(1947). However, the serrations or denticula-
tions on the tip of the rostrum reported by
him is absent in the present ones. Another
difference noticed is the presence of three
suboral avicularia on most of the zooids. These
specimens do not show ovicell also. Perhaps
it was collected before attaining sexual matu-
rity.

Previous record from Indian waters:

This is the first record of this species from
Indian waters.

Distribution:

Carribean sea, Florida, eastern Pacific (Os-
burn 1952). Bay of Santos, Brazil (Marcus
1938). |

Genus—Parasmittina Osburn, 1952.
Parasmittina crosslandi serrata (subsp. nov.)
(Fig. 8)
Diagnosis:
A subspecies of Parasmittina crosslandi with
orifice possessing serrated anter, devoid of
lyrula and with nonporous ovicells.

325

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Description:

Zoarium whitish, forming unilaminar or
multilaminar encrustations with tubular ex-
pansions often formed from them; zooids
quadrate to hexagonal in shape, arranged in
quincunx, separated by vague calcareous lines.
Frental a granular pleurocyst having a row
of areolar pores and occasionally additional
pores at the distal part, totally numbering be-
tween 10 and 20. Orifice oblong, with delicate
condyles dividing it into a semicircular anter
and a slightly curved poster. Margin of the
anter serrated into ‘teeth’ numbering between
11 and 14. Lyrula absent. Orificial collar of
moderate height, discontinuous proximally
giving rise to two or three upward projections,
making the secondary orifice irregular in shape.

Avicularia of various sizes, ‘lingulate’, locat-
ed proximal to the orifice. Rostrum mostly
directed proximally, occasionally laterally also.
A few zooids showed more than one avicul-
arium.

WwW &-0

Bre. Nouinee = ;
Leal
4
0.5 mn

Fig. 8. Parasmittina crosslandi serrata (subsp. nov.)
A. Part of colony showing arrangement of zooids.
B. Orifice showing the anter with ‘Serrations’.
C. Avicularium. D. Ovicell. E. Zooid.

2
i)
N

Ovicells hyperstomial, globular and partially
embedded in the succeeding zooids. Small
tubercles found all over.

Lateral wall with one row of 6 to 8 septula
and distal wall with one row of 4 to 6 septula.
Pores comparatively large in size.
Measurements:

1z(25)0.422(0.050)mm,; 0.280—0.520 mm.

1z(25)0.310(0.043)mm; 0.240—0.400mm.

L.0(25)0.105(0.012)mm; 0.080—0.120 mm.

1o(25)0.115(0.009)mm; 0.090—0.120 mm.

Lov(25)0.142(0.018)mm; 0.120—0.160 mm.

lov(25)0.174(0.018)mm; 0.160—0.200 mm.

lav (25): FURL OEES eer 0.120—0.320 mm.
Comparison:

In general size and features the present spe-
cimens resemble Parasmittina crosslandi Hast-
ings (1930) very much. It possesses the ‘lin-
gulate *type of avicularia as reported by Os-
burn (1952). The configuration of the orifi-
cial collar is also more or less of the same
pattern. However, the important difference
observed is the presence of the teeth-like ser-
rations on the border of the anter. This is a
unique feature, so far not reported for any
other species of this genus. The present speci-
mens do not possess a lyrula also, further dif-
ferentiating it from P. crosslandi. Yet another
difference is the absence of pseudopores on
ovicells.

Material:

A number of colonies obtained from a big
vertebra (possibly of whale) collected at 10
fathoms from Bombay (19°05S’N and 72°38’E).
Type specimens:

Holotype and paratype are deposited in the
collection of Wood Preservation Centre
(Marine) of the Forest Research Institute, at
Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Bom-
bay-400 061.

BRYOZOANS OF BOMBAY HARBOUR

Family—HIPPoporINIDAE Bassler, 1935.

Genus—Hippoporina Neviani, 1895.

Hippoporina porosa (Verrill), 1879.

(Fig. 9)

E'scharella pertusa? (Esper) Verrill, 1875:

41.

Escharina porosa Verrill, 1879: 193.

Lepralia pertusa (Esper) Osburn, 1912: 214.

? Hippodiplosia pertusa (Esper) Hastings,

1930: 724.

Hippodiplosia

933°. 41)

Hippoporina porosa Maturo & Schopf,

1968: 48.

Occurrence:

A number of colonies found encrusted on a
bi& vertebra (possibly of whale) collected at
10 fathoms from Bombay.

Description:

Colonies form reddish brown unilaminar or
multilaminar encrustations with tubular ex-
pansions of the zooids often formed from it.
Zooids distinct, rectangular to hexagonal in
shape and arranged serially; frontal a tremo-

pertusa (Esper) Osburn,

@

0-3 MM

Rig.) 9, (Verrill)—Part of

Hippoporina porosa
colony showing arrangement of zooids.
A. Zooid. B. Ovicell.

cyst with a network of 50 to 70 pores; orifice
almost round, slightly wider than long, bipar-
tite by strong condyles into large semicircular
anter and small crescentic poster; avicularium
absent; ovicells hyperstomial, prominent, glo-
bose and are perforated by small pores; lateral
wall with two rows of communication pores
nuinbering from 6-8 and distal wall with 8-12
communication pores scattered all round.
Measurements:

Lz(26)0.497(0.071)mm; 0.360—0.640 mm.
1z(26)0.358(0.036)mm; 0.280—0.400 mm.
Lo(25)0.139(0.019)mm; 0.120—0.160 mm.
1o(25)0.159(0.019)mm; 0.120—0.200 mm.
Lov(21)0.350(0.032)mm; 0.280—0.400 mm.
lov(21)0.392(0.022)mm; 0.320—0.420 mm.
Remarks:
This species was erected by Verrill in 1879

as Escharina porosa for the material he col-
lected in 1874 and first described in 1875 as
being possibly representative of Escharella
pertusa (Esper). Later, in 1912, Osburn des-
cribed it as a synonym of Cellepora pertusa
Esper, 1796, the type genus of Hippoporina
Neviani, 1895. Recently Maturo & Schopf
(1968) re-examined the species described by
Verrill and commented that ‘“‘there are at
least five concepts of pertusa Esper, none of
which encompasses porosa Verrill”. Elucidat-
ing these points, they have confirmed the vali-
dity of Verrill’s species. The present speci-
mens agree in most of the features with the
photograph of Verrill’s specimens given in
Maturo and Schopf’s publication (Maturo &
Schopf 1968, p. 87, fig. 12A). Length and
width of the zooids and the nature of frontal
are very similar. However, dimensions of the
orifice and ovicells show slight differences. In
the present case the orifices are slightly smaller
and ovicells are slightly bigger than in Verrill’s
specimens. Nature of communication pores is
almost similar.
Previous records from Indian waters:

This is the first record of this species from
Indian waters.

327

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Distribution:

‘Vine Yard, Sound and Long Island Sound,
8 to 12 fathoms” (Verrill 1879) Gorgona,
Colombia, Galapagos Islands (Hastings 1930).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The present work was carried out at the
Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Bom-
bay, under the Centre of Wood Preservation

Branch, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.
The author is indebied to Mr. K. H. Alikunhi,
former FAO Project Manager, Indonesia for
suggesting the problem, to Prof. N. K. Velan-
kar, former Director, Central Institute of
Fisheries Education, Bombay for providing
facilities and to Dr. L. N. Santhakumaran,
Research Officer, Wood Preservation Centre,
Bombay for his co-operation.

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Ascophora. idem. 1/4 (2): 271-611.

—— (1953):
Ctenostomata Entoprocta and addenda.
(3): 613-841.

PEARSE, A. S. & WILLIAMS, L. G. (1951): The
biota of the reefs off the Carolinas. Jour. Elisha
Mitchella Sci. Soc., 67: 133-161.

PiLLal, S. R. M. (1978): A new species of Hip-
poporina (Ectoprocta, Ascophora) from Bombay
coast. Curr. Sci. 7 (2): 61-63.

PittAl, S. R. M. & SANTHAKUMARAN, L. N.
(1972): Two new records of Bryozoans from Indian
waters. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (3): 842-844.

PowELL, N. A. (1971): The marine Bryozoa near
the Panama Canal. Bull. Mar. Sci. 21 (3): 766-778.

ROBERTSON, A. (1908): The incrusting Cheilosto-
matous Bryozoa of the West Coast of North Ame-
rica. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 4: 253-344.

(1921): Report on the collection
of Bryozoa from Bay of Bengal and other eastern
seas. Rec. Indian Mus., 22 (8): 33-65.

RYLAND, J. S. (1965): Catalogue of main marine
fouling organisms, II Polyzoa. Report to O.E.C.D.:

ibid. Pt. HI Cyclostomata,
idem. 1/4

83 pp.
SANTHAKUMARAN, L. N. & PILLAI, S. R. M.
(1970): Marine foulers in Bombay waters: Barna-

cles & Polyzoans. CIFE Annual Day Souvenir: 32-
34.

*SMITT, F. A. (1873): Floridian Bryozoa, Col-
lected by count. L. F. de pourtales. Pt. II Kongal.
Svenska Vetensk. Akad. Handl. 11 (4): 1-84.

SroLiczkKa, F. (1869): Anatomy of Sagartia
schilleriana and Membranipora bengalensis. Journ.
Asiat. Soc. Bengal. Pt. II, XXXVIII: 55.

THORNELY, L. R. (1907): Report on the marine
Polyzoa in the collection of Indian museum. Rec.
Indian. Mus. 1: 179-196.

VERRILL, A. E. (1875): Brief contribution to
zoology from the Museum of Yale College. No.
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New England Coast in 1874. Amer. J. Sci. Ser. 3,
10: 36-43.

(1878): In: Coues and Yarrow,
1878. Notes on the natural history of Fort Macon.
North Carolina and vicinity. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philadelphia: 304-305.

—-——__—_—— (1879): Notice of recent addition
to the marine invertebrata of the north-eastern coast
of America with descriptions of a new genera and
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Nat. Mus. Proc. 2:165-205.
-_—_—_—_——— (1901): Recent papers on to the
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J. Sci. Ser. 4, 71: 326-330.

329

SPECIES OF CHIONANTAHUS SW. (= LINOCIERA SW.)
(OLEACEAE) IN THE INDO-BURMESE REGION’

K. Kk. N. Nair AND K. P. JANARDHANAN”

INTRODUCTION

Linociera Sw. (Schreb. Gen. 2: 784, 1791)
is a tropical genus and the species under it
occurring in Indo-Burmese region had been
referred earlier under either Linociera Sw.
(Clarke 1882, Prain 1903, Cooke 1908, Duthie
1911, Haines 1922, Gamble 1923, Alston 1931,
Kanjilal e¢ al. 1939, Abeywickrama 1959) or
Chionanthus Linn. (Roxburgh 1820, Thwaites
1860, Beddome 1871, Kurz 1877).

Recently, W. T. Stearn (1976), based ‘on
a survey of the morphological and palynolo-
gical characters in a diversity of the species
from America, Africa and Asia, has consider-
ed these two as congeneric, thus confirming
the earlier observation of Thwaites (1860)
that there seems scarcely any ground for
separating Linociera as a genus distinct from
Chionanthus. Accordingly, Chionanthus Linn.
with the type species Chionanthus virginicus
Linn. is the valid name for the combined
taxon. Various taxa belonging to the genus
Chionanthus Linn. in India, Burma and Sri
Lanka together with their range of distribu-
tion is enumerated below. In order to make
the nomenclature up-to-date, 12 nomenclatu-
ral combinations have also been proposed.

Chionanthus

Linn. Sp. Pl: 35,8. 1753ap@en. jRlapeduy se
9, 1754. Species lectotypical: C. virginicus
Linn.

1 Accepted November 1979.

2 Jndustrial Section, Indian Museum, Botanical
Survey of India, Calcutta.

330

ENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES

. Chionanthus axillaris R. Br. Prodr. 523,

1810.

C. albidiflora Thw. Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 189,
1860. Linociera albidiflora (Thw.) Clarke
in) Hook. {, Fl Brit, India 35, 603. 1382;
Alston in Trim. Handb. FI. Ceylon 6
(suppl.): 189, 1931; Abeywickrama,
Ceylon J. Sci. 2(1): 210, 1950, Sri Lanka.

. Chionanthus axillaris R. Br. var. prostrata

(Thw.) Nair et Janardh. comb. nov.
Chionanthus prostrata Thw. Enum. PI.
Zeyl. 189, 1860. Linociera albidiflora
(Thw.) Clarke var. prostrata (Thw.)
Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 3: 608,
1882, Sri Lanka.

. Chionanthus leprocarpa Thw. Enum. PI.

Zeyl. 189, 1860; Bedd. For. Man. Bot.
154, 1872. Linociera leprocarpa (Thw.)
Clarke in Hook. f. in FI. Brit. India 3:
608, 1882; Alston in Trim. Handb. FI.
Ceylon 6 (suppl.); 189, 1931; Abeywic-
krama, (Ceylon Jv 7Sel, 2210s 1959)
Sri Lanka.

. Chionanthus leprocarpa Thw. var. court-

allensis (Bedd.) Nair et Janardh. comb.
nov. Chionanthus courtallensis Bedd. For.
Man. Bot. 155, 1872. India: S. India
(Kerala, Tamilnadu).

. Chionanthus linocieroides (Wt.) Nair et

Janardh. comb. nov. Olea_linocieroides
Wt. Icon. t. 1241, 1848. Linociera wightii
Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 3: 608,
1882; Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras 1(5):
794, 1923. Linociera linocieroides (Wt.)

SPECIES OF CHIONANTHUS

K. K. N. Nair (ined.). India: S. India

(Kerala, Tamilnadu).

. Chionanthus macrocarpa Bl. Mus. Bot.
Ind. Bat. 1: 319, 1850. C. insignis Miq.
Fl. Ind. Bat. suppl. 559, 1860. Linociera
insignis (Mig.) Clarke in Hook. f. FI.
Brit. India 3: 610, 1882. Chionanthus
montanus Kurz, For. Fl. Brit. Burma 2:
159, 1877 & in J. As. Soc. Bengal pt. 2:
243, 1877 (non BI.). Linociera montana G.
Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 53, 1887. Linociera
macrocarpa (Bl.) King et Gamble, J. As.
Soc. “Bengal: 74: 11... 1906. © Burma;
Sumatra.

. Chionanthus macrophylla Bl. Mus. Bot.
Lud. Bat. 1: 319, 1850. Linociera macro-
phylla (Bl.) Wall. ex G. Don, Gen. Syst.
A: 53, 1837: Clarke in. Hook. f. FI. Brit.
India 3: 610, 1882; Gamble, Fl. Pres.
Madras 2(5): 795, 1923; Kanyilal e¢ al.
Fl. Assam 3: 236, 1939. India: E. India
(Assam); §S. India (Andhra Pradesh,
Kerala, Tamilnadu); Burma.

. Chionanthus macrophylla Bl. var. atte-
nuata (Clarke) Nair et Janardh. comb.
nov. Linociera macrophylla Wall. ex G.
Don var. atienuata Clarke in Hook. f. FI.
Brit. India 3: 610, 1882. Linociera atte-
nuata Wall. Cat. no. 2239, 1831 (nom.
nud.). India: Andaman Islands; Burma.

. Chionanthus malabarica (Wall. ex G.
Don) Bedd. For. Man. Bot. 154, 1872
& Fl. Sylv. t. 239, 1872. Linociera mala-
barica wall. (Cat. no 2828, 1831. (nom.
nud.) ex G. Don Gen. Syst. 4: 53, 1837;
Wt. Icon. t. 1246, 1848; Clarke in Hook.
MoE. Brat. India 8: 607,, 1882; Cooke,
Fl. Pres. Bombay 2: 117, 1908; Haines,

Boer Bib. sé: (Onssa pt. 33, 528, 1922:
Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras 1(5): 794,
1923. India: (Maharashtra, Karnataka,

Kerala, Tamilnadu, Orissa).

10.

ie

ae

Chionanthus mimnutiflora Kurz, For. FI.
But, Burma: 2iis9s 1877 Savini J. As.
Soc. Begnal 1877, pt. 2: 243, 1877. Lino-
ciera minutiflora (Kurz) Clarke in Hook.
f. Fl. Brit. India 3: 610, 1882. Burma.

Chionanthus paniculata (Roxb.) Nair et
Janardh. comb. nov. Olea paniculata
Roxb. Fl. Ind. 1: 104, 1820 (non R. Br.
1810). Chionanthus smilacifolius Wall. ex
Roxb, Pind: 1108; 18205 Linociera
intermedia Wt. Icon. t. 1245, 1848; Clarke
in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 3: 609, 1882;
Haines, Bot.’ Bih, & Orissa pt. 3: 528;
1922; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras 2(5):
794, 1923. Chionanthus intermedia (Wt.)
Bedd- Fl. Sylv. (23927311871. Lineciera
paniculata (Roxb.) K. K. N. Nair (ined.).
India: S. India; Burma.

. Chionanthus paniculata (Roxb.) Nair et

Janardh. var. roxburghti (Spreng.) Nair
et Janardh. comb. nov. Olea roxburghii
Spreng. Syst. 1: 34, 1822. Olea roxbur-
ghiana Roem. & Schult. Syst. Veg. 1: 77,
1822. Linociera intermedia Wt. var. rox-
burghii (Spreng.) Clarke in Hook. f. FI.
Brit. India 3:609, 1882; Prain, Bengal PI.
i 76612, 1903; Cooke; FI. Pres.,,Bombay
22 il, 1903; "Duthie, Fl Upper Gang:
Pho 26, 1911; Haines, Bot. Bih, &
Orissa pt. 3: 528, 1922. India: (Andhra
Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,
Sub-Himalayan tracts, Maharashtra, Kar-
nataka).

Chionanthus parkinsonii (Hutch.) Nair et
Janardh. comb. nov. Linociera parkinsonii
Hutch. Kew Bull. 1919: 227, 1919. India:
Andaman Islands.

. Chionanthus pauciflora (Clarke) Nair et

Janardh. comb. nov. Linociera pauciflora
Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 3: 609,
1882. Olea pauciflora Wall. Cat. no. 2812
‘pt. a’, 1831 (nom. nud.). Malaya.

Bet

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

15. Chionanthus pauciflora (Clarke) Nair et
Janardh. var. evolutior (Clarke) Nair et
Janardh. comb. nov. Linociora pauciflora
Clarke var. evolutior Clarke in Hook. f.
Fl. Brit. India 3: 609, 1882. India: Anda-
man Islands; Burma; Malaya.

16. Chionanthus pauciflora (Clarke) Nair et
Janardh. var. palembanica (Miq.) Nair et
Janardh. comb. nov. Chionanthus palem-
banica Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. Suppl. 558, 1860;
Kurz, For. Fl. Brit. Burma 2: 159, 1877
é& in J. As. Soc. Bengal 1877, t. 2: 243,
1877. Linociera paucijlora Clarke, var.
palembanica Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit.

India 3: 609, 1882. India: Andaman
Islands: Burma.
i7. Chionanthus terniflora (Kurz) Griff.

Notul. 4: 740, 1854. Olea terniflora Kurz,
For. Fl. Brit. Burma 2: 157, 1877 & in
J. As. Soc. Bengal 1877; pt. 2: 244, 1877.
Linociera terniflora (Kurz) Wall. ex
Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 3: 610,
1882; Prain, Bengal Pl. 1: 661, 1903;
Kanjilal e¢ al. Fl. Assam 3: 236, 1939.
India: Assam; Bangladesh; Burma.

18. Chionanthus ternifiora (Kurz) Griff. var.
acuminata (Clarke) Nair et Janardh.

comb. nov. Linociera terniflora (Kutz)
Wall. ex Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India
3: 610, 1882. Burma.

19. Chionanthus zeylanica Linn. Sp. Pl. 8,
1753; Thw. Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 188, 1860;
Roxb. Fl. Ind. 1: 36, 1820. Linociera pur-
purea Vahl, Enum. 1: 47, 1804; Clarke
in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 3: 608, 1882.
Linociera zeylanica (Linn.) Gamble, FI.
Pres. Madras 2(5): 794, 1923; Alston in
Trim. Handb. Fl. Ceylon 6 (suppl.): 189,
1931; Abeywickrama, Ceylon J. Sci. 2(1):
210, 1950. Thouinia natans Linn. f. Suppl.
89, 1781. India: S. India (Andhra Pra-
desh, Kerala, Tamilnadu); Sri Lanka.

20. Chionanthus zeylanica Linn. var. dicho-

toma (Wall. ex Clarke) Nair et Janardh.
comb. nov. Linociera purpurea Vahl var.
dichotoma Wall. (Cat. no. 2825, 1831.
(nom. nud.) ex Clarke in Hook. f. FI.
Brit. India 3: 608, 1882. Sri Lanka.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to the Director, Botanical
Survey of India, Howrah-3 for providing
necessary facilities.

REFERENCES

ABEYWICKRAMA, B. A. (1959):
check-list of the flowering plants of Ceylon. Ceylon
J. Sci. (Biol. Sci.) 2 (2): 119-240.

ALsTon, A. H. G. (1931): Trimen’s A Hand-
book to the Flora of Ceylon, Supplement (vol. 6).
London.

BEDDOME, R. H. (1871): The Flora Sylvatica for
Southern India. vol. 2. Madras.

CLARKE, C. B. (1882): Family Oleaceae in J. D.
Hooker’s ‘The Flora of British India” vol. 3.
London.

Cooke, T. (1908): The Flora of Presidency of
Bombay, vol. 2, London.

Dutuie, J. F. (1911): The Flora of the Upper
Garigetic Plain and the adjacent Siwalik and Sub-
Himalayan tracts, vol. 2, Calcutta.

332

A provisional

GAMBLE, J. S. (1923): The Flora of the Presidency ©
of Madras. vol. 2. London.
Haines, H. H. (1922): The Botany of Bihar and —
Orissa, pt. 3. London. |
KANJILAL, U. eft al.
vol. 3, Calcutta.
Kurz, S. (1877): Forest Flora of British Burma, |
vol. 2, Calcutta. |
RoxpurGH, W. (1820): Flora Indica (ed. Carey —
& Wallich), vol. 1. Serampore. |
STEARN, T. WILLIAMS (1976): Union of Chio-—
nanthus and Linociera (Oleaceae). Ann. Mo. Bot. |
Gard. 63 (2): 355-357. |
Tuwalites, G. H. K. (1860): Enumeratio Plan- |
tarum Zeylaniae. London. |

(1939): Flora of Assam. |

|
|

MADHYA PRADESH FORESTS REVISITED!

C. E. HEWETSON?,®
(With a plate)

In the recent cold weather of 1980-81 I
spent two months in India for part of the
time as a guest of the Forest Departments
ot Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. I
had come out after 25 years retirement to
re-visit the Forests in which I had worked
since 1926, naturally my wife and I looked
forward to renewing our acquaintance with
the beautiful and engaging bird population of
the plains of India.

On our first morning in Delhi in the attrac-
tively placed International Centre and the ad-
jacent Lodi Gardens, we were reminded at once
how beautiful are many of the commonest
birds. Who can deny the thrill of seeing their
first flock of parrakeets, flashing in the sun-
light and hearing their exuberant calls? Or
the perkiness of the Mynahs as they strut
about your feet? How smart the White Breast-
ed Kingfisher is and how good to relish again
the wicked and predatory look of the crows,
how commonplace to the native, how delight-
ful to the returning visitor!

In 1956 I had contributed an article* publish-
ed in the Journal of the Bombay Natural His-
tory Society recording my observations of the
birds of the old Central Provinces for the 29
years J had served in the state. As we journey-
ed south from Delhi to Bhopal, the Satpura
Forests and on to Nagpur and then to Chanda

and the Melghat, we kept a record of the

1 Accepted April 1981.
| “Longcross Farm, Headley. Newbury. Berks,
_ England.

3 The author was the last serving British forest
officer in India after Independence. He retired in

birds seen and clearly identified. As we were
mostly taken about by the Forest Department
who were eager to show their work, we did
not have time to walk about a great deal in
the forest and as we were usually accompani-
ed by a number of Forest Officers we did
not have the leisure to walk quietly and to sit
down and listen to the bird calls which is
one of the best ways to find out what birds
are present. I had made the point in my article
that after years of short rainfall such as 1951-
53 the bird population was very reduced par-
ticularly of the insect eating birds. I under-
stand that in the last 10 years there have been
years of deficient rainfall, the most recent be-
ing 1978, and that the rains finished abruptly
in 1980. The cold weather was also the time
when there were fewer birds in Central India
both by species and numbers. So our record
of birds seen is only of small scientific value
but may have some interest as one man’s view
after 25 years of absence.

One of the birds I looked forward to seeing
particularly was the Whitebrowed Fantail
Flycatcher (Leucocirca aureola Lesson) re-
corded by me in 1958 “‘as one of the com-
monest and most widely spread birds of the
state found in all places where there are some
trees and woody growth’. I had always en-
joyed its grace and the cheerful dancing mo-
tions which perhaps have a biological purpose

1955 as Chief Conservator of Forests of the former
‘Central Provinces’-—Ebs.

4 Observations on the bird life of Madhva Pra-
desh. Vol. 53(4): 595-645.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

but to humans an added and aesthetic plea-
sure. We did not see a single specimen in all
our travels and one wonders whether this was
a chance failure or less the bird become rare
or extinct in part of its range? We saw the
allied species the Whitespotted Fantail (R.
pectoralis) on three occasions, once in a deep
ravine on the Pachmarhi Plateau, once in Alla-
palli and once in the Melghat but this was in
line with my previous observations that it was
a species of deep forest.

Another of the colourful and fascinating
common birds, the Blue Jay or Roller was not
recorded until we were well into Madhya Pra-
desh and I feared this was another species
on the decline but subsequently we saw it in
normal numbers.

On the other hand many of the other com-
mon species were seen in great numbers.
Wherever we went in the forest we saw nume-
rous familtes of Jungle Babblers and_ the
Common Babbler in more open country. Com-
mon Mynahs were everywhere, and at places
we saw great numbers of the Spotted Dove
and the Ring Dove. Particularly at the Bharat-
pur Sanctuary and round Delhi one could
quite see why the Ring Dove had found it
expedient to move out and colonise Europe.
Two other birds which we saw everywhere
and in good numbers were the Magpie Robin,
even in the Forest, and the Indian Robin.

The game birds are a group of birds which
have benefitted from the high price of cartrid-
ges and the end of prestige shooting parties.
That Bharatpur should have become an inter-
nationally famous sanctuary is evident to any-
one fortunate enough to visit it, but elsewhere
wherever we went we could see large parties
of ducks of many different species serenely
and quietly resting during the day and ob-
viously with little fear of man. I was particu-
larly pleased to see that the Spotbill was found
in good numbers. I had noticed in 1956 that

ee)
Oo
is

I had recorded it in only one district and said
“it is the sort of bird which might disappear
altogether without anyone being sure when
the last bird was seen’. The Peafowl and
Jungle Fowl have also benefitted from the
reduction in small game beats and we saw
them plentifully in the Forest and in cultiva-
tion—and both the Red and Grey Jungle
Fowl.

It was not until we were at Bharatpur and
saw several family parties of Sarus Crane that
I realised I had not seen any birds in Madhya
Pradesh or Maharashtra though we travelled
many miles in the rice growing districts of
Bhandara, Balaghat and Chanda. Let us hope
this was only a piece of bad luck on our part
as the great expansion of irrigation and build-
ing of many new tanks should have increased
their potential feeding grounds, but perhaps
the abrupt end to the rains in Central India
in September 1980 may have caused them
to move to moister areas. Species which have
obviously benefitted from the great expansion
of irrigation both from reservoirs and wells
have been the Egrets. We saw them every-
where even in Rajasthan and Delhi District.

Some other species which I looked forward
to seeing we did not record, but as they were
always rather irregular in distribution it may
have no significance. For instance the Brah-
miny Kite was recorded by me as “‘resident
and well-distributed throughout the State’. I
had always admired his rather tasteful brown
and grey plumage and he was one of the birds
I had looked forward to seeing. Another fav-
ourite bird was the Indian Crested Swift
(Hemiprocne coronata) which I had recorded
as “‘a very regularly distributed bird in nearly
all the Forests of the State’’. It is a particu-
larly graceful flyer and fascinating when it
skims the water to drink, and one can admire
a bird which has evolved such a miniature
nest only large enough to hold one egg and

i

PLATE

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 7&

Hewetson

Madhya Pradesh forests

Sal forest

Teak forest

Say

AD
apart

MADHYA PRADESH FORESTS REVISITED

consisting of scraps of bark and feather gum-
med together with saliva.

If such relatively common species can_be-
come difficult to see, what about birds already
recorded with an irregular distribution? Look-
ing back at my notes several species are
brought to mind which I saw only in a few
localities. Such as the Emerald Dove, the Bank
Mynah, the Jungle Mynah, the Indian Grackle
and the Green Munia (Estrilda formosa).

It seems quite possible that small isolated
colonies of such species might die out with
no one to remark on their disappearance. We
need observers all over India who could re-
cord their bird watching particularly on such
species as noted above. However expert in
Forestry, I met few officers who could re-
cognise any but the most common birds, and
a few who had gained a reputation for know-
ing about birds proved in conversation to be
of doubtful value. The example of a bird like
Jerdon’s Courser (Cursorius bitorquatus) is a
case in point. The bird has not been recorded
since 1900 and was only described from a
very restricted range in the Deccan. With wild
life conservation becoming a subject on its
own and a separate Department, it may be
hoped that officers in the serivce may be en-
couraged to learn to identify birds and to be
aware of which species are at risk to the same
extent as the animals.

Which turns my mind to the animal popu
Jation and the number of different species you
could see in 1926 when I first came to India.
I was in time to see herds of Black Buck
and Chinkara in the fields as one travel-
led in the train from Bombay. When I

fist) jomed = the service im the Forests): of
the old Central Provinces it must be
admitted that the major subject of con-

versation was Shikar. The main concern of
the Forest Staff was protection and exploita-
tion was only just beginning to be important.

Large parts of the Forest were unworkable at
a profit due to distance from market or lack
of roads. The needs of the local population
were met from the Malaguzari forests. Coupes
were usually sold standing to contractors and
illicit fellings were uncommon as supervision
could be strict. The Forest Officer could tour
for months with a secure feeling that nothing
was likely to interrupt his leisurely progress
through the Forest unless it was a fire when
he would consider it his duty to lead his
subordinates and villagers to put it out.

Naturally there were parts of the Forest
where Carnivora were not to be found, but
Tigers were found in most places and the
favorite tiger territories were well known and
if the terrain was suitable for beats the officer
would arrange his touring to get some days’
halt at such places.

The best blocks were sometimes reserved
for District Officers but there were regular
applications by people coming to shoot. Per-
haps the majority were Army officers but also
businessmen came. There would usually be a
limit placed on the number of animals to be
shot. Only Stags could be killed but game of
all species could be seen and were not any-
thing especially to be remarked. The carni-
vores had only the officers and block holders
to fear as there were few crop protection
licences and guns were called in at the end
of the harvest. Now with many guns in the
villages and knowledge of how to poison kills
and other lethal devices, even an official ban
on tiger shooting and on the trade in trophies
may not be effective and one can well imagine
that tigers and panthers may face many more
dangers than 50 years ago. To be effective,
protection has to be well organised and not
dependent only on the Law.

I was impressed by the logical way they have
proceeded in the Kanha National Park in
Madhya Pradesh. They have persuaded the

335

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

villages within the park to accept land in vil-
lages outside and have resettled them with new
houses and land. This has removed two sources
of danger to wild life. There is no longer dam-
age to the villagers’ crops by the deer and less
chance of the tigers falling victims to poison
or village traps. The deer can increase and
provide sufficient prey to support a_ viable
population of Tigers. On the other hand in
the Melghat Tiger Project in Maharashtra
there are many large villages which cannot be
resettled and only a small part which they
call the ‘Core’ is sufficiently remote for the
Tigers to be left undisturbed for breeding and
safe from villagers. However though this is a
tract of great natural beauty with steep slopes
it seems unlikely to carry a great number of
Herbivores and consequently can support only
a few Tigers. In this wild country we were
rewarded by seeing a male of the Paradise Fly-
catcher. My wife had only seen the bird once
before and this was an unlooked for bonus
as I had previously noted it was more com-
mon as a summer migrant. Its beauty is so
outstanding that one can in retrospect recall
the place where the bird is seen even many
years after.

So I look back on a wonderful two months
in India and again [ am filled with admiration
of the Animal and Bird population. There are

336

so many beautiful birds and there is still so
much to be learnt about their status and breed-
ing. There is the constant threat to the habitat
as the human and cattle population increases,
but there does seem to be a greater awareness
of the Wild Life than when I was in India
25 years ago.

I hope interest in the birds will increase in
the schools and colleges so that sufficient bird
watchers will be found all over the country
to monitor the changes in the population and
the status of individual birds: and to add
numerous correspondents bombarding _ the
Bombay Natural History Society with infor-
mation and details of many species.

Finally I must refer to the actions of the
Forest Development Corporations and Forest
Departments in the conversion of the natural
mixed forests to pure plantations of teak, sal
or even kucalyptus spp. This must have an
effect on the populations of different bird spe-
cies and animals in a way which cannot be
forecast. I am sure all conservationists would
like to see significant belts of the natural forest
left between blocks of plantations so as to
maintain the environment to which different
species are adapted and to help control the
damage done by insect pests in large stretches
of pure plantations.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ON SOME NEW SPECIES OF TETRASTICHUS HALIDAY
(HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDABF)'

M. YouNUS KHAN AND S. ADAM SHAFEE?
(With three text-figures)

Tetrastichus indicus sp. nov. .
(Fig. 1, A-L)
Female

HEAD (Fig. 1 A).—Dark brown, wider than
long in facial view (0.39:0.28 mm); front-
overtex much wider, more than one-half the
total head width; ocelli white, arranged in ob-
tuse triangle, lateral ocelli more than their
own diameters from orbital margin and less
than their own diameters from occipital mar-
gin; eves red and smooth: antennae inserted
at lower level of eyes; prominence between
antennal sockets one-third the width of frons
between eyes: malar space longer than eye
width; malar sutures distinct; lower margin
of clypeus without dents medially; mandibles
tridentate with apical tooth acute, mesal
rounded and lower rudimentary (fig. 1 B);
maxillary and labial palpi each 1-segmented
(ie. 1D).

ANTENNAE (Fig. 1 C).—Yellowish brown,
8-segmented excluding one ring segment; scape
cylindrical, four times as long as wide (0.12:
0.03 mm), longer than basal two funicle seg-
ments together; pedicel twice as long as wide,
slightly longer than first funicle segment; funi-
cle 3-segmented, segments 1-3 gradually de-
creasing in length distad; first funicle segment
one and a half times as long as wide, second
slightly longer than wide, third as long as

1 Accepted July 1980.

“Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

wide; club 3-segmented, slightly more than
two times as long as wide, longer than pre-
ceding two funicle segments together. |

THORAX (Fig. 1 E).—-Dark brown; pro-
notum with posterior margin slightly concave
and with 4 pairs of setae, anterior margin con-
cave in middle (fig. 1 G); parapsidal furrows
complete; scutum with a _ mid-longitudinal
groove and 3 setae in single row near each
parapsidal furrow; scutellum slightly shorter
than scutum with two submedian grooves and
two pairs of setae, posterior margin rounded;
each parapside with single seta; mesopost-
phragma not reaching beyond the propodeum:;
propodeum with a well developed median
carina.

FORE WINGS (Fig. 1 F).—Hyaline, slightly
less than two and a half times as long as wide,
apex broadly rounded; costal cell as long as
marginal vein and with 2 small setae; sub-
marginal and marginal veins with | and 8
setae respectively; postmarginal vein absent;
marginal fringe short, spaced by a distance
equal to one-fourth their length.

HIND WINGS.—Hyaline, six times as long
as wide (0.74:0.12 mm); marginal fringe long,
one-half the wing width, spaced by a distance
equal to one-sixth their length.

LEGS.—Yellow except coxae and pretarsus
which are brownish; tarsi 4-segmented; pretar-
sus longer than tarsal segments 1-3 separately;
middle tibial spur shorter than basitarsus.

ABDOMEN (Fig. 1 H)—-Yellow except late-

337,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 78

ety tae

'
!
i}

!
Vy

O-l2mm

Fis: J A-L.” Tetrastichus indicus ‘sp; nov... 23736. (A) deads im facial views ae:

(B) Mandible, 9; (C) Antenna, 2; (D) Maxillary and labial palpi, 2; (E) Propo-

deum and part of thorax in dorsal view, @; (F) Fore wing, 9; (G) Pronotum, @;

(H) Abdomen in lateral view, 2; (1) First valvifer, 2; (J) Second valviter and
third valvula. 9; (K) Outer plate of ovipositor, @; (L) Antenna, ¢.

338

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ral and apical portions of dorsum which are
dark brown, as long as head and thorax to-
gether (0.56:0.56 mm); ovipositor concealed,
arising from base of abdominal venter; first
valvifers triangular with basal and apical ang-
les at different levels (fig. 1 1); second valvi-
fers long, more or less of uniform width, third
valvulae movably articulated with second val-
vifers (fig. 1 J); outer plates of ovipositor
shorter than the length of second valvifers and
third valvulae together, narrow at apex (fig.
| Ky.

Female length: 1.13 mm.

Male antennae as shown in (fig. I L).

Holotype @, INDIA: Tamil Nadu, Madurai,
ex Mealy bugs on Cassia sp., 9.101.1975 (M.
Younus Khan).

Paratypes. 5 ¢, 3 3& (Same data as holo-
type).

Tetrastichus aligarhensis sp. nov.
(Fig. 2, A-J)

Female

Resembles 7. indicus except in the follow-
ing characters:

HEAD.—Dark with metallic reflections; eyes
reddish brown; prominence between antennal
sockets one-fourth the width of frons between
eyes; malar space about as long as eye width:
lower margin of clypeus with two dents me-
dially.

ANTENNAE (Fig. 2 B).—Brown except scape
which is yellow; scape three and a half times
as long as wide, as long as funicle; pedicel
less than twice as long as wide, distinctly longer
than first funicle segment; first funicle segment
slightly longer than wide, second and third as
long as wide; club slightly more than twice
as long as wide.

THORAX.—Dark with metallic reflections;
pronotum with posterior submarginal ridge
bearing 4 pairs of setae, antero-lateral angles
obtuse and laterally directed (fig. 2 C); scu-

tum slightly Jonger than wide and with 7 setae
near each parapsidal furrow; each parapside
with 6 setae; scutellum more than one-half
the length of scutum.

FORE WINGS.—Slightly more than twice as
long as wide (0.93:0.44 mm); costal cell with
7 setae; submarginal and marginal veins with
2 and 9 setae respectively (fig. 2 E); disc with
a line of setae running beneath the cubital
hair line.

LEGS.—Yellow except coxae which are dark
with metallic reflections.

ABDOMEN.—Dark with metallic reflections;
ovipositor arising from apical one-third of ab-
dominal venter; third valvulae short, triangular,
less than twice as long as wide, about one-
fifth the length of second valvifers (fig. 2 G);
outer plates of ovipositor slightly longer than
second valvifers and third valvulae together
(fig. 2 H):; subgenital plate more or less of
uniform width, posterior margin with a notch
in middle (fig. 2 I).

Female length: 1.13 mm.

Male antennae as shown in (fig. 2 J).

Holotype °, INDIA: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh
University Agricultural Farm, ex Pulvinaria
sp. on Azadirachta indica, 10.v.1977 (M. You-
nus Khan).

Paratypes. 2 2, 1 & (same data as holo-
type).
Tetrastichus ajmerensis sp. nov.
(Fig, 2, K-S)
Female

Resembles 7. indicus except in the follow-
ing characters:

HEAD.—Eyes silvery white; prominence be-
tween antennal sockets one-sixth the width of
frons between eyes: lower margin of clypeus
with two dents medially.

ANTENNAE (Fig. 2 K).—Yellowish: scape
three and a half times as long as wide (0.1:
0.03 mm); pedicel one and a half times as long

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

QO-O8 mm

Pig. 2. A-J. Tetrastichus aligarhensis sp. nov., 2, 6: (A) Mandible, 2; (B) Antenna,

2; (C) Pronotum, 2; (D) Sculpture of scutum, 2; (E) Fore wing venation, 2°;

(F) First valvifer, 9: (G) Second valvifer and third valvula, 2; (H) Outer plate
Ci ovipositom 2: Cl) Subgsenital “plate, 2777") Anitennal aa =

K-S. Tetrastichus ajmorensis sp. nov., 2, 6: (K) Antenna, 2; (L) Propodeum and

part of thorax in dorsal view, 2; (M) Pronotum, 2; (N) Fore wing venation, 9;

(O) First valvifer, 2; (P) Second valvifer and third valvula, 2; (Q) Outer plate
of Gvipositor, 2; (R) Subgenital plate, 2; (S) Antenna, ¢.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

as wide; two ring segments distinct; funicle
segments 1-3 slightly longer than wide, first
shorter than second and third separately; club
three times as long as wide (0.12:04 mm).

THORAX (Fig. L.).—Brownish; posterior mar-
gin of pronotum straight, posterior submarginal
ridge distinct bearing 6 pairs of setae (fig. 2
M): scutellum about one-half the length of
scutum; submedian grooves of scutellum wide-
ly separated.

FORE WINGS.—Costal cell slightly shorter
than marginal vein and with 8 setae; submargi-
nal and marginal veins with 3 and 8 setae
respectively (fig. 2 N); marginal fringe spaced
by a distance equal to one-fifth their length.

LEGS.-—Yellowish except coxae and femora
which are brown.

ABDOMEN.—Brownish except base which is
yellow; third valvulae three and a half times
as long as wide, one-third the length of second
valvifers (fig. 2 P); outer plates of ovipositor
slightly longer than second valvifers (fig. 2 Q);
subgenital plate broad, posterior margin with
a notch in middle (fig. 2 R).

Female length: 0.91 mm.

Male antennae as shown in (Fig. 2 S).

Holotype 2, INDIA: Rajasthan, Jaipur, ex
Coccidohystrix insolitus (Green) on Solanum
melongena Linn., 28.1x.1975 (M. Younus
Khan).

Paratypes. 23 2, 10 & (Same data as holo-
type).

Tetrastichus annulicernis sp. nov.
(Fig. 3, A-F)
Female C

Resembles T. indicus except in the follow-
ing characters:

HEAD.—Yellowish except dorsum which is
brown; antennae inserted just above lower
level of eyes; prominence between antennal
sockets one-fifth the width of frons between
eyes: eyes deep red; lower margin of clypeus
with two dents medially.

ANTENNAE (Fig. 3 A).—Brownish except
scape which is yellow; pedicel less than twice
as long as wide, as long as first funicle seg-
ment; three ring segments distinct; first funicle
segment one and a half times as long as wide,
second and third slightly longer than wide.

THORAX.—Yellowish brown; scutum with 5
setae near each parapsidal furrow; scutellum
slightly more than one-half the lentgh of
scutum.

FORE WINGS.—Twice as long as wide (0.74:
0.37 mm); costal cell shorter than marginal
vein and with 7 setae; submarginal and margi-
nal veins with 4 and 10 setae respectively (fig.
3 B); disc with a line of setae running beneath
the cubital hair line.

LEGS.—Yellow except fore coxae which
are brown; middle tibial spur as long as basi-
tarsus.

ABDOMEN.-——Dark brown except basal one-
third which is yellow; ovipositor arising from
basal one-third of abdominal venter; first val-
vifers semicircular (fig. 3 C); third valvulae
six times as long as wide, more than one-third
the length of second valvifers (fig. 3 D); outer
plates of ovipositor as long as second valvifers
(fig. 3 E); subgenital plate broad, posterior
margin with a notch in middle.

Female length: 1.07 mm.

Male antennae as shown in (fig. 3 F).

Holotype @, INDIA: Rajasthan, Jaipur, ex
Coccidohystrix insolitus (Green) on Achyran-
thus aspera, 301x.1975 (M. Younus Khan).

Paratypes. 6 2, 6 & (same data as holo-
type).

Tetrastichus psyllidis sp. nov.
(Fig. 3, G-N)

Femaie

HEAD.—Completely yellow; eyes red with
6 dark patches; antennae inserted above lower
level of eyes; mandibles with well developed
teeth (fig. 3 G).

341

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

0:.O7mm

Fig. 3. A-F. Tetrastichus annulicornis sp. nov., 2, 6: (A) Antenna, @; (B) Fore
wing venation, 2; (C) First valvifer, 9; (D) Second valvifer and third valvula, 9;
(E) Outer plate of ovipositor, 2; (F) Antenna. @.

G-N. Tetrastichus psyllidis sp. nov., 2, 2: (G) Mandible, @; (H) Antenna, ¢;
(I) Metanotum and propodeum, 9; (J) Fore wing venation, 2; (K) First valvifer,
2; (L) Second valvifer and third valvula, 92; (M) Outer plate of ovipositor,

(CN) Antenna, “4.
O. & P. Tetrastichus flavidus sp. nov., 2: (O) Antenna; (P) Fore wing venation.

2;

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ANTENNAE (fig. 3 H).—Scape slightly less
than four times as long as wide (0.18:0.05
mm), as long as basal two funicle segments
together; pedicel less than twice as long as
wide, shorter than first funicle segment; three
ring segments distinct; funicle segments 1-3
subequal in length, each twice as long as wide;
club three and a half times as long as wide,
as long as preceding two funicle segments to-
gether.

THORAX.—Completely yellow; posterior mar-
ein of pronotum with 7 pairs of setae; scutum
with 8 setae near each parapsidal furrow;
scutellum slightly more than one-half the length
of scutum; propodeum very narrow in middle,
posterior margin much sclerotized (fig. 3 D.

FORE WINGS.—Slightly less than two and a
half times as long as wide (1.38:0.58 mm);
costal cell shorter than marginal vein and with
7 small setae; submarginal and marginal veins
with 7 and 14 setae respectively; postmarginal
vein rudimentary (fig. 3 J); disc with a line
of setae running beneath the cubital hair line.

LEGS.—Completely yellow; middle tibial
spur as long as basitarsus.

ABDOMEN.—Completely yellow except apex
of ovipositor infuscated; longer than head and
thorax together (1.24:0.91 mm); ovipositor
slightly exserted; first valvifers semicircular
(fig. 3 K); third valvulae four times as long
as wide, one-fourth the length of second val-
vifers (fig. 3 L); outer plates of ovipositor as
long as second valvifers (fig. 3 M).

Female length: 2.15 mm.

Male antennae as shown in (fig. 3 N).

Holotype @, INDIA: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh,
Jawahar Park ex Psyllids in leaf galls of Gre-
wia asiatica Linn., 2.1x.1975 (M. Younus
Khan). :

Paratypes. 3 2, 236 (same data as holo-

type).

Tetrastichus flavidus sp. nov.
(Eig) 3.'O & P)
Female

Resembles T. indicus sp. n. except in fol-
lowing characters:

HEAD.—Completely yellowish brown; anten-
nae inserted just above lower level of eyes;
prominence between antennal sockets about
one-fourth the width of frons between eyes;
eyes silvery white.

ANTENNAE (Fig. 3 O).—Yellowish brown
except scape which is yellow; scape slightly
more than four times as long as wide (0.13:
0.03 mm.); three ring segments distinct; funicle
segments 1-3 subequal in length, each one and
a half times as long as wide.

THORAX.-—Completely yellowish brown; scu-
tum with 5 setae near each parapsidal furrow;
scutellum more than one-half the length of
scutum.

FORE WINGS.—More than twice as long as
wide; costal cell shorter than marginal vein
and with 11 setae; submarginal and marginal
veins with 4 and 10 setae respectively; post-
marginal vein slightly developed (fig. 3 P);
disc with a line of setae running beneath the
cubital hair line.

ABDOMEN. — Yellow except 5 _ transverse
bands on dorsum which are brown; longer than
head and thorax together (0.89:0.68 mm);
ovipositor slightly exserted, arising from basal
one-third of abdominal venter.

Female length: 1.57 mm.

Holotype 2. INDIA: Andhra Pradesh, Gun-
tur, ex Coccid on Weed plant, 3.viii.1976 (M.
Younus Khan).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Prof. S. Mashhood Alam, Head,
Department of Zoology and Prof. Nawab H.
Khan for assistance. One of us (M.Y.K.) is
grateful to the U.G.C., New Delhi for finan-
cial assistance.

343

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

TWO NEW SPECIES OF TETRASTICHINAE FOERSTER
(HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDAE) FROM INDIA!

M. YOUNUS KHAN

AND S. ADAM SHAFEE”

(With two text-figures)

Two new species of Synfomosphyrum Foer-
ster (S. cerococci sp. nov. and S$. mashhoodi
sp. nov.) are described in detail. Holotype and
paratypes are deposited in Zoological Museum,
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

Syntomosphyrum cerococci sp. nov.
(Fig. 1 A-J)

Female (Fig. 1 A).

HEAD (Fig. 1 B).—Dark with metallic re-
flections, wider than long in facial view (0.42:
0.34 mm); frontovertex smooth, width more
than one-half the total head width; scrobes
deep and convergent above; ocelli white,
arranged in obtuse triangle, lateral ocelli by
their own diameters from orbita! margin; an-
tennae inserted just below lower level of eyes:
prominence between antennal sockets one-
fourth the width of frons between eyes; malar
space longer than eye width; malar sutures
distinct; eyes reddish brown; mandibles trid-
entate with apical tooth acute, mesal rounded,
lower rudimentary (Fig. 1 C); maxillary and
labial palpi each 1-segmented (Fig. | D);
lower margin of clypeus with two dents medial-
ly (Fig. 1 B).

ANTENNAE (Fig. 1 E).—Brown_ except
scape which is yellowish brown; 8-segmented
excluding 1 ring segment; scape cylindrical,
four times as long as wide (0.16:0.04 mm),
as long as funicle; pedicel one and a half times
as long as wide, longer than first funicle seg-
ment; funicle 3-segmented, first slightly longer

1 Accepted September 1980.
2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology.
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

344

than wide, second and third each as long as
wide; club 3-segmented, about twice as long
as wide (0.13:0.06 mm), longer than preced-
ing two funicle segments together.

THORAX.—Dark with metallic reflections;
posterior margin of pronotum with submargi-
nal ridge bearing 5 pairs of setae (Fig. 1 F);
parapsidal furrows well developed; mesoscu-
tum with 3 setae near each parapsidal furrow
and without mid longitudinal groove; scutel-
lum with 4 setae and without submedian groo-
ves; propodeum with a well developed carina.

FORE WINGS.—Hyaline, slightly more than
twice as long as wide (1.13:0.5 mm); disc
with hyaline setae, broadly rounded at apex;
costal cell longer than marginal vein and with
4 small setae; submarginal vein with 1 long
seta directing apically and 3 small setae direct-
ing backward; marginal vein with 9 setae;
postmarginal vein absent; marginal fringe short,
spaced by a distance equal to one-third their
length.

HIND WINGS.—Hyaline, five times as long
as wide (1.1:0.22 mm), narrow at apex; disc
with hyaline setae; marginal fringe spaced by
a distance equal to one-fourth their length.

LEGS.—Yellowish brown except coxae and
femora which are dark brown; tarsi 4-jointed;
middle tibial spur shorter than basitarsus.

ABDOMEN. — Dark brown and __ petiolate,
shorter than head and thorax together; ovipo-
sitor concealed, arising from apical one-third
of abdominal venter; first valvifers triangular
with basal and apical angles at different levels
(Fig. 1 G); anterior margin of basal part of
second valvifers not much curved; third val-
vulae short and blunt, two and a half: times

10

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1. A-J. Syntomosphyrum cerococci sp. nov., @: (A) Entire body; (B) Head

in facial view; (C) Mandible; (D) Maxillary and labial palpi; (E) Antenna; (F) Pro-

notum; (G) First valvifer; (H)-Second valvifer and third. valvula; (1) Outer plate
of ovipositor; (J) Subgenital plate.

345

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

as long as wide, less than one-half the length
of second valvifers (Fig. 1 H); outer plates
of ovipositor broad, twice as long as wide
with thickened dorsal margin, apex broadly
truncated (Fig. 1 1); subgenital plate short
and of uniform width, posterior margin with
a small semicircular notch in middle (Fig.
1 J).

Female length: 1.38 mm.

Holotype @. INDIA: Karnataka, Bangalore
city, ex Cerococcus hibisci Green on Hibiscus
rosasinensis Linn., 4.viii.1976 (M. Younus
Khan).

Paratypes. 4 @ (same data as holotype).

In the key to species of Syntomosphyrum
Foerster proposed by Khan & Shafee (1980)
the new species is close to S$. javanicum Fer-
riére, but is distinguished by the mesoscutum
having 3 setae near each parapsidal furrow,
pedicel one and a half times as long as wide,
antennae with one ring segment, club distinct-
ly longer than preceding two funicle segments
together.

Syntomosphyrum mashhoodi sp. nov.
(Fig. 2 A-G)

Female

HEAD.—Yellowish brown, wider than long
in facial view; frontovertex width more than
one-half the total head width; ocelli white,
arranged in obtuse triangle, lateral ocelli twice
their own diameters from orbital margin and
close to occipital margin; eyes red and smooth;
antennae inserted at lower level of eyes; pro-
minence between antennal sockets one-third
the width of frons between eyes; malar space
longer than eye width; malar sutures distinct;
mandibles with apical tooth acute (Fig. 2 A):
maxillary and labial palpi each 1-segmented.

ANTENNAE (Fig. 2 B).—Yellow, 8-segment-
ed excluding 1 ring segment; scape cylindrical,
three and a half times as long as wide; pedicel
one and a half times as long as wide, as long

346

as first funicle segment; funicle 3-segmented,
first and second segments subequal in length,
each slightly longer than wide, third longest,
more than one and a half times as long as
wide; club 3-segmented, three times as long as
wide (0.16:0.05 mm), slightly shorter than
funicle.

THORAX.—Dark brown; pronotum with pos-
terior margin slightly curved, posterior sub-
marginal ridge distinct bearing 3 pairs of setae
(Fig. 2 C); parapsidal furrows complete;
mesoscutum with 2 setae near each parapsidal
furrow and without median groove; scutellum
wider than long with 2 pairs of setae and with-
out submedian grooves; propodeum with a
median carina.

FORE WINGS.—Hyaline, more than twice as
long as wide (1.2:0.53 mm), broadly round-
ed at apex; disc with hyaline setae; costal cell
sightly longer than marginal vein and with 11
setae; submarginal and marginal veins with
1 and 8 setae respectively (Fig. 2 D); margi-
nal fringe short, spaced by a distance equal to
one-half their length.

HIND WINGS.—Hyaline, five times as long
as wide (0.96:0.19 mm), disc with hyaline
setae; marginal fringe short, spaced by a dist-
ance equal to one-half their length.

LEGS.—Yellow except coxae and femora
which are brown; tarsi 4-jointed; middle tibial
spur shorter than basitarsus.

ABDOMEN .—Brown, petiolate, about as long
as head and thorax together; ovipositor con-
cealed, arising from mid of abdominal venter:
first valvifers triangular with basal and apical
angles at different levels (Fig. 2 E); anterior
margin of basal part of second valvifers much
curved; third valvulae six times as long as
wide, less than one-half the length of second
valvifers (Fig. 2 F); outer plates of ovipositor
slightly shorter than second valvifers and third
valvulae together (Fig. 2 G). |

Female length: 1.2 mm.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 2. A-G. Syntomosphyrum mashhoodi sp. nov., 2: (A) Mandible; (B) Antenna;
(C) Pronotum; (D) Fore wing venation; (E) First valvifer; (F) Second valviter
and third valvula; (G) Outer plate of ovipositor.

Holotype @. INDIA: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh,
University Campus, ex Coccinellid larvae on
aphids on Solanum melongena Linn., 10.vii.
1977 (M. Younus Khan).

Paratypes. 2 2 (same data as holotype).

In the key to species of Syntomosphyruim
Foerster given by Khan & Shafee (1980) S.
mashhoodi sp. n. is close to S$. taprobanes
Waterston, from which it can be separated
by the pedicel being more than one-third the

length of scape, antennae with one ring seg-
ment, first and second funicle segments sub-
equal and each distinctly longer than wide,
third funicle segment longest, disc of fore wings
with hyaline setae, submarginal vein with one
seta.

This species is named for Prof. S. Mashhood
Alam, in recognition of his contributions to
our knowledge of the Chalcidoidea.

347

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are deeply indebted to Prof. S. Mash-
hood Alam, Head, Department of Zoology,
for providing research facilities. Thanks are

also due to Prof. Nawab H. Khan, for en-
couragement. One of us (M.Y.K.) is thankful
to the U.G.C., New Delhi for financial assist-
ance during the tenure of this work:

REFERENCE

KHAN, M. Y. & SHAFEE,

S. A. (1980): Taxono-

mic studies on some Eulophid parasites (Hymeno-
ptera: Chalcidoidea). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

76 (2): 324-334,

NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS CHRYSONOTOMYIA ASHMEAD
(HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDAE) FROM INDIA’

M. YOUNUS KHAN AND S. ADAM SHAFEEF2

(With sixiecen text-figures)

The genus Chrysonofomyia was proposed
by Ashmead (1904) for the species EKulophus
auripunctatus Ashmead. Recently, Boucek
(1977) included the --genus Achrysocharis
Girault in the synonym of Chrysonotomyia
Ashmead. The distinguishing characters of this
genus have been given by Ashmead (1904). We
suggest some new generic characters, which
are as follows: Pronotum with posterior mar-
gin much curved, anterolateral angles acute
(Fig. D): first valvifers triangular with basal
and apical angles at different levels (Fig. J):
third valvulae short, movably articulated with
second valvifers (Fig. K); outer plates of ovi-
positor long, narrow at base with a submargi-
nal ridge along basal two-third of dorsal mar-
om (aig. Lb):

Chrysonotomyia kerrichi sp. nov.
(Figs. A-M)

Female
HEAD.—Orange yellow, slightly wider than
long in facial view (0.44:0.4 mm); frontover-

1 Accepted September 1980.

2 Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology.
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

348

‘tex slightly longer than wide, width one-third

the total head width; ocelli red, arranged in
equilateral triangle, lateral ocelli less than
their own diameters from orbital margin and
twice their own diameters from occipital mar-
gin; eyes red. and sparsely setose; antennae
inserted at lower level of eyes; prominence
between antennal sockets about one-half the
width of frons between eyes: malar space much
shorter than eye width; malar sutures absent;
mandibles tridentate with two acute teeth and
a truncation which is serrated (Fig. A); maxil-
lary and labial palpi each 1-segmented (Fig.
B). |

ANTENNAE (Fig. C).—Yellowish brown ex-
cept scape which is yellow; 7-segmented ex-
cluding 2 ring segments; scape cylindrical, six
times as long as wide (0.18:0.03 mm); pedicel
more than twice as long as wide, longer than
first funicle segment and subequal to second;
funicle 2-segmented, first ene and a half times
as long as wide, second twice as long as wide
and longer than first; club 3-segmented, five
times as long as wide, much longer than funi-
cle.

THORAX (Fig. E).-—-Yellowish except mesos-

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

— —
on ee
ee

ey TO
|

Figs. A-M. Chrysonotomyia kerrichi sp. nov., 2, 4: (A) Mandible, 9; (B) Maxil-

lary and labial palpi, 2; (C) Antenna, 9; (D) Pronotum, 2; (E) Propodeum and

part of thorax in dorsal view, 2; (F) Sculpture of mesoscutum, 9°; (G) Fore wing,

2; (H) Part of fore wing venation, 2; (1) Abdomen in dorsal view, 2; (J)- First

valvifer, 9; (K) Second valvifer and third valvula, 9; (L) Outer plate of ovipositor,
2) (MM) Antenna, 3.

N.P. Chrysonotomyia latipennis sp. nov., 2: (N) Antenna, (O) Fore wing, (P) Part
of fore wing venation.

349

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

cutum and mid of scutellum with metallic
green reflections; pronotum with posterior mar-
gin much curved bearing two pairs of small
setae, antero-lateral angles acute (Fig. D);
mesoscutum and scutellum reticulately sculp-
tured and each with a pair of long setae and
without longitudinal grooves; parapsidal fur-
rows distinct anteriorly; mesopostpharagma
reaching just beyond the propodeum; propo-
deum without median carina.

FORE WINGS (Fig. G).—Hyaline, more than
twice as long as wide (1.26:0.56 mm), round-
ed at apex: a line of hairs extending distad of
the stigmal vein to the wing margin, space
between the line and front wing margin bare,
another hair line (cubital) extending obliquely
apex of submarginal vein to the base of outer
wing margin; costal cell shorter than marginal
vein and with 2 small setae; submarginal and
marginal veins with 2 and 16 setae respective-
ly; postmarginal vein as long as stigmal vein
(0.08:0.08 mm) (Fig. H): marginal fringe
short, spaced by a_ distance equal to one-
third their length.

HIND WINGS.—Hyaline, four and a_ half
times as long as wide (0.63: 0.14 mm); mar-
ginal fringe one-third the wing width, spaced
by a distance equal to one-third their length.

LEGS.—Orange yellow; tarsi 4-segmented;
middle tibial spur shorter than basitarsus.

ABDOMEN. (Fig. I).—Yellow except dorsum
with three brown transverse bands, Jonger than
head and thorax together (0.88:082 mm);
ovipositor slightly exserted, arising from base
of abdominal venter; first valvifers with basal
and apical angles at different levels (Fig. J);
anterior margin of basal part of second val-
vifers much curved and U-shaped, third val-
vulae three times as long as wide, one-sixth
the length of second valvifers (Fig. K); outer
plates of ovipositor long, narrow at base with
a submarginal ridge along basal three-fourth
of outer margin (Fig. L).

350

Female length: 1.7 mm.
Male

Resembles female except in the following
characters:

Antennae with 1 ring segment; scape five
and a half times as long as wide (0.17:0.03
mm); pedicel twice as long as wide; club four
times as long as wide (9.16:0.04 mm) (Fig.
M); costal cell without setae; marginal vein
with 11 setae; postmarginal vein longer than
stigmal vein; abdominal dorsum with 6 trans-
verse brown bands.

Male length: 0.98 mm.

Holotype 2. INDIA: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh,
Jawahar park ex psyllid in leaf galls of Gre-
wia asiatica Linn., 2.1x.1975 (M. Younus
Khan).

Paratypes 8 2, 1 & (same data as holo-
type).

This species is named for Dr. G. J. Kerrich,
in recognition of his contribution to our
knowledge of the Chalcidoidea.

Chrysonotomyia latipennis sp. nov.
(Figs. N-P)

Female

HEAD.—Dark with metallic green reflections
except clypeal region which is yellow and re-
ticulately sculptured, wider than long in facial
view; frontovertex as wide as long, width
more than one-third the total head width;
ocelli yellowish, arranged in equialteral trian-
gle, lateral ocelli by their own diameters from
orbital margin and twice their own diameters
from occipital margin; eyes red and smooth:
antennae inserted above lower level of eyes:
malar space shorter than eye width: malar
sutures absent; maxillary and labial palpi each
1-segmented.

ANTENNAE (Fig. N).---Yellowish brown ex-
cept scape which is yellow, 7-segmented ex-
cluding | ring segment; scape cylindrical, five
times as long as wide (0.15:0.03 mm); pedicel

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

twice as long as wide, longer than first funicle
segment; funicle 2- segmented, first one and
a half times as long as wide, second twice
as long as wide and slightly longer than first;
club 3-segmented, five times as long as wide
(0.15:0.03 mm), much longer than funicle.

THORAX.—-Mesoscutum, parapsides, aix\-
lae except base, mid of scutellum, propodeum,
meso and meta sternites dark with metallic re-
flections rest of the thorax yellow: parapsidal
furrows distinct anteriorly; each parapside
without transverse suture; mesoscutum and
scutellum with 4 and 2 setae respectively; pro-
podeum smooth without median carina.

FORE WINGS (Fig. O).—Hyaline, less than
twice as long as wide, apex broadly rounded;
a line of hairs extending distad of the stigmal
vein to the wing margin, space between the
line and front margin of wing bare, another
hair line (cubital) extending obliquely apex
of submarginal vein to the base of outer wing
margin; costal cell very narrow, much shorter
than marginal vein; submarginal and marginal
veins with 3 and 12 setae respectively; post-
marginal vein longer than stigmal vein (Fig.
P); stigmal vein of uniform width; marginal
fringe short, spaced by a distance equal to
one-third their length.

HIND WINGS.—Hyaline, five times as long
as wide: marginal fringe about one-half the
wing width, spaced by a distance equal to
one-fourth their length.

LEGS.— Yellowish white except coxae which
are slightly infuscated: tarsi 4-segmented; mid-
dle tibial spur shorter than basitarsus.

ABDOMEN.-—Yellow except base of dorsum
and venter completely dark with metallic re-

REFERE

ASHMEAD, W. H. (1904): Classification of the
chalcid-flies or the super-family Chalcidoidea, with
descriptions of new species in the Carnegie
Museum, collected in South America by Herbert
H. Smith. Mfem. Carneg. Mus. 1: 225-555.

Boucek, Z. (1977): Descriptions of two new

flections; longer than head and thorax to-
gether; ovipositor slightly exserted, arising
from base of abdominal venter.

Female length: 1.15 mm.

Holotype @. INDIA: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh,
Hardwagun] ex in leaf galls of Mangifera in-
dica Linn., 31.xi.1974 (M. Younus Khan).

Chrysonotomyia postmarginaloides
(Saraswat) comb. nov.

Tetrastichus
1975: 19222:

A close study of the Indian species of the
genera Tetrastichus Haliday and Chrysono-
tomyia Ashmead, and the details on the char-
acters of the species Tetrastichus postmargti-
ndloides Saraswat do give an impression that
there are certain characters namely absence
of grooves on mesoscutum and _ scutellum,
presence of style on the last club segment,
fore wings with long postmarginal vein and
prsence of a line of hairs between distad of
stigmal vein and wing margin (Saraswat 1975,
fig. 8 A-K), which agrees in every respect with
the generic diagnosis of the genus CArysono-
tomyia Ashmead. Therefore, Tefrastichus
postmarginaloides Saraswat is here transferred
to Chrysonotomyia.

postmarginaloides Saraswat,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are deeply indebted to Prof. S. Mash-
hood Alam, Head, Department of Zoology,
for providing research facilities. Thanks are
also due to Prof. Nawab H. Khan, for en-
couragment. One of us (M.Y.K.) is thankful
to the U.G.C., New Delhi for financial assist-
ance during the tenure of this work.

NCES

species of Neotropical Eulophidae (Hymenoptera)
of economic interest, with taxonomic notes on re-
lated species and genera. Bull. ent. Res. 67: 1-15.
SARASWAT, G. G. (1975): On some Tetrastichus
(Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) from India. Mem.
School Ent. St. John’s Col!. Agra 4: 1-34.

35

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

ZENKERIA JAINII—A NEW SPECIES OF POACEAE FROM
KERALA?

N. C. Nair, P. V. SREEKUMAR AND V. J. Nair?

(With nine texi-figures)

The genus Zenkeria Irin. is so far known
to have four species restricted to South India
and Sri Lanka. A recent collection of Zenkeria
(P. V. Sreekumar 68419) from Eravikulam
Sanctuary in Idukki District, Kerala, after
examining the specimens at CAL and MH,
turned out to be distinct from all other earlier
known species. It differs from Zenkeria ele-
gans Trin. in its longer glumes, larger spike-
lets and broader hairy leaves and from Zen-
Keria stapfi Henr. in the flat broader hairy
leaves and larger spikelets. The Sri Lanka spe-
cies Zenkeria obtusiflora Benth. is distinct

Z makers | Deigine |
Henry & Chandrab.
(Isotype in MH!)

Leaves Narrowly elliptic, shorter than the
panicle (5-18 x 1-2.2 cm)
Glabrous except towards tip on
lower surface.

Ligule A rim of long hairs

Sheaths 5-7 cm long, glabrous

Nodes Hairy

Spikelets 4-4.5 mm long

Glumes Unequal, ovate, acute
GowetrG. 2.5 )><125 mam:
Uppery Gc. 3.9 ale fia)

Palea 3-3.2 mm long, acute at apex.
Filaments Less than half the length of anthers,
at the most 1 mm long.

Styles Slender, long (c. 0.5 mm).

Stigma smaller.

Oblique and denticulate at apex;
1-2. nerved, one nerve prominent.
the other

Lodicules

faint.

from the present specimens in having obtuse
lemmas, smaller spikelets, broader and glab-
rous leaves. It has some similarity to the re-
cently described South Indian species Zenkeria
sebastinei Henry & Chandrab. in their larger
spikelets, villous pedicels, flat rigid leaves and
acuminate lemmas, but differs in the follow-
ing characters.

As the present collection P. WV. Sreekumar
68419 is quite distinct from all the other
known species of the genus, it is described
here as a new species.

68419

P. V. Sreekumar

Linear lanceolate, exceeding the length of the
panicle (15-50 x 0.8-1.6 cm)

Glabrous on lower surface, sparsely villous through-
out on upper surface.

A tuft of short hairs.

Sheaths 8-16 cm long, sparsely villous.

Glabrous.

5-5.5 mm _ long.

Subequal, lanceolate. shortly acuminate (2.8-3 x1
mm).

4-4.5 mm long, notched at apex. |
More than half the length of anthers, equal to or
even exceeding its length (1.5-3.5 mm). ~-

Stout,: short (c. 0.2 mm); :

Stigma large.

Retuse at apex, nerveless.

' Accepted December 1980.
2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore.

352

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

imm

gs. 1-9. Zenkeria jainii sp. noy.: 1. Plant; 2. Spikelet; 3. Lower glume; 4. Upper

elume: 5: Lemna: 6) ),Palea:) 7. Stamen: §. Pistil: 9, Lodicule.

7

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Zenkeria jainii sp. nov.

Aftinis Z. sebastinei a qua tamen differt
foliis longioribus villosis, spiculis amplis,
paleis incisuris, lodiculis enervibus, filamentis
magnis, stilis brevibus.

Holotypus Sreekumar 68419 et isotypi in col-
libus Eravikulam in District Idukki in ditione
Kerala ad altit + 2000 m, die 20 Augusti
anni 1980. Holotypus positus ad CAL; isotypi
ad MH.

Perennial herbs. Culms 45-60 cm long, erect
from a decumbent rooting base; nodes glabr-
ous; internodes 5-14 cm long. Leaf blades 15-
SO x 0.8-1.6 cm, chartaceous, linear-lanceolate,
tapering at both ends, sparsely villous on the
upper surface; sheaths 8-16 cm long, charta-
ceous, glabrous or sparsely villous, basal ones
breaking up into fibres; ligule a tuft of short
hairs. Panicles 14-18 cm long, densely flower-
ed with capillary, villous spreading branches.
Spikelets 5-5.5 mm long, all alike, each 2-
flowered, bisexual. Pedicels 0.2-1.5 cm long,
villous; rachilla short, bearded, disarticulating
above the glumes. Glumes subequal, c. 3 x |
mm, ovate—lanceolate to lanceolate, acute or
shortly acuminate, hyaline, glabrous, I- nerv-

ed, keeled, persistent, spreading. Lemmas c.
51.2 mm, lanceolate, acuminate, 5-nerved,
coriaceous, long ciliate below the middle.
Paleas c. 4x 1.1 mm, ovate-lanceolate, notch-
ed at apex, 2- keeled, 2- nerved, hyaline, long
ciliate along the keels except at the upper quar-
ter. Lodicules 2, each c. 0.70.4 mm, without
nerves, obovate, retuse at apex. Stamens 3;
anthers 2-2.5 mm long, narrow, purple; fila-
ments 1.5-3.5 mm _ long, slender. Ovary c.
0.80.4 mm, ovate, glabrous; styles 2, each
c. 0.2 mm long, stout; stigmas c. | cm long,
feathery, white. Grains not seen.

The holotype P. V. Sreekumar 68419 and
isotypes were collected from Eravikulam Sanc-
tuary (alt. -_ 2000 m) in I[dukki District,
Kerala State on 20-8-1980. The holotype is
deposited in CAL. The isotypes are deposited
in MH.

Zenkeria jainii grows in clumps in the cre-
vices of moist rocks.

The present species is named after Dr. S.
K. Jam, Director, Botanical Survey of India.
Howrah, for his notable contributions to the
study of Poaceae in India.

A NEW SPECIES OF SYZYGIUM GAERTN. (MYRTACEAE) FROM
SOUTH INDIA?

M. CHANDRABOSE AND
(With eight

Syzygium chandrasekharanii sp. nov.

S. lanceolatti (Lam.) Wight & Arn. affinis
tamen differt foliis (sub) sessilibus, obtusis,
apicibus subacutis vel emarginatis, basis sub-
cordatis; cymis terminalibus vel laterali corym-
bosis: calycibus anguste obconicalibus; petalis
calyptratis; baccis 2.5-2.8 cm longis.

1 Accepted January 1981.
2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003.

354

V. CHANDRASEKARAN?
(ext-figures )

Holotypus Chandrabose 65811 A (CAL)
et isotypi Chandrabose 65811 B-G (MH)
lecti apud Konalar, Anamalai, Dist. Coimba-
tore in statu. Tamil Nadu (Madras) die
15-2-1980. Paratypi Makali 65898 A-G (MH)
lecti ecodem in loco die J2-4-1980.

Syzygium chandrasekharanii sp. nov.

Allied to Syzygiuin lanceolatuin (Lam.)
Wight & Arn., but differs in: leaves sessile or
subsessile, obtuse, subacute or emarginate at

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs. 1-8. Syzygium chandrasekharanii sp. nov., 1. Twig; 2. Bract; 3. Bracteole;
4. Flower bud; 5. L.S. of a flower; 6. Outer petal; 7. Inner petal; 8. Berry.

359

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

apex, subcordate at base; flowers in terminal
or lateral corymbose cymes; calyx narrowly
obconical; petals calyptrate; and berries 2.5-
2.8 cm long. |

Trees 10-15 m high; trunk 40-70 cm in
diam.: bark greyish black; branchlets tetrago-
nous. Leaves 3-10 x 1.5-5.5 cm, sessile or sub-
sessile, usually opposite, decussate, rarely al-
ternate, ovate, ovate-elliptic, elliptic or elliptic-
oblong, entire, recurved along margins, coria-
ceous, glabrous, obtuse, subacute or emargi-
nate at apex, obtuse and subcordate at base;
lateral. nerves many, thin, prominently reticu-
late. Flowers 2-3 cm long, dull white, sessile,
20-30 in terminal or lateral corymbose cymes
8-12 cm across; peduncles up to 3 cm long;
bracts + 2.20.7 mm, spathulate, concave;
bracteoles + 21.2 mm, ovate-elliptic. Calyx
1.7-2.5 cm long, greenish pink, narrowly ob-
conical, glabrous, rugulose without; tube 1.5-
2.3 cm long, adnate with the ovary to about
half its length, mouth produced beyond the
ovary: lobes; 4, cach = 2x3 mm, broadly
triangular, subacute. Petals 8, each 3-5 x 3-5
mm, unequal, outer 4 larger than the inner,
suborbicular, subentire, glabrous, gland-dotted,
calyptrate. Stamens many, unequal, free; fila-
ments white, slender, incurved in bud; anthers
versatile. Ovary inferior, usually 2-loculed:
ovules many, axile; style 1.7-2 cm long, thick,
glabrous; stigma simple. Berries 2.5-2.8 x 1.7-
2.5 cm, purple, obovoid, depressed at apex
with persistent calyx lobes, 1-seeded; seeds =

356

1.3x 1 cm, brown; obovoid, truncate at apex,
longitudinally striate, glabrous, cotyledons
fused together. (Figs. 1-8).

The holotype Chandrabose 65811 A (CAL)
and isotypes Chandrabese 65811 B-G (HM)
were collected in Konalar, Anamalai Hills in
Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu (Madras
State) on 15-2-1980; and paratypes Makali
65898 A-G (MH) were collected from the
same locality on 12-4-1980.

Though there exists controversy in keeping
Eugenia, Syzygium, Jambosa, etc. as distinct
genera, we follow R. Schmid (Amer. J. Bot.
59 (4): 423—436. 1972) in keeping Syzygium
as a distinct genus; and our specimens fit well
within the characters of Syzygium as given by
him.

This graceful evergreen tree perhaps escaped
the eyes of earlier Botanists as it occurs in
sholas beyond Konalar, a remote and difficult
terrain of Anamalais at an altitude of 1,825
m. This species is named in honour of Dr. N.
Chandrasekharan Nair, Deputy Director, Bo-
tanical Survey of India, Coimbatore for his
significant contributions to Indian Botany.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

Our sincere thanks are due to Rev. Fr. Dr.
K. M. Matthew, S.J., Rapinat Herbarium, St.
Joseph’s College, Tiruchirapalli for rendering
Latin translation: and to Dr. A. N. Henry,
Regional Botanist, Botanical Survey of India,
Coimbatore for helpful suggestions.

REVIEWS

1. THE BIRDS OF THE GAMBIA—AN ANNOTATED CHECKLIST AND
GUIDE TO LOCALITIES. By J. V. Jenson & J. Kirkeby. pp. 284 (21 x 14.5 cm)

including many figures and photographs. Denmark, 1980. Aros Nature
Guides. L11.8/D.kr. 148 including postage and packing.

The country Gambia 10,360 square kilo-
metres in extent is the smallest in Africa
lying at the western extremity of the Continent
and, as stated in the Preface, being essentially
the valley of the River Gambia. It extends
about 300 km inland varying in width from
55 km at the coast and 22/30 km inland.

Though called an annotated checklist it in-
cludes photographs showing different avifau-
nal zones together with maps illustrating seve-
ral of the 37 places which are described in
some detail and would be of interest and use
to the local resident or visitor.

Part three covers the Systematic List. In
the small area the total number of birds re-
corded is 489 species and subspecies with
another 27 doubtfully noied. This number is
about equal to that found in Maharashtra
which is thirty times larger. Almost each spe-
cies is accompanied by a sketch map marked
with spots of different sizes showing the dry
season (1 November—30 April) distribution
in terms of numbers in different places. This
however has not been explained in the text

and I have also been unable to undertsand
the significance of the figures, eg. <5 < 10
< 25 shown under the different maps.

There is nothing to indicate which of the
species have been identified on the basis of
specimens collected or how the _ subspecific
identifications where mentioned have been
determined.

Except for the palaearctic migrants most
species are different from those found in India
though in several the English name is the same
as’ that’ used here. ‘Where the species is the
same, the subspecies may be different.

It is stated that in 1974 an upsurge of in-
terest in bird life resulted in an increase in
tourism and also in the formation of the Gam-
bia Ornithological Club with 14 members,
which has now increased to a hundred.

The book is an excellent introduction to the
Ornithology of the area. Though the price is
on the high side it is quite possible that it will
sell well among the tourists and those interest-
ed in the birds of that area.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

357

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

2. BIRDS OF EAST AFRICA THEIR HABITAT, STATUS AND DIS-
TRIBUTION. Editor, P. L. Britton, Paintings by Rena Fennessy. pp. xiv +
271 (25x17 cm) with four coloured and eight black-and-white plates & four
maps. Nairobi, 1980. East Africa Natural History Society, Ornithological
Sub-Committee. Price Kenya Shilling 130.00 (about Rs. 134).

The Foreword, Preface and Introduction,
cover the circumstances under which the book
has been published and the last is an excellent
example of a short and handy description of
the different biotopes which go to make up
East Africa comprised of Uganda, Kenya and
Tanzania. 7

The text is largely a checklist covering 1293
species so far recorded from the area men-
tioning the subspecies, often more than one,
and their distribution and status. Just over
200 are of the same species as found in India
including about 141 identical (mostly pala-
earctic migrants) while the remainder are
represented by different subspecies. This leaves
over a thousand species different from those
occurring in India.

The variety even of the same genus is stag-
gering—29 Cisticolas, 19 Francolins, also 20
species of hornbills, 16 nightjars and 32 bar-
bets, over 70 weaver birds many of them being
again broken up into additional subspecies.

A closer examination of the movements of
the same species may perhaps help to decide
where Indian birds go to or come from e.g.
in Indian literature Clamator jacobinus pica
is synonymised with C. j. serratus but here
they are separately treated with the former
“breeding in diverse localities, but numbers
may be augmented by non-breeding visitors
from the northern and southern tropics, and
even by birds from North and Central India,
and East Palaearctic. In some places it is a
fairly common passage migrant in November/
January and April-early May, hardly recorded
at other times’. The race serratus is said to

358

be an uncommon non-breeding visitor.

Two races of the Broadtailed Grass Warb-
ler Schoenicola platyura (Jerdon) are referred
to, while Indian literature treats this as with-
out races. Dark morphs of Egretta garzetta
referred to on p. 19 do not appear to have
been noticed in India. Falco amurensis the
Redlegged Falcon is still said to arrive in
thousands over the Indian Ocean, but the last
record from Indian limits is a single bird ob-
tained near Kalyan, Bombay in 1950. What
part of India do they pass over unseen?

The text against the species does not indi-
cate which is iilustrated in colour and the
fine frontispiece of the Longcrested Eagle
could only be named by an accidental refer-
ence to the list of illustrations.

There are 5 colour plates of birds and 15
black and white pictures representing different
ecological areas. Some of the latter are un-
fortunately not very well reproduced. All these
are financially sponsored by a list of com-
panies and/or institutions including names
which are familiar in India. It is possible that
the latter may be approached for similar as-
sistance for some of the Society’s publications.
Each colour plate is covered by a sheet of
thin paper giving the name of the sponsor.

A 7-page bibliography, several maps and
a gazetteer of the places mentioned, makes this
an indispensable reference for any work on
the birds of this area. A similar work for
Maharashtra or Peninsular India may be
worthwhile.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

REVIEWS

3. COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF
JAPAN. By Akito Kawazoe and Morio Wakabayashi, supervised by Takashi
Shirozu. pp. 423 (21 x 14.5 cm). Osaka, 1980. Hoikusha Publishing Co. Ltd.
(Completely revised edition). Price—Yen 3,900 in Japan.

I have read that even more than the birds,
the butterflies are a symbol of freedom. They
cannot be either tied down or tamed. heir
economic importance in the pollination apart,
they surpass imagination in beauty and grace.
Nobody can divorce the butterflies from the
flowers, and they together are one of the ulti-
mate in aesthetic value. Their metamorphosis,
from egg to caterpillar to pupa to butterfly,
is in itself a marvel of nature.

The book on Japanese butterflies by Kawa-
zoe & Wakabayashi is a treat to go through. It
is the 1980 reprint of its first edition produced
in 1976, but a completely revised version. ‘The
popularity of the work can be easily guessed
from the fact that ever since its original pub-
lication in April 1976, it has been reprinted
every year, even twice in 1977.

As the title shows, the book is full of colour-
ed illustrations. I tried to count them, there
being no list, and found that there are totally
1037 coloured figures of 260 species arranged
on 72 plates.

Besides, there are a large number of ex-
planatory black and white text-figures, to be
exact 80 numbered and 9 unnumbered and
drawings of the genitalia of altogether 264
species, in many cases of both sexes. There
are a few maps and some photographs of
scales. The wing-venation of 18 species has
been depicted on two pages.

The text is arranged family and genera-wise.
Brief description of characters of the genus;
a dichotomous key to Japanese species; des-
criptions and figures of genitalia of some spe-
cies (both sexes in most cases) are given, fol-
lowed by the account of selected individual
species. All genera and species have been
numbered.

Obviously all known Japanese species have
not been included in the illustrations. Those
which have been selected, have their coloured
figures juxtaposed with their description on
the opposite page [the style of the BOOK OF
INDIAN BIRDS by Salim Ali comes to mind,
but it is not exactly similar]. Description of
each species provides the name of species and
its author (but not the year). No synonyins
are listed. The genitalia of most of the species
are figured in black and white, Characters have
been shown amply and the subspecies occur-
ring in Japan have been pointed out, with their
differentiation. These subspecies in many cases
have been illustrated (in colour) side by side,
thus making the identification easy. It is to
the credit of authors, and publishers, that the
size of illustrated specimens is life-like. The
reduction, if done, is shown in light blue on
the upper left hand corner of each Plate and
is not below 0.9 time of actual size in most
cases.

To my pleasant surprise, there are more
species common between India and Japan,
than expected. In general, however, the Indian
fauna is richer. Talbot (1939, FAUNA OF BRITISH
INDIA—BUTTERFLIES, 2nd ed., Vol. 1, Taylor &
Francis, London) has recorded 1,443 species
from the Indian region. In comparison to it
only 260 species are illustrated in this book.
Out of these, I suppose 50% + can be find
within our limits as well, by referring to the
classical book of W. H. Evans, (1932, IDENTI-
FICATION OF INDIAN BUTTERFLIES, 2nd _ ed.,
Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.). However, for the
coloured illustrations, this book ought to be
compared with our BUTTERFLIES OF THE
INDIAN REGION by M. A. Wynter-Blyth (1957,
Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.) and at the very first

359

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

glance one would say that the Japanese work
is superior, both in quality and quantity of
the coloured illustrations.

The one point that requires careful atten-
tion of the lepidopterists is the generic assign-
ment of many species used in this book. In a
number of cases combinations have been used,
which are quite different to what we under-
stand from other studies. Let me cite an exam-
ple, selected at random (citations on the left
side are from the Japanese book with its page
number, and on the right side from my paper
(1979) in this Journal, 76 (1): 33-40).

Page No. Cited as

185 Anosia chrysippus Linnaeus
185 Salatura genutia Cramer
186 Danaus pilexippus Linnaeus
191 Parantica sita (Kollar

194 Tirumala limniace Cramer

When a very common name like Papilio
demoleus (The lime butterfly) has been chang-
ed to Princeps demoleus it requires caretul
attention. The one reason which I can guess
for such combinations being used, is that in
the opinion of the authors. Kawazoe & Waka-
bayashi, a number of generic names which
we have been treating as synonyms are also
valid. In the example cited above, Anosia,
Salatura, Tirumala, Parantica are synonyms
of Danaus (see Varshney, 1973, Curr. Sci.,
42 (19): 698-699). In another case, while we
treat Terias as a synonym of Eurema, the
authors have treated the former as a subgenus
of the latter. In yet another case, Pachliopta
has been used for aristolochiae (Fabr.), and
not Atrophaneura which we consider valid
(see Varshney, 1979, l.c.). The absence of
parenthesis on author’s name in changed com-
binations, is also strange. Thus, there seems to
be a necessity to carefully check and restudy
the validity of the generic assignments used

360

SOCTET VE Wolly, s
in this book. However, it must be clearly
stated that no attempt is made here to sug-
gest that the combinations used in this book
are invalid. In fact, in one case, the well
known butterfly Vanessa cardui (the Painted
lady) has been referred as Cynthia cardui,
which fully agrees with my own contention as
reported elsewhere (Varshney, 1977, News-
letter Zool. Surv. indiajs3((1): WS-14)),
One reason why I could not make better
use of this work is plainly my ignorance of
the Japanese language (almost the whole text
and even the captions of illustrations are in

For

Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus)
Danaus genutia (Cramer)
Danaus genutia (Cramer)
Danaus sita (Kollar)

Danaus limniace (Cramer)

Japanese). Yet I may be permitied to repeat,
what has been earlier said in a review of a
book of the Chinese birds in this Journal
recently, that the arrangement is such that
even someone unfamiliar with the Japanese
language should get sustenance. With a little
effort, I could correlate the coloured illustra-
tions with the description of respective species,
by comparing the Japanese calligraphy.
Towards the end of the book, some general
information has been provided (page 340 on-
wards). It includes a chapter on the morpho-
logy of the butterflies, with details of termi-
nology for various parts of the body. A com-
parative table shows the notation of different
veins in the wings, as applied by Hampson,
Meyrick, Tillyard, Snodgrass, Ehrlich and
Comstock & Needham. Then there is a note
on how to preserve and study butterflies. The
chapter. on classification provides keys to
families and subfamilies, and in some cases to
genera. The book ends with a bibliography

REVIEWS

and index (both in Japanese as well as in
English).

Printing is superb (done in Japan). ‘The
card-board jacket of the book carries a life
—like picture of Papilio maackii on one side,
and a collage of 24 species on another side.

11

The hard cover of the book bears a beautiful
photo of Sasakia charonda. A most welcome
work for the butterfly lovers all over the world.

R. K. VARSHNEY

361

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. NEW RECORDS OF TOMB BAT (CHIROPTERA: EMBALLONU-
RIDAE) FROM BIHAR WITH SOME ECOLOGICAL REMARKS

INTRODUCTION

During a recent field survey in South Bihar,
I collected two species of Tomb Bats, Tapho-
zous melanopogon melanopogon Temminck
and Taphozous kachhensis kachhensis Dobson
not recorded earlier from Bihar.

All measurements are in mm _ and _ the
figures in parentheses represent average mea-
surements. Abbreviations used in the text are:
f: length of forearm; ¢: length of tibia; ff:
length of foot including claws; /: total length
of skull; zw: zygomatic width; cw: cranial
width; m?-m*?: maxillary width; c-m*: length
of upper tooth row; c-m;; length of lower
tooth row; ml: length of mandible.

OBSERVATIONS

1. Taphozous melanopogon melanopogon
Temminck.

Material: Patna Dist—Patna City: Govind
Bag Mandir, 18.vii.1977 and = 15.viii.1977,
166: 102° 2% Raja (Ghat; S.vinelo7 733 oo"
Measurements: 108 4: f., 63-66.1 (64.4); ¢. 23.6-
2592 (246) 2 ft, lB=14.3) (13). ASOD i) 62-6723
(65.4); t., 24-25.6 (24.5); ft. 13-15.2 (14.2).
Skull —8 4 6: 1, 20.5-21.4 (20.9); zw., 12.7-13.8
(13.1); cw., 10.3-10.5 (10.4); m3-m3., 8.7-9.6 (9.3);
c-m?., 9-9:6) (9.3) cm. 9G N03 GO). mln Gale
WA (16.6). 29 92 15721, 21.25 aw ecw.
10/3; 10:53) m2-m>, 9579.6: c-m=>) 9579.) mise.) oes
Mis’ VOn 1625:

Distribution: Java, Malaysia; Sumatra; Kali-
bangan; Laos; Vietnam; Burma; China; Penin-
sular India; and Sri Lanka.

In India this species is hitherto known from
Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya

362

Pradesh, Gujarat and Andaman Islands. The
present collection from Bihar extends the
range of distribution further northeast in
India. |

Observations.

General: It is obvious from the measure-
ments that the forearm in the female is slight-
ly longer than in the male as given by Sinha
(1970). Against the statement of Dobson
(1876) that the black beard develops only in
breeding season, I have found among 10 males,
collected in July, 6 had black beard and the
rest had no sign of beard. Brosset (1962) re-
ports the breeding season for this species as
January to May and according to him even
subadult males possess beard. Among 9
females collected during July, 3 have a pair
of prominent pectoral teats.

Habit and habitat: Two types of colonies
of this bat were observed in Patna City. One
mixed colony of both sexes (c. 500 exs.; sex
ratio of collected specimens is 2: 3) was found
in a dark and discarded room of Govind Bagh
temple and other (of seven males only) on the
roof of a semidark entrance to Rajaghat. No
other bats were found in association with this
bat as was observed by Brosset (1962) in
Kanheri Badami and Ellora (Maharashtra).
No ectoparasites were seen on the body.

A cat was seen with a Taphozous melano-
pogon in its mouth on the verandah of the
temple.

2. Taphozous kachhensis kachhensis Dobson

Material: Gaya Dist.: Bodh Gaya, 22.vii.
1978, 138 (Subad.); Rohtas Dist.: Sasaram,
27 Xx N978 ho:

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Measurements: 1¢@: f., 69.2; t., 28; ft, 18. 12:
Pid A ahs o2 cnt fab Ss
Skull —1 4: 1, 25.5; zw., 15; cw., 11.8; m-3m?,

10.6; c-m*, 11.3; c-m,, 13; ml., 20.4.
Distribution: Pakistan and India.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to Dr. T. N. Ananthakrishnan,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
GANGETIC PLAINS REGIONAL STATION,
RAJENDRA NaGar, Roan, No. 7,
PATNA- 16,

February 28, 1979.

Director, Zoological Survey of India and to
Dr. P. D. Gupta, Deputy Director (Officer-
in-Charge), Gangetic Plains Regional Station,
Patna for facilities. | am also thankful to
Sarvashii R. N. Verma, Y. Paswan and Ram
Babu Sharma for their help in the field work.

Y. P. SINHA

REFERENCES

BrosseT, A. (1962): The bats of central and
Western India. Part I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
D9 S78

Dosson, G. E. (1876): Monograph of the Asiatic

chiroptera, and catalogue of the species of bats in

the collection of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Tay-
lor & Francis, London.

SINHA, Y. P. (1970): Taxonomic notes on some
Indian bats. Mammalia, 34: 81-92.

2. OBSERVATION OF HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVIOUR IN ASIATIC
LION PANTHERA LEO PERSICA

Homosexual behaviour has been observed
in male African lions. (Schaller 1972). There
is no record of homosexual behaviour of
the females in Africa or India.

I observed homosexual behaviour in two
adult lionesses on three occasions, in Raidi &
Vaniavav areas in the Gir Wildlife Sanctuary
of Western India. Both the lionesses were
adult, over 15 years in age. For convenience, |
will call them lioness ‘A’ and lioness ‘B’.

These two lionesses were observed mostly
together. Lioness *A’ was in estrous and one
young male of 5 to 6 years was courting her.
One day later lioness ‘B’ also came _ into
estrous and started following ‘A’. The same
male started mating with lioness ‘A’ and
their matings continued only for two
days. All this time lioness ‘B’ kept fairly close
to the mating couple. Whenever lioness ‘B’
came closer, the male chased her away. On

the third day of the mating, the male seemed
to be tired, and kept resting most of the time,
Lioness ‘A’, apparently not satisfied sexually,
continued to present herself to the male and
when he did not respond, she went upto him
and nudged him with head between his two
hindlegs, sometimes even partly lifting him
from behind. At this the male would move
over to another place.

On the fourth day when lioness ‘A’ was
posturing for the male to mount, lioness *B’
came and mounted her with same actions
as that of male including neck biting,
growling and later on rolling on its back. Then
the females switched positions with honess *B’
mounting lioness ‘A’. This was repeated once
on the same day and once on the fifth day.
All this time the male was also close, appar-
ently indifferent to the females.

363

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

I have not observed homosexual behaviour
among Asiatic male lions in Gir.

Schaller (1972), in his study of African
lions, has observed homosexual behaviour

DEPUTY CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS,
WorRKING PLANS, VIMAL BUNGALOW,

Vola 7s

only in male lions. Paul Joslin (1973) in his
study of Asiatic lions, does not mention hav-
ing observed homosexual behaviour in lion-
esses. | |

SANAT A. CHAVAN

REFERENCES

Raj MAHAL Roap,
VADODARA (GUJARAT STATE),
September 1, 1979.
JosLIn, P. (1973): The Asiatic Lion: A_ study

of Ecology and Behaviour. A thesis presented for

the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, to University.

of Edinburgh.

SCHALLER, G. B. (1972): The Serengeti Lion:

University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

3. ON THE LONGEVITY OF THE CAT-BEAR OR RED PANDA
(AILURUS FULGENS) IN CAPTIVITY

Three specimens (one male and two females)
were received at the Nehru Zoological Park,
Hyderabad (A.P.) on 30-6-66, 12-2-67 and
24-3-67 from an animal dealer of Delhi.

A female received on 24-3-1967 died on
8-8-79, establishing a longevity of 12 years 4
months 15 days in captivity. The other two
specimens had died earlier within 4 years 5
months.

The maximum period of life in captivity
for this species recorded in the San Diego
Zoological Park namely 12 years and 10
months. One lived for 5 years and 4 months
(Mitchell 1911) at the New York Zoological
Park for 4 years, 11 months and 9 days (Cran-

DEPUTY DireCcToR (ANIMAL HUSBANDARY),
NEHRU ZOOLOGICAL PARK, HYDERABAD.

CurATOR, NEHRU ZOOLOGICAL PARK,
HYDERABAD, A.P.,
December 9, 1980.

dall 1965). Another at the Nandan Kanan
Biological Park, Orissa lived for 5 years and
4 months (Acharjyo, pers. comm.). Accord-
ing to Walker ef al. (1964) only a few of this
species adapt themselves sufficiently to survive
long in captivity.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to express our sincere thanks to Sti
A. K. Mathur, I.F.S., Addl. Chief Conservator
of Forests (W.L.M.), A.P., Hyderabad and
Sri Pushp Kumar, I.F.S., Conservator of
Forests (W.L.M.), A.P., Hyderabad for their
help and encouragement.

MIR GOWHAR - ALI KHAN

M. KAMAL ‘ARSE

REFERENCES.

CRANDALL, LEE S. (1965): The Management of
Wild Mammals in captivity. University of Chicago
Press, Chicago and London. pp. 315-318.

MITCHELL, P. CHALMERS (1911): Cited by

364

more. pp.

Crandall, Lee S. (1965).

WALKER, ERNEST P. ef al. (1964): Mammals of
the World. Vol. 11. The John Hopkins Press, Balti-
1187.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4. STUDIES ON BANDICOTA BENGALENSIS BENGALENSIS GRAY _--
IN KERALA!

(With four text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

The lesser bandicoot rat B.b. bengalensis is
a serious pest of tuber crops in the State of
Kerala. The present studies were taken up with
the object of obtaining detailed information
on the distribution and habits of B.b. bengalen-
sis in the State.

MATERIALS AND’ METHODS

The burrow openings of the species were
first located in gardens and the adults and
young in each occupied burrow were collected
by locating the segment of the net work which
the animals inhabited, as follows:

To locate the actual section occupied by

the rat and the brood, the burrow system was
opened up at three or four spots along the
entire burrow net work. The actual segment
of the burrow containing the rat was then
plugged and the animal smoked to death.
Thereafter, the burrow network was exposed
by gently working with a crow-bar and spade
to study the basic burrow _pattern and tne
nature of chambers. 3

The damages caused by B.b. bengalensis
was ascertained by looking for crop damage
around the burrow system. The remnants of
food from within the borrow were collected
and examined for information on the normal
food habits of the species.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. ..---

The present study revealed that in Kerala,
burrows of B. bengalensis bengalensis were

1 Part of the M.Se.-{Ag.) thesis submitted to the
Kerala Agricultural University by the senior author
for the award of the M.Sc. (Ag.) Degree.

mostly seen in gardens holding tapioca, colo-
casia and yam and in rubber and coconut
plantations, as well as orchards and_ thick
forests and rarely along paddy field bunds.
This finding is at variance with the observation

of Ramakrishnan (1972) that B. bengalensis

was confined to rice fields.

The burrows of B. bengalensis were located
in all types of soils both dry and moist, though
Yashoda (1968) reported that B. bengalensis
dug burrows in fine and moist soil. Krishna
Ayyar (1931) found that the burrows of B.
bengalensis were long, extensive and somewhat
complicated and that these extended upto 20
to 30 feet. During the present studies certain

-burrows were found to be shorter and of sim-

ple construction, while some were longer,
ramifying and extensive. The maximum hori-
zontal coverage of a burrow was found to be
59.11 m as against Deoras’s (1962) record of
30 m.

The burrow patterns were of- four basically
different types, namely, short and simple (Fig.
1) of medium length with more number of
openings (Fig. 2), elongated extensive with
winding passages (Fig. 3) and burrow system
with food chambers (Fig. 4). These are des-
cribed in Table 1.

The number of openings for the burrow
system varied from two te thirteen as against
four to five openings previously recorded by
Krishna Ayyar (1931). According to him the
burrow depth seldom exceeded 60 cm. Deoras
(1962) recorded a depth of 72.5 cm, but in
the present study the maximum depth record-
ed was 90 cm.

Prem Sagar and Bindra (1973) have indi-
cated that the brood chamber/bed chambers

365

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4a toid — Gntrances.

3 s Nesting ebamber.
4ak4b - Blind aleys.
\ _ Depth feorn the sol sustace.

Fig. 1. Short and simple type of burrow pattern of Bandicota bengalensis bHengalensis.

. oa ay
Bayer S 3
a Be 1e ib 4
4x B fais
4 Ea 8 f | ab
= A = ba . - z
ae bak 4c
we t ! {
‘
wa]
ie. fs; "im a i
& 3
Sos al
ra 4h

fa to im . entrances.

3 » Brood chamber.

4ato +h - Blind Alles.

[ Depth from coll surface.

Fig. 2. Burrow pattern of Bandicota bengalensis bengalensis medium length with
numerous surface openings.

366

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

AW 4m
ah
+t
4°
4n
40
oy
l i wave.
Bige 3:

> ab

24a

~- Grttances.

3 - Nesting ebamber.

4awe14u - Blad Alleys ,

- Depts feorn the aol surace.

1a @1b

Elongated and extensive type of burrow pattern of Bandicota bengalensis

bengalensis.

were located at the centre of the system at
the maximum depth of the burrows. Out of
the 25 burrow systems studied, only three
burrow systems had their brood chamber
located at the centre while in nine cases the
chamber was located at the maximum depth.

The burrow systems containing male rats
were also provided with a nest in the bed
chamber. This observation is not in conson-
ance with early report of Premsagar and
Bindra (1973) who did not locate bed cham-
bers in burrows inhabited by male rats.

It has been reported that B. bengalensis
hoards food in special chambers located in

their burrows (Wagle 1927). In the present
survey, food hoarding was detected only
in four out of 25 burrows examined.
These were located along paddy field bunds
and in one of these burrows, definite food
chambers were found. In the other burrows
paddy was found to be stored throughout the
length of the burrow net-work with just ade-
quaie space for the movements of the rat. The
non-hoarding habit of B.b. bengalensis in
Kerala can be explained on the basis of the
easy accessibility to crops and other food ma-
terial throughout the year. The hoarding
habit might be essential in arid and semi-arid

367

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

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368

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Sb2Z4 Se

2a

1a&1b - @ptrarces .

- Nesting Chamber.
a ou) Chambevs.

“an 4a ae. Bled alleys .

= )

lf ; Depth fee Gol Surface.

- Soll plu ing -

Fig. 4. Burrow pattern of Bandicota bengalensis bengalensis with food chambers.

regions characterised by the non-availability
of crops and/or food materials throughout the
year,

_ A main tunnel for the burrow system was
reported by Yashoda (1968). This -was. not
however, found in Kerala conditions except
in a very few cases where the burrows were
located. along paddy field bunds. In all the
other circumstances, the burrow systems did
not conform to a particular structural pattern.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

The Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta,
has identified the various rat species collected
during the survey work. We are indebted to
Dr. V. S. Agarwal, Superintending Zoologist.
Dr. Sujit Chakraborty, Zoologist and Dr. P.
K. Das, Officer-in-charge, Mammal and Os-
teology Section for identifying the rats. The
facilities for this study were provided by the
Associate Dean, College of Horticulture and
we wish to place on record our gratefulness to
him.

369

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY,
COLLEGE OF HORTICULTURE,
VELLANIKKARA, TRICHUR-680 654,
KERALA, INDIA.

July 10, 1980.

SOCIETY, Vol. 78

C. M. GEORGE
P. JZ JOY
C. C. ABRAHAM

REFERENCES

Deoras, P. J. (1962): Plant Protection Seminar,
All India Ent. Res. Worker’s Conference, New
Delhi.

KRISHNA AyyYAR, P. N. (1931): Notes on some
rats damaging crops in South India, J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 34: 937-939.

RAMAKRISHNAN, C. (1972): Man against rats—
All India Summer Institute in Rodent Biology. pp.
114-123.

SAGAR, P. AND Binpra. O. S. (1973): A note on

the burrowing pattern of lesser bandicoot rat Bai-
dicota bengalensis (Gray) in Punjab. Proceedings
of the International Symposium on Binomics and
Control of Rodents, pp. 55-56.

WAGLE, P. V. (1927): The rice ratsrot lower
Sind and their Control. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
32 (2): 330-338.

YASHoDA, L. Urs (1968): Habits and habitats of
rcdents. Manual of rodent control, C.F.T.R.I., My-
Sore, pp: 25-35:

5. BURROWING BEHAVIOUR OF RATTUS MELTADA
PALLIDIOR

(With a texi-figure)

The soft-furred field rat, Rattus meltada is
i serious pest of Indian agriculture. It lives
in shallow, round and vertically directed bur-
rows situated on the bunds or in cracks in
and around crop fields (Rana & Prakash
1980), and grassland. To study the burrows’
environment and its structure, twenty burrows
were excavated in relation to various stages of
growth of cotton and chilly crops, at Bisalpur
(25°7’N, 73°10’E), south eastern fringes of
western Rajasthan near the Aravali ranges.
Most of the burrows were found in the crop
fields and the majority of the burrows ex-
cavated were simple and of single tier structure.
The length, depth and opening of burrows
increased significantly (P < 0.001, 0.001 and
0.01 respectively) with the maturity of crops.
One to four and two to six surface openings
in single burrows were observed in immature

370

and mature stage of crops respectively and the
difference was significant (P < 0.01 respecti-
vely). In the majority of the burrows, nest
chambers were present. In one of the burrows,
four nests filled with damaged chillies, cotton
fibres and unripe cotton capsules were found.
One female along with a litter of six young
ones was also recovered from the burrow.
Three young ones were recovered from metad
burrow at Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh by Jain
(1976) and five young ones at Ludhiana, Pun-
jab by Chopra and Sood (1980). Barnett and
Prakash (1975) did not witness bolt run in
the burrow of this rat. However, we observed
3 to 4 bolt runs on an average in a single
burrow system (Fig. 1). The mean of the
maximum length and depth of burrows during
ripening stage of crops was 2.50 + 0.32 and
0.35 + 0.04 m. respectively (Table 1B),

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

TABLE 1

DIMENSIONS OF BURROW OF Rattus meltada pallidior IN COTTON AND CHILLY CROPS IN RELATION TO STAGE

OF CROPS
SU Ee NS EI is I SR A EP Se a near ee O
Burrow

Burrew Depth (m) Average Total
No. No. of Openings Minimum Maximum diameter length
(m) (m)

A. Immature Stage
1 3 0.10 0.25 0.10 1.05
2 y 0.08 0.20 0.09 0.95
3 3 0.18 0.25 0.13 1.95
4 1 0.13 0.18 0.07 0.45
5 D, 0.15 0.28 0.10 0.85
6 4 0.12 0.31 0.09 1.30
di 2 0.16 0.24 0.08 1.05
8 ial 0.15 0.26 0.08 0.85
9 3 0.15 0.30 0.08 Lets
10 2 0.13 0.27 0.70 0.90
Mean + S.E. 2.3 + 0.03 0.13+-6.01 0.25-++ 0.01 0.09 + 0.01 1.05 +0.12

B. Mature Stage

1 5 0.15 0.35 0.09 2.95
? 4 0.22 0.36 0.09 2.68
eae 6 0.20 0.40 0.10 3.03
4 4 0.18 0.29 0.10 2.88
5 3 0.21 0.29 0.09 DTD,
6 4 C.16 0.33 0.08 2.80
7 3 0.15 0.28 0.09 1.65
8 3 0.18 0.30 0.09 1.85
9 6 0.24 0.38 0.12 3.29
10 D 0.15 0.22 0.07 1.15

Wea GIS B40 Ge 042 O.18+0.01 0.354004 0.09-40.007 2.50-4+-0.32
‘t? values
between the 3.28** 203 * 7.0*** — 5.82* **

means of A & B
fone << O05
Ath eae iP. nO. 01L

ree ex (O01

oA

JOURNAL,

D- DEPTH.
SF - SURFACE
. OPENNING OF
BURROW.
IN - NESTING
22 Cm. CHAMBER.

25cm
LENGTH

whereas, during early stage of the crops were
only 1.05 =: 0412 and 0252. 0.01) ms whe
difference was found to be significant (P <
0.001, 0.001) respectively (Table 1A). The
results indicated that the dimension of the
burrows increases with the maturing of the
crops. A small live toad Bufo sp. was collect-
ed from the same burrow. The occurrence of
Bufo in association with R. meltada indicates
that both live together amicably. In Karnataka,
arthropods were found co-habitating in the

CENTRAL ARID ZONE RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
JoDHPUR-342 003,
September 16, 1980.

. Burrow system

BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 78

D~- DE

DEPTH.
SF -SURFACE OPENNING
OF BURROW.
N-NESTING CHAMBER.

4

25.Cm
LENGTH

of Rattus meltada pallidior.

burrows of the other rodents namely Bandi-
cota bengalensis, B. indica, and Tatera indica
(Yashoda et al. 1966).

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS
We are indebted to Dr. H. S. Mann, Ditrec-

tor and Dr. Ishwar Prakash, Professor of Emi-
nence for encouragement and providing facili-

ties. Thanks are also due to Shri Mala Ram

and Dev Raj for assistance in the field work.

REFERENCES

BARNETT, S. A. AND PRAKASH, I. (1975): Rod-
ents of economic importance in India. Arnold Hein-
mann, New Delhi & London: 1-175.

CHOPRA,, GIRISH AND Soop, M. L. (1980): Bur-
rowing behaviour of Soft-furred field rat, Rattus
meltada (Gray). Rodent Newsletter, 4(2): 10.

JAIN, A. P. (1976): A note on the field rodents
of Mandsaur district, Madhya Pradesh. J. Bombay

372

B. D. RANA
B. K. SONI

nat. Hist. Soc. (In press).
RANA, B .D. AND PRAKASH, I. (1980): The

metad—-a serious rodent pest of Indian Agriculture.
Ind. Farming. xxix (0): . 21a, 23%

YASHODA, L. URS, KRISHNAKUMARI, M. K. AND
MASUMDER, S. K. (1966): A report on the bur-
rowing habit of rodents. Ind. Rod. Symp. Calcutta:
199-203.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

6. NOTES ON WEIGHT AND SIZE AT BIRTH OF EIGHT SPECIES
; OF INDIAN WILD UNGULATES IN CAPTIVITY

The present note embodies some data on
the weight and size at birth of eight species
of Indian wild ungulates in captivity observed
at the Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa.
The weight and size at birth were recorded
either immediately after birth or within about
twelve hours of birth. The details of our ob-
servations are given in the Table.

average weight of nine sambar fawns at birth
was 8.270 Kg, the average length 98 cm and
the average shoulder height was 53 cm
(Acharjyo 1970).

SPOTED DEER: The weight at birth of twenty-
four fawns of this species was from 2.200 Kg
to 4.000 Kg with an average of 3.129 Kg, the
length was from 65 cm to 79 cm with an ave-

TABLE

Peried of SE Orel ou eine ie feet

Species of wild ungulates eras | pay ae (Range) (Range) (Range)
in Kg in cm incm

1 2 3 4 5 6
Indian Sambar 1-7-1972 to 10.270 99.4 55.1
(Cervus unicolor niger) 31-7-1980 20 (7.000-12.300) (88.0-107.0) —_(49.0-59.0)
Spotted Deer 1-7-1972 to 2.991 Tiles S47
(Axis axis) 31-7-1980 34 (2.200-4.000) (65.0-77.0) — (33.0-40.0)
Hog Deer 1-7-1972 to 2.365 57.1 30.0
(Axis porcinus) 31-7-1980 6 (2.000-2.740) (54.0-60.0) (27.0-32.0)
Barking Deer 1-7-1972 to 1.554 51.0 26.6
(Muntiacus muntjak) 31-7-1980 2D, (1.200-2.010) (45.0-56.0) (24.0-30.0)
Mouse Deer 1-7-1972 to 0.319 21.9 14.6
(Tragulus meminna) 31-7-1980 4 (0.288-0.382) (26.5-30.5) (14.0-16.0)
Black Buck 1-7-1972 to 3.276 68.5 38.4
(Antilope cervicapra) 31-7-1980 38) (2.600-4.200) (64.0-75.0) (36.0-44.0)
Four-horned Antelope 1-4-1974 to 0.942 43.4 25.4
(Tetracerus quadricornis) 31-7-1980 i (0.740-1.065 ) (42.0-46.0) (24.0-27.5)
Indian Wild Boar 1-10-1972 to 0.681 36.4 16.2
(Sus scrofa cr istatus ) 31- LG 1980 7 (0. 630- -0.715) G4. 0-38. 0) (15. 5- 17. 0)

The observations on weit and size at

birth of “these eight species of Indian wild
ungulates as reported by earlier workers are
given as follows.

INDIAN SAMBAR: At birth the weight of seven-
teen sambar fawns was from 7.600 Kg to
11.000 Kg with an average of 9.653 Kg, the
length was from 91 cm to 106 cm with an
average of 98.8 cm whereas the shoulder height
was from 53 cm to 58 cm with an average of
55.2 cm (Acharjyo and Misra 1972). The

rage of 72.6 cm and ihe shoulder height was
from 36 cm to 44 cm with an average of 39.7
cm (Acharjyo and Misra 1972). The average
weight of 33 fawns was 3.320 Kg, the average
length was 71 cm and the average shoulder
height was 39 cm at birth (Acharjyo 1970).
The weight at birth of two male spotted deer
fawns was 3.630 and 4.500 and their total
lengths were 77 cm and 74 cm (Sankhala and
Desai 1969).
HOG DEER: At birth the average weight of

373

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

three premature and dead fawns were 1.333
Kg and their average length was 51.7 cm
(Acharjyo and Misra 1972). Sankhala and
Desai (1969) stated that the three Hog deer
fawns weighed from 1.500 Kg to 3.180 Kg
and measured 53.0 cm to 57.8 cm in total
length at birth.

BARKING DEER: According to Sankhala and
Desai (1969) the two male fawns of this spe-
cies of Delhi Zoological Park weighed 1.360
Kg and 2.000 Kg and measured 41.3 cm and
52.0 cm in total length at birth. A barking
deer fawn weighs about 0.550-0.650 Kg at birth
(Walker e¢ al. 1964). The birth weight of nine
fawns was varying from 0.900 Kg to 2.000 Kg
with an average of 1.520 Kg, the length from
tip to tip at birth was from 43 cm to 55 cm
with an average of 50 cm and the shoulder
height was from 25 cm to 30 cm with an
average of 27 cm (Acharjyo 1970). Acharjyo
and Misra (1972) have given the mean weight
of six fawns as 1.250 Kg, the mean length
as 49.1 cm and the mean shouider height as
24.9 cm at birth.

MOUSE DEFR: A female fawn of this species
weighed 203 grams, measured 27 cm in total
length and had a shoulder height of 12.5 cm
(Acharjyo and Misra 1972).

BLACK BUCK: One male black buck young
at birth weighed 4.770 Kg. and measured 71.2
cm in total length (Sankhala and Desai 1969).
According to Acharjyo and Misra (1972) the

VETERINARY ASST. SURGEON,
NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK,
P.O. BaRANG, Dist. CUTTACK (ORISSA).

WILD LIFE CONSERVATION OFFICER, ORISSA,
95-SAHID NAGAR, BHUBANESWAR-751 007,
October 27, 1980.

average weight and size at birth of twelve
blackbuck young were as follows: Weight,
3.558 Kg; the length 70.1 cm and the shoulder
height 39.8 cm.

FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE: The weight and size
at birth of seven young of this species as re-
ported by Acharjyo and Misra (1975) were
as follows: Weight- from 0.75 to 1.2 Kg with
an average of 1.04 Kg, length from tip to tip
—from 42 to 45 cm with an average of 43.5
cm and the shoulder height—from 24.5 to 27
cm with an average of 25.2 cm. At birth one
female young of this species weighed 1.250
Kg and had a total length of 45 cm (Sankhala
and Desai 1969). At birth a fawn of this
species weighed 24 pounds, measured 15 inches
in length and the shoulder height was 10 in-
ches (Shull 1958).

INDIAN WILD BOAR: Seven piglets weighed from
325 to 665 gm with an average of 557.43 gm
and measured 31.5 to 37 cm with an average
of 35 cm and had shoulder heights from 14
to 16.5 cm with an average of 15.36 cm
(Acharjyo and Misra 1974). |

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Shri B. L. Das, LF S.,
Chief Wild Life Warden, Orissa, Shri P. Moha-
patra, I.F.S., Additional Chief Conservator of
Forests, Orissa and Shri S. N. Das, I.F‘S.,
Chief Conservator of Forests, Orissa for the
facilities provided.

L. N. ACHARJYO

CH. G. MISHRA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

ACHARJYO, L. N. (1970): Observation on some
aspects of Reproduction among Common Wild
Mammals in Captivity. Ind. J. Anim. Health, IX
QQ) 25-129:

ACHARJYO, L. N. & Misra, R. (1972): Observa-
tions on weight and size at birth of some Wild
Mammals in Captivity. Cheetal-Journal of the Wild
Life Preservation Society, Vol. 15(2): 64-67.

—— (1974): Weight and size at birth
of two species of Wild Mammals in Captivity. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 71(1): 137-138.

— (1975): A note on the Breeding
Habits of Four-Horned Antelope (Tetracerus quad-

ricornis) in captivity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72
(2): 529-530.

SANKHALA, K. S. & Desa, J. H. (1969): Repro-
ductive pattern of some Indian Mammals. Cheetal-
Journal of the Wild Life Preservation Society of
India, Vol. 12(1): 114-129.

SHULL, E. M. (1958): Notes on the Four-Horn-
ned Antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis) (Blainvil-
le). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(2): 339-340.

WALKER, ERNEST P. et al. (1964): Mammals cf
the world, Vol. I], The Johns Hopkins Press, Balti-
more, pp. 1385.

7. ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD
(FAMILY OTIDIDAE)

INTRODUCTION

In Maharashtra the Great Indian Bustard is
seen in Ahmednagar, Sholapur and Auranga-
bad districts in some numbers. The sur-
vival of the great Indian Bustard in these three
districts is due to the presence of suitable
habitat in the form of new forest areas which
are being developed by D.P.A.P. and which
provides them sufficient cover and food. These
areas are protected from trespassers and aie
used for cultivation of new grass types such
as Hamatu and Scresis under the guidance of
the World Bank.

The present study was undertaken with a
view to develop measures for its conservation
as the bird is on the verge of extinction.

HABITAT

The study was carried out at Nanaj, a small
village 16 km from Sholapur city, and at Kar-
mala of the same District of Maharashtra.
Nanaj village is well known for its grapes.
Under D.P.A.P. Scheme nearly 100 hectares
of stony land 2 km from the village has been
brought under a very successful plantation

programme. The whole area from Sholapur to
Nanaj is bare open rocky land and Nanaj
plantation is the only green patch in it. The
height of the grass is c. 1 m, and the trees
have grown to nearly 1.5 to 2 m. There ts a
small lake also near the plantation.

Karmala Taluka is well known for its bar-
ren landscape. Water is so scarce that people
are not willing to give their daughters to youths
from this place. Under D.P.A.P. Scheme the
forest department is afforesting about 200
hectares of land which the birds inhabitat.

I have seen a number of birds (7 to 12)
at Karmala, another four birds at Akalkot
Road near Sholapur City and 2 at Degaon, a
place hardly 4 km from Sholapur City. The
total number of Bustards in the district will
not be more than 25 today.

STUDY METHODS

The study commenced from 7th September,
1978 and continued till 9th August, 1980, and
covered the hatching period at Nanaj in the
month of September, and breeding period at
Karmala and other places in November, De-
cember, January and March.

375

JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL HIST ® SOGIETY, Vol. 78

I made 15 visits, eight times to Nanaj, (ob-
servation of hatching) 6 times to Karmaija and
twice to other places, like Akalkot and Degaon,
spending 2/3 hours in the morning and even-
ing watching the birds. I counted 12 birds at
Karmala and a pair at Nanaj. Since it is easy
to get near the birds by a jeep, I could count
them easily. One flock, had 6 birds, one male
and 5 females.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Population: A cause of great concern has
been the dwindling numbers, though I was
fortunate enough to locate a flock of 12 in
1978 and 1979, recently I could see only 3
birds and that too after waiting for 3 days.

BREEDING: I saw an egg at Nanaj on 7th
October, 1978 which hatched after twenty
days. The chick died due to heavy rains after
15 days. Again on October 24th 1979 an egg
was found in shallow ground. On this occa-
sion breeding was successful and the chick was
seen running with its mother and when I went
near it took shelter in the grass, keeping ab-
solutely silent for some time. Afterwards it
started making low cries to attract the atten-
tion of the mother. On each occasion only one
egg was laid. The male was not close by..
Though I cannot vouch for it I believe that
the pair was the same in both years.

Food: The grasslands are their usual habi-
tat but they forage for food in the low stand-
ing crop. They thrive on locusts, beetles, vari-
ous other insects, snails, lizards and snakes.
They also feed on grain shoots in the fields,
mainly Bajra and its leaves and berries of
Capparis. | have also seen them eating eggs
of lark and one live sparrow was caught by a
male Bustard. Just to find out the quantity
of insects available for bustard the following
experiment was made. During night a bucket-
ful of water was kept under a fluorescent tube

376

and in the morning the bucket was fuil of
insects (mainly grasshoppers) and the weight
was about | Kg. When these birds walk in
the field, insects fly up and are often caught
in flight.

Calls: In the evening I heard the call of the
male, a bell like “hook”’ which alerts the flock.
Some time the call is a soft ‘hook’. But often
sounds like the bursting of a rubber balloon
can be heard from a long distance. The people
of Karmala recognise its call and can exactly
imitate the sound. ,

Behaviour: The male Bustard is wary and
is usually seen 20 to 30 m from the flock. The
white neck as it stands is very noticeable and
that is why we can see and find it easily.
Among bushes the bird is well camouflaged.
In Bajra crop I have twice seen the bustard
moving slowly with its upright neck looking
just like periscope. Bajra field affords good
protection and is a main crop in this area.
The birds forage from morning to sunset con-
stantly. I have watched a flock of 4 to 5 feed-
ing for nearly 8 to 9 hours in a Hulga plan-
tation at Devichamal, Karmala.

CONCLUSION

My observations suggest that the Bustard is
a resident species in Sholapur District and its
breeding areas need protection. The bustard
is under severe poaching pressure. A _ local
villager offered to get us a chick of the bird
for Rs. 5/- and an adult for Rs. 10/- to 15/-.
Local Tribes kill it mercilessly and sell its
meat. The Forest Department is unable to
protect it. The Police Department does not
know its importance though the bird is on
the verge of extinction.

Local people are not aware that it is a spe-
cies protected by law. The local farmers do
not kill them but also do not give any protec-
tion.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Recommendations: 3

1. There should be more vigorous and effec-
tive conservation programmes.

2. The local people should be educated on
the importance of this bird.

3. After the completion of the D.P.A-P.
Scheme it has been decided to give the
grasslands for sheep grazing. Some arrange-
ments should be made so that the bustard
is not deprived of their feeding ground.

4. Shooting by any weapon should be pro-
hibited.

5. At present the bustard survives in Maha-
rashtra in three widely separated districts.
The proposed sanctuary should be brought

HEAD MASTER,

M. E. S. HicH SCHOOL,
TILAK CHOWK,
SHOLAPUR,

January 8, 1981.

into existence early as possible and a train-
ed ornithologist appointed as _ officer-in-
charge.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Shri Prakash Gole from
Poona who encouraged me to undertake the
study and to Shri Maruti Chitampalli, $.D.F.O.
of Nawegaon bandh District, Bhandara, who
constantly encouraged me to write. This study
would not have been possible without the co-
operation of Shri S. P. Gabale, D.F.O. of
Sholapur and his staff. I thank Shri Arvind
Inamdar, S.P. of Sholapur District.

B. S. KULKARNI

8. OCCURRENCE OF THE SOOTY TERN (STERNA FUSCATA)
IN BOMBAY—AN AUTHENTIC RECORD

At about 6.30 p.m. on 26th May, 1980,
I went to the Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research, situated at the southernmost tip
of Bombay Island, and my attention was
drawn to a dead bird which had been picked
up by a gardener on the Institute Premises.
The specimen was brought to the Socieiy’s
offices and subsequently identified as the
Sooty Tern (Sterna fuscata). It was sexed a
male (Wing 288, Bill 42, Tarsus 19, Tail 159)
and has been added to the Bombay Natural
History Society’s collection under Registration
No. 24422. It has not been possible io deter-
mine the subspecies.

Though older records said that this bird
occurred near Bombay, Abdulali (1970.
JBNHS, 67(/):110-111) discussed the evi-
dence available and concluded that there was

12

no authentic record from this area. He also
questionéd his own record of the bird breed-
ing on the Vengurla Rocks, West coast, India
(1942, JBNHS, 43(3):446-451) as the speci-
mens then examined were not available for re-
examination.

The present specimen would therefore be
the first satisfactory record from this area. It
was of course known to breed in great num-
bers further south at Cherbaniani Reef in the
Laccadive Islands (Hume, 1876, Stray Fea-
thers, Vol. 4 pp. 477).

Incidentally Mr. Abdulali has drawn my
attention to an excellent article by Robertson,
W. and Kahl, M.P. (1980, National Wildlife,
Vol. 18(2):37-39) where there is reference to
a ringed bird of this species surviving for 32
years.

Sh

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

BOMBAY NATURAL HIsTory SOCIETY,
HorRNBILL HOUSE,

SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH Roab,
BomBay-400 023,

August 8, 1980.

V. C. AMBEDKAR

9, EXTENSION OF RANGE OF BROWN WOOD OWL, STRIX
LEPTOGRAMMICA

On June 6th 1980 during a visit to the
summer palace of the Dalai Lama in Lhasa,
at Norbulinka, a colleague picked up a secon-
dary feather of an owl from the ground near
the large pine trees growing outside the villa.
Examination of this single feather which 1s
fresh and in good condition confirms that it
belongs to Strix leptogrammica, presumably
of the subspecies newarensis which is record-
ed from as high as 4000 metres in the adjacent

1 (Ludlow F., Ibis, 1944, p. 373, reports seeing
a species of Strix in conifer forest above Pe and
on the Lusha La in S.E. Tibet, altitude over 3050
metre).

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
WASHINGTON, DC. 20560,
US.A.,

September 23, 1980.

Himalayan range to the south. This is a first
record for Southern Tibet at an altitude of
3,022 metres (122500) feet). 5 Wher presence ar
large trees and groves of willows, poplars,
pines, junipers, elms, walnut, etc. in the neigh-
borhood would provide an ideal habitat for
such a medium-sized reclusive forest species,
although the intervening distance from the
Himalayan slope to the oasis of Lhasa would
indicate infrequent exchange between the
nearby populations in the Himalayas.

It would be interesting if local ornithologists
would confirm the presence of such an owl
in the Lhasa region.

S. DILLON RIPLEY

10. A NOTE ON THE FEEDING HABITS OF SWIFTS (APODIDAE:
APODIFORMES)

Certain species of swifts (Apodiformes)
have been reported to be predaceous on a
variety of insects (Ali and Ripley 1970). The
present observations at two locations in Ma-
durai district in South India indicate the pos-
sible role of these birds as natural controls
during epidemics of certain types of insect
pests and the possible impact of plant pro-
tection chemicals on the food of the birds.

In Oddenchatram area, there was a serious
outbreak of the chilli white aphid, Myzus per-

378

sicae Sulzer. The incidence was fairly heavy
and chemical control failed resulting in over-
crowding and the formation of alates. It was
during this stage that large number of the
swift Apus affinis (J. E. Gray) were attracted
to the aphid-infested fields. These house switts
were observed flying in flocks upto 30-50 hawk-
ing the flying aphids in the air. Their activity
was continuously observed throughout the day
until dusk.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The apterous aphids were not picked direct-
ly from the plants.

At Madurai during a recent serious outbreak
of the rice earhead bug, Leptocorisa acuta
Thunberg, the palm swift, Cypsiurus parvus
(J. E. Gray) was observed to feed on these
bugs in large numbers. These birds were notic-
ed to fly across the fields singly or in small
groups of not more than 3-4 hawking the fly-
ing insects. Their activity appears to be hign
in the morning hours and decreased after

10.00 am. when the temperature here
shoots up even in the months of January and
February.

To combat the rice earhead bug, the dust-
ing of BHC 10% and Carbaryl 10% was re-
sorted to at 25 kg/ha. This treatment was
noticed to drastically affect the activity of the
palm swift, C. parvus batasinensis over the

DEPARTMENT OF AGRL. ENTOMOLOGY,
AGRL. COLLEGE & Res. INSTITUTE,
MapurRa! 625 104,

May 12, 1980.

treated area. A mean of as much as 318 sorties
over an area of one acre was observed over
a two hour period of observation in untreated
plots whereas the treated plots could account
for only 12 in case of BHC and 26 in case
of carbaryl.

The observations indicate the possible poten-
tial of swifts in the natural control of specific
pests in epidemics. The effective action of
BHC and carbaryl and the reduction in flying
insects is also evident from the counts of the
birds hawking over treated and _ untreated
fields.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to thank Drs. S. Jayaraj and M.
N. Alagianagalingam for their suggestions and
encouragements.

S. THIRUMURTHI
D. KRISHNA DOSS

REFERENCE

ALI, SALIM & Ripiey, S. D. (1970): Handboox
of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 4., pp. 25-60.
Oxford University Press, Bombay.

11. GOLDEN ORIOLE ORIOLUS ORIOLUS FEEDING A
FLEDGLING CUCKOO (CUCULUS SP.)

I observed a male Golden Oriole Oviolus
oriolus feeding a fledgling cuckoo. The oriole
and the fledgling were sitting on a Bridelia
retusa tree and the oriole fed the young cuckoo
5 times within 15 minutes, twice the berries

of Bridelia retusa and thrice insects picked up

from the foliage of the same tree. The fledg]-
ing cuckoo fluttered wings, called and crouch-
ed each time it received the food. While hop-
ping from branch to branch in search of food

the oriole also called repeatedly. The cuckoo
followed the oriole when it finally flew away.
This observation was made at Betla Tiger
Reserve, Palamau District, Bihar, North India
on 19 September 1979 in the afternoon.

The young cuckoo was probably an Indian
cuckoo Cuculus micropterus or the Common
Hawk-cuckoo Cuculus varius, both of which
were quite common in that area.

372

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Baker 1934 (NIDiIFICATION vol. 3) does not
mention Oriole as a foster parent of either of
these cuckoos. Salim Ali and Ripley 1969

RESEARCH SCHOLAR,

BoMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY,
SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH RoaD,
BomBay-400 023,

April 19, 1980.

(HANDBOOK 3) mention the Blackheaded oriole
Oriolus xanthornus ceylonensis as one of the
host parents of Indian Cuckoo.

SHAEQUE AHMED YAHYA

12. LARGE RACKET-TAILED DRONGO AND COMMON BABBLER

On 8th December, 1979, a Large Racket-
tailed Drongo (Dicrurus paradiseus) was seen
in company of the Common Babbler (Turdoi-
des caudatus) in a grove of Casuarina (Casu-
arina equisetifolia) and Shisham (Dalbergia
sissoo) in Aligarh in Uttar Pradesh. The Dron-
go was actively catching flying insects but tne
Babbler was not observed to catch any insect.

I had not seen the drongo earlier, during
five years of bird study. According to Whistler
(1935) this species inhabits “the densest and
dampest of the Indian forest, though it is also
found in any well-wooded country and even
comes into gardens’. Ali (1977) says that it
has a patchy distribution, more or less through-
out India south of the Himalayas.

The Drongo which was seen in Aligarh was
certainly a vagrant because it disappeared as
quickly as it appeared. Two days of intensive
search in and around the campus, especiaily

DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY,

ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY,
ALIGARH-202 001, (U.P.),
January 14, 1980.

in the thickly-wooded Scindia Fort near the
University, did not reveal any other specimen
of this species. According to Ali (1977) the
large Racket-tailed Drongo is commonly seen
in hunting parties associated with Tree Pie and
Jungle Babbler. However, it is difficult to
explain the association of the Babbler with
such a transient as this Racket-tailed Drongo.
It is unlikely that the babbler migrated with
the drongo because the Common Babbler is
a resident species and moreover, it is mostly
found in semi-arid and dry country unlike
the Racket-tailed Drongo which prefers damp
forests. The babbler in this case was alone
with the drongo though normally it lives in
flocks of a half dozen or more. It is remark-
able that the Common Babbler made a deep
though short-lived friendship with a vagrant
which it (the babbler) must have met for
the first time in life.

ASAD RAFI RAHMANI

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM (1977): The book of Indian Birds.
(10th edition), Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.

380

WHISTLER, HuGH (1935): Popular Handbook
of Indian Birds. (2nd edition) Gurney & Jackson,

London.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

13. ON THE VALIDITY OF [IRENA PUELLA SIKKIMENSIS
WHISTLER & KINNEAR AND J. P. ANDAMANICA ABDULALI

In 1933 (JBNHS 36 p. 582) Whistler and
Kinnear when working on the birds collected
in the Eastern Ghats separated the Fairy Blue
Bird (rena puella) from northern India and
Burma as sikkimensis (type locality Sukna,
Darjeeling) holding that they were larger
than nominate puella (Latham, type locality
Travancore). Twelve adult males from Sik-
kim and the Duars were measured to have
wings 133.5 to 141 mm. against a similar num-
ber from the southwest measuring 123-131
mm.

In a footnote to /. p. puella in Peters’
CHECKLIST OF THE BIRDS OF THE WORLD (1960
IX p. 307) it was held that as 3 birds from
further east (?) measured 124-140, the small
difference did not warrant subspecific recogni-
tion. Later one of us (H.A.) described another
race, andamanica, from the Andaman Islands
(type locality Long Island, Middle Andaman),
similar to puella in size of wing, but with bill

andamanica

(50 specimens, 30 ¢'c', 20 2 2) has brought
some interesting points to light which may be
worth recording:

1) The six adult females of nominate
puella from southwest India can be separated
from immature birds by their black, contra
horny bills, and show a brightness in the blue
on the upper and lower plumage, most pro-
minent in the tail coverts, which is lacking in
northern females from Darjeeling and Burma
(sikkimensis), as also in those from the Anda-
mans (andamanica). The absence of this
character distinctly separates sikkimensis and
andamanica from nominate puella.

2) The wing measurements of andamanica
and sikkimensis overlap, but the table here-
under will show that andamanica have larger
bills and tails. The latter also have wider bills,
which character is more visible to the eye than
indicated by the measurements.

sikkimensis

Bill from feathers

(3) 24.5, 26.5, 26
(2) 324.2) 274
(DQ), 240,05

(i), 25:5

40 Os i0 Os

(9) 22-25.7 av. 24.4
(AW. 234.203.7243
(Gy) 2a 237 av. 225
(iy, 23.2

Width of bill at nostril

Adult ¢ 4 (3) 8.8, 8.9, 10
2 (5) 9-10.2 av. 9.6
Tail
Adult @ 4 (3) 104, 105, 107
OF (2) 102; 105
mms Sis (C2). 10034107
mars 2.2 (1). 99,

mensis.
In Salim Ali & Ripley’s INDIAN HANDBOOK
(1971, 6 p. 65) both races have been synony-

mised with puella, but a re-examination in the

course of cataloguing the Bombay collection

and tail larger than in both putella and ue

(Oy e8-9°9-av. 8.7)
(4) -85;.8.6,.9:2, 9:2

(9) 90-101 av. 97.7
(S) 90-103 av. 97.2
(5) 91-98 av. 96.2
Gi 93
In addition to this the tail/wing ratio of
andamanica is always 80 or over, while that
of sikkimensis 78 or less.

These differences are, we think, sufficiently
consistent to establish the validity of both
sikkimensis and andamanica.

381

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,
BoMBAY-400 003.

626, HoMAVAZIR Roap,
Dapar Parsi CoLony,
BomBay-400 014,

May 25, 1980.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

NOSHERWAN SETHNA

4. ON THE FIRST RECORD OF OCCURRENCE, OF THREE
PASSERINE BIRDS FROM ANDHRA PRADESH

During the course of avifaunal survey in
January-February 1978 in Adilabad district,
Andhra Pradesh, India, I collected three ex-
amples of the Northern Ashy Wren-Warbler,
Prinia socialis stewarti Blyth, and while work-
ing out the unnamed collections from Andhra
Pradesh, collected by Dr. C. B. Srivastava of
this department in 1970 and by Shri B. Nath
of this department (since retired) in 1962 and
1963, I noted an example of the Assam Purple
Sunbird, Nectarinia asiatica intermedia
(Hume) [Nectariniidae] and two males of the
Blackbacked Indian Robin, Saxicoloides fuli-
cata (Linnaeus), which were collected from
Guntur district, and Nalgonda district respec-
tively. Andhra Pradesh has not been included
in the known distribution of these forms. The
particulars of the specimens are as follows:

1) Northern Ashy Wren-Warbler, Prinia
socialis stewarti Blyth (Aves, Muscicapidae:
Sylviinae).

Material: 24; Birsaipet, c 35 km. north-
east of Kaddam, Adilabad district; February
IZ and) 15, 1978:

12: Kaddam c 48 km. east of Nirmal, Adil-
abad district; February 10, 1978.
Measurements (in mm.):

Wing Tail Bill
23 51(2) 624798 “155.16
LQ 51 63+ 3

Distribution: According to Ali and Ripley
(1973), it ranges from Pakistan in the plains

382

of the upper Indus river system, and northern
India from the Himalayan foothills, south
through the gangetic plain, northern Madhya
Pradesh and eastern Rajasthan to the Kathia-
war peninsula, the Narmada river and southern
Bihar roughly above 20° lat. However, I have
already reported the occurrence of this sub-
Species in Orissa; and the present material
further extends its distributional range to the
south to northern Andhra Pradesh.

2) Assam Purple Sunbird, Nectarinia asia-
tica intermedia (Hume) (Aves, Nectariniidae).

Material: 13; Nagarjuna Sagar, Guntut
District, Andhra Pradesh; February 6, 1970.

Measurements (in mm.): Wing 59, tail 36,
bill 20.

Distribution: According to Baker (1926) and
Ali and Ripley (1974) this subspecies is found
in Assam and Bangladesh. I have (1980) al-
ready recorded its occurrence in Orissa, and
the present specimen further extends its range
to Andhra Pradesh.

3) Blackbacked Indian Robin, Saxicoloides
fulicata fulicata (Linnaeus) (Aves, Muscicapi-
dae: Turdinae).

Material: 238: Devrokonda, Nalgonda dis-
trict, August 20, 1962; and Yelleswara, Nal-
gonda district, October 19, 1963.

Measurements (in mm.): 26; Wing 70, 74;
tail 62, 66: bill 16(2).

According to Ripley (1961), and Ali and
Ripley (1973), this subspecies is found in

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

southern India south of the Krishna river. The
present examples from Nalgonda district,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
INDIAN MUSEUM,

CALCUTTA 700016,
December 27, 1978.

therefore, extends its range further
wards, i.e. north of the Krishna river.

N. MAJUMDAR

north-

REFERENCES

ALI, S. & RipLey, S. D. (1973, 1974): Handbook
of the birds of India and Pakistan. 8: 57; 9: 62; 10:
37. Oxford University Press, Bombay.

BAKER, E. C. S. (1926): Fauna of British India,
Birds, 3: 398. Taylor & Francis, London.

MAsumMDAR, N. (1980): New records of Birds
from Orissa. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(1): 162.

Masumpar, N. (1980): Occurrence of the Bengal

Black Robin, Saxicoloides fulicata erythrura (Lesson)
[Muscicapidae: Turdinae], and the Assam Purple
Sunbird, Nactarinia asiatica intermedia (Hume)
[Nectariniidae] in Orissa State. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 77(2): 334 (1981).

RipLtey, S. D. (1961): A synopsis of the birds
of India and Pakistan. P. 521. Bombay Natural His-
tory Society, Bombay.

15. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE INDIAN MAROONBREASTED
SUNBIRD, NECTARINIA LOTENIA HINDUSTANICA (WHISTLER)
[AVES, NECTARINITDAE], AND THE NORTHERN JUNGLE MYNA,

ACRIDOTHERES FUSCUS FUSCUS

During the avifauna survey in Puri district,
Orissa, in March 1976, I collected two species
of birds, namely, the Indian Maroonbreasted
Sunbird, Nectarinia lotenia hindustanica (Whis-
tler) [Nectariniidae] (one example) and the
Northern Jungle Myna, Acridotheres fuscus
fuscus (Wagler) [Sturnidae] (three examples).
According to standard literature on Indian
Ornithology Baker (1926) and Ali and Ripley
(1972, 1974), the first has not so far been
reported from Orissa, and the latter does not
extend southward beyond the mouth of the
Mahanadi river in Orissa.

Nectarinia lotenia hindustanica (Whistler)

Material: 14: Dbhuanali, 19° 50’N. 85° O5’E.,
alt. 92 m., c. 25 km west of Balugaon, Puri district;
March 12, 1976.

Measurement (in mm.): Wing 57, tail 38, bill
from skull 27.

Weight: 7 g.

Ali and Ripley (1974, p. 2&8) recorded it as
“Fairly common resident in the southern
Indian Peninsula, on the east side north to

(WAGLER) [AVES, STURNIDAE|

the Nallamalai Hills (c. 16°N.) and on the
west side north to the Thana and Kolaba dis:
tricts near Bombay (c. 20°N.). Occurs in the
Jow country and hills up to c. 1600 m~
(Kerala)”’.

Acridotheres fuscus fuscus (Wagler)

Material) V6) 29°29; Dhuanalt, 19° 50° N:.. 85°
05’ E., alt. 92 m, c. 25 km west of Balugaon, Puri
district; March 15, 1976.

Measurement (in mm.) :

Wing Tail Bill from

skull

12 123 73 25
2) 114, 118 68, 72 De PX!

According to Ali and Ripley (1972, p. 183)
this subspecies is known from northern India;
its southern limit extends roughly to a diago-
nal line from Mount Abu in Rajasthan to the
mouth of the Mahanadi river in Orissa (c.
20° 20’ N). The present example from Dhua-
nali, Puri district, therefore, extends its range
further southwards (19° 50’ N.).

383

JOURNAE, BOMBAY TNA URAL EIS iS SO Gian ie ol ie:

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to Dr. B. Biswas, Zoological

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
INDIAN MUSEUM,
CALCUTTA 700 016,
October 30, 1979.

Survey of India, Calcutta, for his valuable
suggesions and for going through the manu-
script.

N. MAJUMDAR

REFERENCES

AI, S. & RipLey, S. D. (1972, 1974): Handbook
of the birds of India and Pakistan, together with
those of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Ceylon. Vols.

5 and 10.
BAKER, E. C. S. (1926): Fauna of British India,
Birds. 3. Taylor & Francis, London.

lo. PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON THE GRAMINIVOROUS MUNIAS
(LONCHURA SPP.) OF BANGALORE

In the Bangalore area there are five species
of munias feeding on cereals and millets. Of
these four L. punctulata (Spotted Munia),
L. malabarica Linn. (Whitethroated Munia),
L. malacca Linn. (Blackheaded Munia), and
L. striata Linn. (Whitebacked Munia), feed
on millets, while the Red Munia (Estrilda
amandava Linn.) was seen only on rice. The
birds cause heavy damage to millets, especially
bajra (Pennisetum typhoides Rich.), by feed-
ing on the earheads, from the milky stage on-
wards.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Observations were made during 1974 to
1976 when the status of all the munias, their
habitat preference and food habits, in general,
were studied under Bangalore conditions. Next
a bajra field (rainfed) of approximately one
thousand sq. m. was selected on the Main
Research Station, University of Agricultural
Sciences, Hebbal, Bangalore. Adjacent to the
bajra plot were plots of ragi (Eleusine cora-
cana Gaertn.) and navane (Sefaria italica
Linn.). Observations were made on the feed-
ing rate (pecks/minute) of different species

384

of munias using a programmable pocket cal-
culator. Counts on the number of different
species of munias visiting the field were also
maintained. A pair of 8 x30 field glasses was
used. The study was conducted during Octo-
ber and November of 1976.

RESULTS

Blackheaded Munia
Blackheaded Munias had the highest feeding
rate (6 pecks/mt.) (Table 1). This bird is
essentially a bird of the wet tract, and was
TABLE 1

FEEDING RATE, HABITAT PREFERENCE AND RELATIVE
ABUNDANCE OF MUNIAS IN THE STUDY AREA

=

Feeding Habitat Per cent

Bird species rate pre- popula-
pecks /mt. ferred tion

Blackheaded

Munia 6.00 Wet tract 1H
Spotted Munia 5.82 Dry tract 33
Whitethroated

Munia 5.41 Dry tract 44
Whitebacked

Munia SG Dry tract 12
Red Munia — Wet tract 0

ST TE PPE ee aE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

more common in paddy fields and therefore
the population was the least (11%) in the bajra
plot which was in the dry tract. The bird is
of relatively lesser importance here.

Whitethroated Munia

The most abundant of the munias in the
study area. It also had a relatively high feed-
ing rate and therefore could be considered as
an important pest. However, it was found that
these birds showed a greater preference for
navane (Sefaria italica) which was grown ad-
jacent to the bajra plot. The feeding rate timed
on navane was 6.1, which showed that the
bird could feed faster on navane than on bajra.
This probably is one of the factors favouring
the birds’ preference for navane. Navane be-
ing a more hardy crop can be effectively used
as a trap-crop for this species.

Spotted Munia

The Spotted Munia was the most common
species on the bajra crop, and second only to
the whitethroated Munia. It had a _ high
feeding rate. Of the four species of muntias
here, this was the most serious pest, hence the
control of its numbers is essential.

Whitebacked Munia

This bird had the lowest feeding rate and
was not common in the study area and can
be considered as the least harmful.

Dept. oF ENTOMOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES,
BANGALORE-560 024.

June 12, 1979.

Feeding hours and mode of feeding:

Munias usually arrive in small flocks to the
bajra fields, and gather first on the power
lines over the field. Later they descend on the
earheads. Normally only one bird alights per
earhead, but occasionally two may be found
for brief periods. After alighting the bird holds
on to the earhead with its feet and works on
it with its powerful beak. The grains are pick-
ed off the earhead, dehusked, cut, and swal-
lowed, some times dropped down, wholly or
partly.

CONCLUSION

In dry tracts, Spotted Munia and White-
throated Munia can cause appreciable damage
to bajra and navane, respectively. Whiteback-
ed Munia and Blackheaded Munia were found
to be of lesser economic importance in the
agroecosystem studied.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

This study was initiated by Dr. Rodger
Mitchell (Fulbright Professor, Ohio State
University, U.S.A.) who besides stimulating
interest was very useful in the field. We ap-
preciate the comments and suggestions given
by Dr. Salim Ali and Dr. G. P. Channa Basa-
vanna (Entomology Department, U.A.S.)
which helped in the preparation of the final
manuscript.

ABRAHAM VERGHESE
A. K. CHAKRAVARTHY

385

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

17. SISKIN (CARDUELIS SPINUS) IN SOLANG NALLA,
HIMACHAL PRADESH

At 13:30 hours on January 25, 1980, while
conducting a wildlife survey associated with
Himachal Wildlife Project, we encountered a
flock of 21 small finches feeding on the seeds
of an Alder tree (Alnus spp.) close to Solang
Nalla, the stream which forms the headwaier
of the river Beas, at an altitude of 2600 m.
AJG, who was quite familiar with the species
from Europe, identified them quickly as Sis-
kins (Carduelis spinus). Initially they were
feeding more than 15 m above the ground,
making their plumage difficult to see, but
later some of the flock descended to within
10 m, allowing the following descriptions to be
made:

“Small, Carduelis-type finches, with deeply notch-

ed tails. Shape and size similar to Goldfinches

(Carduelis carduelis).

Males: green above, greenish-yellow below, shad-

ing to whitish on the belly. Small black bib on

the chin, dark crown, dark streaks on flanks,
yellow wing-bar (double bar on closed wing).

Females: similar to males, but brownish above.

paler yellow below and lacking the black bib

and dark crown. Streaks on flanks and sides to
breast paler, brown.

Call: a dry, twittering trill, Jess liquid than Gold-

finch.”

Observations lasted about 15 minutes, both
observers using 8 x binoculars. Comparison of
size was facilitated by the presence nearby of
a mixed flock of Goldcrests (Regulus regulus),
Crested Black Tits (Parus melanolophus) and
Greenbacked Tits (P. monticolus). The fin-
ches appeared similar in size to the Crested
Black Tits. The presence of a black bib in the

40 FARNHAM CRESCENT,
OTTAWA, ONTARIO, KIK OG2.

O/C WILDLIFE CONSERVATION UNIT,
ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

8 LINDSAY STREET,

CALCUTTA-700 016,

January \, 1981.

386

males appears to rule out the possibility of
any other members of the genus Carduelis and
the green upper parts are also diagnostic. Nei-
ther observer noted the presence of a yellow
rump, but this may have been overlooked be-
cause for much of the time the birds were
only visible from below.

The flock foraged actively, swinging on thin
twigs at the extremities of the branches and
sometimes hanging upside down. The ground
below was liberally scattered with cone scales
as evidence of their work. While feeding they
maintained a continuous low twittering. Even-
ually they all flew off together, calling loudly,
and were not encountered again.

The Siskin is not included in the relevant
volume of the HANDBOOK (Ali & Ripley 1974),
or in the BIRDS OF NEPAL (Fleming ef al.
1975). The breeding” range’ (olathe “species
covers the boreal regions of Europe and the
U.S.S.R. as far east as 75°E and another, dis-
junct, population occurs in the Amur Valley,
Sakhalin and Hokkaido (Dementiev and
Gladkov 1954). Siskins have occurred as vag-
rants in Southeast Asia (King ef al. 1975)
and in Afghanistan (Reeb 1977) but the pre-
sent sighting appears to constitute the first
record for the Indian sub-continent. In view
of the number of birds involved it is possible
that Siskins may be regular winter visitors to
the western Himalayas, an area where obser-
vations have rarely been made in winter, and
anyone visiting the area at this season is urged
to look out for the species.

| A. J. GASTON

S. CHATTOPADHYAYA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Aut, S. AND RIPLEY, S. D. (1974): Handbook of
the Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 10. Oxford
University Press: Bombay.

DEMENTIEV, G. P. AND GLADKov, N. A. (Eds.)
(1954): Birds of the Soviet Union, Vol. 5. Trans-
lated by Israel Program for Scientific Translations:
Jerusalem 1970.

FLEMING, R. L., SR.,

FLEMING, R. L., JR., AND

BANGDEL, L. S. (1975): Field Guide to the Birds
of Nepal. Avalok Publishers: Kathmandu.

KING, B. F., DICKINSON, E. C. AND Woopcock,
M. W. (1975): A Field Guide to the Birds of South-
East Asia. Collins: London.

ReEEB, F. (1977): Contribution a Jlétude de
L’avifaune et des migrations en Afghanistan. A/lauda
45: 293-333.

18. JUVENILE BULL FROGS (RANA TIGERINA) FEEDING ON
FLIES ON RESTING BUFFALOES

On 23rd August 1980 at 9 a.m., on my way
to University, | saw a buffalo lying in a puddle
of water with about six small frogs on its back
vigorously engaged in jumping and catching
the flies that disturbed the buffalo. I could
spend only a few minutes to observe this in-
cident but I noticed that as and when the
frogs jumped and caught the flies, the buffalo
also got restless probably due to irritating
sensation on it’s skin. I could not collect the
flies to identify them but I believe they are

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT,

P.O. Caticut UNIVERSITY-673 635,
October 14, 1980.

either the common house fly or some related
species. Again on 25th September 1980, I saw
3 buffaloes lying in a puddle in front of the
University Examination wing with small frogs
on their back catching flies. A frog collected
from the puddle has been identified as Rana
figerina. | have not read of this type of be-
haviour, and I think that both the buffaloes
and the frogs mutually benefitted from _ this
association.

N. J. GEORGE

19. EGG-LAYING AND NEST-GUARDING BEHAVIOUR OF
ESTUARINE CROCODILE (CROCODYLUS POROSUS, SCHNEIDER)
IN CAPTIVITY

The present communication deals with egg-
laying and nest-guarding behaviour observed
in an estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus)
at the Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa,
India.

The female estuarine crocodile laid eggs for
the first time when she attained a length of
255 cm and at an estimated age of ten years.

The number of eggs laid in four clutches was
29, 34, 35 and 34 eggs. ,
The nest-guarding behaviour in the croco-
dile was observed for a period of 24 months,
corresponding with the period of incubation.
In India, the estuarine or. saltwater croco-
dile (Crocodylus porosus) is known to occur
in the tidal mangrove forests of Sunderbans

387

JOURNAL,

in West Bengal, Bhitar Kanika in Orissa and
in the Union Territory of the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. This communication presents
data on egg-laying and nest-guarding behavi-
our of the estuarine crocodile observed at
Nandankanan Biological Park, Orissa, India.

A female specimen of this species, measur-
ing about one metre and with an estimated
age of about 27 months, was received at the
Park from Paradip area (adjacent to Bhitar
Kanika) on 19th November 1967. It is fed
live fresh-water fish.

From early 1975 the female crocodile Hee
been housed alone (there being no mate) in
a 10.5 x 9.3 m enclosure of which approximate-
ly 1/3 (32.5 sq. m) is taken up by the pool.

RESULTS

Egg-laying

This female first laid on 30 May 1975 in-
side the pool, out of which one damaged
egg was seen floating. The female has laid in
each succeeeding year and the dates of laying
and clutch size are given in Table 1. The nest
is constructed at a distance of about half a
metre from the water’s edge and consists of
soil, sticks and dry leaves in a heap of about
30 cm high above. Although actual egg-laying
was not observed, it is presumed that the eggs
were laid very early in the morning on all
four instances.

TABLE 1

NESTING DATE AND CLUTCH SIZE IN FOUR
SUCCESSIVE YEARS

Date of Laying Number of ) Eggs

30 May 1975 29
4 June 1976 34
Dehunes toi) 35
22 May 1978 34

The mother crocodile laid eggs for the first
time when it had attained a length of 2.55 m

388

BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

and at an estimated age of about ten years.

The oval, hard-shelled and white-coloured
eggs measured 69-80 x 40-48 mm (N=50)
and weighed 70.5-90 g (N=19).
Nest-guarding behaviour

In the first year the mother corocodile did
not show any interest in the eggs as the eggs
were laid inside the pool. But in the subsequent
years it remained for most of the time very
near the nest in a dug out wallow or inside
the pool or sometimes partly over the nesting
site, zealously guarding the nest. At the sign
of the slightest disturbance, it used to reach
the nest-site in one leap with open mouth.

The nest-guarding by the mother continued
for a period of about 24 months, correspond-
ing with the period of incubation. Throughout
the period she remained vicious and never al-
lowed even the keeper to go inside the en-
closure.

DISCUSSION

As there was no male, all the eggs were
infertile but even then the mother crocodile
exhibited the nomal nest-guarding behaviour
of the species. The egg laying season, at least
in captivity, is restricted to late May and the
first few days of June. The inter-egg-laying
period observed numbers 370, 362, and 353
days respectively.

According to Yangprapakorn (1971) this
species reaches sexual maturity at the age of
12-15 years, clutch size is 30-50 eggs and the
incubation period is 78-80 days. Smith (1931)
states that the mother crocodile of this species
remains in the vicinity until the young are hat-
ched, possibly to assist them to water when
they emerge from the shell. He further states
that the clutch size of two nests from Java
were 50 and 60 eggs and the eggs were about
85 x55 mm in size. It is prone to attack hu-
man beings more especially in the breeding
season which takes place during the months

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of June and July (Lydekker 1896, Bustard
and Choudhury 1979). The mother Crocody-
lus porosus digs two wallows wider than but
not so long as her body, close to the nest and
in one or the other crocodile remains there
during the period of incubation (Loveridge
1946). The number of wallows seen near the
nests of this species in North Andaman Island
varies from one to three (Choudhury and
Bustard 1979) and one to four in Northern
Australia (Webb ef al., 1977).

The clutch size of 775 nests of nile crocodile
(Crocodylus niloticus) is given as 25-95 eggs
with an average of 60.4 per nest (Coit 1961).
He further states that very few females (less
than 2%) of nile crocodile were nesting be-
fore they had attained a length of 8 feet (2.44
m) and the largest number of breeding females
occur in the length ranges between 9 feet 6
inches and 11 feet 6 inches (approximately

VETERINARY ASST. SURGEON,
NANDANKANAN BIOLOGICAL PARK,
OrISSA- 754 005.

Witp Lire CONSERVATION OFFICER,
ORISSA,

95-SAHID NAGAR,
BHURANESWAR-/51 CO7,

March 24, 1981.

3-34
m) |.

Wild female gharial shows _ nest-guarding
behaviour (Singh and Bustard 1977). Nest-
guarding behaviour in Nile crocodile (Croco-
dylus niloticus), American alligator (Alligator
mississippiensis) and marsh crocodile (Croco-
dylus palustris) has been observed (Cott
1971). Parental care in crocodilians has also
been reviewed by Bustard (1979). Nest-guard-
ing behaviour has ‘also been observed in spec-
tacled Caiman (Caiman crocodilus) in Mexico
(Alvarez 1969) and in the American crocodile
(Crocodylus acutus) (Ogden and_ Singletary
1973).

m) [(mean length 10 feet 5 inches (3.2

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Dr. H. R. Bustard,
FAO/UNDP Consultant for Crocodiles in
India for going through the manuscript and
offering useful suggestions.

L. N. ACHARJYO

CH. G. MISHRA

REFERENCES

ALVAREZ, DEL Toro M. (1969): Breeding the
spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) at Tuxla
Cutierrez Zoo. Intnl. Zoo. Yrbk. 9: 35-36.

Bustarp, H. R. (1979): Parental care in croco-
dilia, with special reference to Indian Crocodiles—
a review. Indian Crocodiles—Conservation and Re-
search. Occ. Publs. 1. Gen. Croc. Br. Mgmt. Trg.
Inst., Hyderabad, India.

Bustarp, H. R. AND CHouDHURY, B. C. (1979):
Parental care in Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus
porosus Schneider). Indian Crocodiles-Conserva-
tion and Research. Occ. Publs. 1. Cen. Croc. Br.
Mgmt. Trg. Inst., Hyderabad, India.

CHOUDHURY, B. C. AND BUSTARD, H. R. (1979):
Predation on Natural Nests of the Saltwater Croco-
dile (Crocodylus porosus, Schneider) on North
Andaman Island with Notes on the Crocodile Popu-
lation J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76 (2): 311-323.

Cott, H. B. (1961): Scientific results of an En-
quiry into the ecology and economic status of the
Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) in Uganda
and Northern Rhodesia. Trans. zool. Soc. Lond., 29,
211-358.

(1971): Parental care in crocodilia
with special reference to Crocodylus niloticus. Cro-

389

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

codiles. 1, 1.U.C.N. Publs. N.S. Suppl. Pap. No. 32:
166-180.

LoveripGE, A. (1946): Reptiles of the Pacific
World. New York, Macmillan.

LYDEKKER, R. (1896): The Royal Naturai His-
tory. Vol. V, Frederick Warne & Co., London and
New York, pp. 22-24.

OGDEN, J. AND SINGLETARY, C. (1973): Nights of
the Crocodile. Audubon 75(3): 32-37.

SINGH, A. (OK. AND -BUSTARDi He Ro (1977):
Studies on the Indian Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus,

VON Ss

servations on material behaviour. Ind. Forester. 103
(10): 671-678.

SMITH, M. A. (1931): The Fauna of British India.
Reptilia and Amphibia. 7. Taylor and _ Francis.
London, pp. 42-44.

Wess, G. J. W., MESSEL, H. AND MAGNUSSON,
W. (1977): The Nesting of Crocodylus porosus in
Arnhem Land, Northern Australia. Copeia 1977
(2): 238-250.

YANGPRAPAKORN, U. (1971): Captive breeding of
crocodiles in Thailand. Crocodiles. J, 1.U.C.N.
Publs. N.S. Suppl. Pap. No. 32: 98-101.

20. MATERNAL BEHAVIOUR IN THE GHARIAL [GAVIALIS
GANGETICUS (GMELIN) |

(With a text-figure)

Gmelin) (Reptilia, crocodilia), V: preliminary ob-
INTRODUCTION
Observations have been made in _ recent

years on aspects of maternal behaviour in
various species of crocodilians (see Singh and
Bustard 1977, and Bustard 1980, for refer-
ences). Singh and Bustard recorded _nest-
guarding in the gharial and noted that a
female’s visits to the actual nesting site occur-
red around the time of anticipated hatching.
Singh and Bustard assumed that the female’s
presence indicated her intention to assist the
hatching process by digging up the nest, (a
view corroborated by the fact that hatchling
gharial break the egg shell, protrude the head,
and remain in this position calling intermit-
tently until the nest is opened (Bustard ef al.
in prepn.), however, no actual data were re-
corded on this topic. Singh and Bustard were
of the view that due to morphological limita-
tions—the gharial’s greatly elongated jaws, the
location of the eyes and the piercing tooth type
—the gharial would not be able to pick-up
and convey the hatchlings from the nest to the
water.
Bustard

(1980) reported post-natal care

390

lasting many weeks in the gharial.
~OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

We confirm that the gharial does excavate
the nest on the basis of observations which
occurred during the night of 9/10 June 1978
in Chambal River, North India. A gharial
nest was intact at midnight on the 9th June.
At 0500 hours on 10 June there was a well-
marked saucer-shaped excavation measuring
2.57 x 2.10 x 0.4 m deep with tracks of a large
gharial between the water and the excavation
(Figure 1). The distance from the centre of
the excavation to the water was 10.7 m and
the height of the nest above the water was
1.48 m. On the basis of scute length observa-
tions using the technique of Bustard and Singh
(1977) the length of the female was estimated
as 3.4 m.

Twentynine hatchlings were recovered from
the water and further excavation of the nest
disclosed the presence of another 16 still with-
in the nest. Fortyfive eggshells were present
indicating a 100% hatch. We presume that
had we not been present, the mother would

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

= Malice S00 Bi OC ROCNOn SY Gir
“Ses BOOT, Cee NR a fa ote ae Pees TN Oe ec cemece i See

Riek dh:

have returned to the nest in the early morning
and excavated it further.

Apart from the belly slide of the female
only 2 hatchling spoor marks were visible
(Figure 1). (The very fine sand leaves excel-
lent impressions even of animals of the size
of a 2 cm beetle.) This strongly suggests to
us that the female gharial took the young to
the water. Such a view contrasts with that
expressed by Singh and Bustard (1977) who
considered the long snout, the location of the
eyes, and the tooth type of the gharial were
unsuited for picking up and_ holding the

Said a sy Oy et
oe?

pd ene OAS Cee ee a Oe tt-2 wy
OS o-* wins: — o) ad

ce ae e-
‘0 o
os ead

Visual impressions of the excavation, tracks of a large gharial, presumably
a female, between a disturbed area around the nest and the river and two clear tracks
of hatchling gharial leading from the nest site to the river.

hatchlings uninjured.

If the hatchlings were not carried within the
mother’s mouth, they may perhaps have been
carried on her body or moved closely beside
her and their spoor obliterated by her belly
slide. However, in the latter instance, it seems
highly unlikely that there would be no traces
of spoor from individuals which had moved
outside the area of her belly slide. We there-
fore, conclude that the hatchlings were most
likely carried to the water in the mother’s
mouth.

391

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST.

KUKRAIL MANORANJAN VAN,
GAZIPUR,
LucKNow 226010.

CENTRAL CROCODILE BREEDING &
MANAGEMENT TRAINING INSTITUTE,
RAJENDRANAGAR ROAD,

HYDERABAD 500 264,

January 3, 1981.

SOGIETN | VOl78

D. BASU

H. R. BUSTARD

REFERENCES

BustTarp, H. R. (1980): Maternal Care in the
Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin)). British
Journal of Herpetology 6(2): 63-64.

BustarD, H. R. & SincH, L. A. K. (1977):

Stduies on the Indian gharial Gavialis gangeticus
(Gmelin) (Reptilia, Crocodilia)—-I. Estimation of
body length from scute length. Indian Forester 103

(2): 140-149. |

SINGH, L. A. K. & BusTARD, H. R. (1977): Stu-
dies on the Indian gharial (Gavialis gangeticus
(Gmelin) (Reptilia, Crocodilia)—V. Preliminary
Observations on Maternal Behaviour. Indian Fores-
ter 103(10): 671-678.

21. GROWTH RECORDS OF GRASS CARP, CTENOPHARY NGODON
IDELLA VAL. FROM RANKALA TANK, KOLHAPUR

Introduction of Grass Carp, Ctenophyran-
godon idella Val. in weed infested water
bodies has proved to be very successful as a
weed control measure, the world over. Ac-
cording to Nikolskii (1956), the juveniles of
grass carp bigger than 30 mm in length are
almost herbivorous feeding mainly on aquatic
macrophytes. The fish eats food as much as
above 25% to 50% of its body weight every
day in the warm climates, (Woynarovich
1975). Similar example of voluminous feeding
and excellent rate of growth has been report-
ed from a tank known as Rankala at Kolha-
pur in Maharashtra.

The Rankala tank has a thick growth of a
large number of submerged, rooted, emergent
and floating macrophytes. The phytoplankton
is also rich in quantity and quality. The more
common forms found in the tank are diffe-
rent species of Vallisneria, Eichhornia, Pistia,
Lemna, Wolffia, Nymphaea, Nymphoides,

392

Hydrilla, Najas, Potamogeton, Typha, Ipo-
moea, Eleocharis, etc. out of which Hydrilla
and Vallisneria are commonest. The endemic
fauna of the tank is also quite rich and the
fishes like Chela phulo (Ham.), Danio aequip-
innatus (McClelland), Rasbora daniconius
(Ham.), Puntius kolus (Sykes), Garra mullya
(Sykes), Labeo calbasu (Ham.), Labeo_ por-
cellus (Hackel), Rohtee vigorsii (Sykes),
Noemacheilus botius (Ham.), Ompok bimacu-
latus (Bl.), Mystus cavasius (Ham.), Mystus
malabaricus (Jerdon), Mystus seenghala
(Sykes), Wallago attu (BI.), Channa gachua
(Ham.), Channa marulius (Ham.) and Glos-
sogobius giuris (Ham.) are frequently caught.

To observe the effect of grass carp on the
aquatic vegetation of the tank, about 2000
grass carp fingerlings of 6 to 7 cm length were
introduced in the tank in September 1976 by
the local fisheries department. In order to
study growth and rate of survival of the in-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

troduced fish, there was no fishing of the grass
carp from September 1976 to April 1979. In
April 1974 the grass carp introduced as finger-
lings in the tank in 1976 were fished for the
first time using gill net with mesh bar size
Chi

The catch consisted of 13 grass carps along
with other fishes. The growth of the grass
carps was fantastic. In two years seven months
and fifteen days (i.e. about 955 days) the fish
had grown up to an average length of 117
cm, and their weight ranged between 15 kg
to 18.5 kg. In May 1980, another 17 grass
carps were caught and they showed still better
results. The average body length was 125 cm
and the body weight ranged from 20 kg to
35 kg and this growth was achieved in 1365
days.

This growth rate is considered by me to be
one of the best when compared with records
from India and abroad. The growth of grass
carps from different countries as reported by
Jhingran (1976) is given in Table, for com-
parison.

It can be seen from the above table that
the rate of growth shown by the grass carp
from Rankala tank is outstanding. Till the

first experimental fishing (i.e. in 955 days) the
rate of daily growth was 17.5 g/day. It went
up to 19.8 g/day in 1365 days, i.e. at the time
of second fishing. The highest rate of growth
was noticed in between these two fishings, i.e.
11.25 kg body weight in 410 days with the
daily growth rate of 27.4 g/day.

Though the stocking densities are same in
the Rankala and at Singapore, and the average
weight of fish from Singapore is nearer to the
weight of the lowest weight from Rankala, the
fish from Singapore have taken 4.5 months
more to gain this weight. Also the average rate
of daily growth in case of fish from Rankala
is 17.5 gm/day as compared to that of 13.7
gm/day for the fish from Singapore.

It must also be borne in mind that in the
majority of the results expressed above and
elsewhere in this report (except in China and
Russia where the grass carp is endemic), the
experiments were conducted in fish farms, free
from predators and competitors. In certain
cases suitable diet in the form of different
weeds was also supplied to the fish. Also grass
carp is well adopted in South East Asian coun-
tries where it has been introduced a long time
ago.

TABLE
No. Country Age Stocking / ONE. ou CESOE aeons
ee as length weight g/day
cm kg
1. China 2 — 23 1.8-2.3 2.4 to 3.1
2. Hongkong 2 500-1250 30-38 fed 7
3. Malaysia 1 1300 — 1.8 Sud
4. Israel p15) 325--400 — 3.84.4 4.0 to 5.6
5. Thailand 1 857 — 3.0 8.0
6. Singapore 3 200 _ 15.0 13.7
7. India 1.6 300-500 60 27, 4.7
Rankala tank:
2 yrs 7 month 15 days 117 15.0-18.5 LS
955 days 200 (Av. 16.7)
3 yrs 9 months 125 20.0-35.0 19.8
1365 days — (Av. 27.0)
393

13

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

According to Kuronuma (1968) grass carp
from south and central China weighs 6 to 8
kg in four to five years (growth rate 4.2 gm/
day). Whereas in Russia a length of about
48 cm is reached in the 7th year of fish grown
in natural condition (Nikolskii 1961). In Ran-
kala the growth shown by some giant grass
carps in three years and nine months is 35.0
kg, where the rate of growth comes to about
25.6 gm/day.

In India, at Cuttack experimental fish farm,
three year old fishes reached a length of
about 73.8-86.0 cm and weighed 4.45-7.0 kg
(i.e. about 5.3 gm/day), (Alikunhi and Suku-
maran 1964). Sinha and Sharma (1976) have
mentioned the polyculture experiments in
West Bengal where the grass carp grew to
about 2.4 kg in 13 months, a growth rate
which was considered to be satisfactory.

The average rate of growth at Rankala
tank, which is 19.8 gm/day (with a maximum
of 25.6 gm/day), is far more than the growth
rate recorded so far anywhere else. According
to Jhingran (1976), the maximum length and
weight of grass carp reported so far is, 120
cm and 32 kg respectively. The number of
years taken to achieve this growth rate is not
known. Therefore, the length gained by the
grass carp from Rankala 125 cms and weight
35 kg is not only above average but perhaps
larger size will be reached if allowed to grow
for longer time.

DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY,
SHIVAJI UNIVERSITY,
KOLHAPUR-416 004,
August 24, 1980.

394

Vol. 78

This exceptional rate of growth at Rankala
tank is under natural conditions and without
any culture practice, protection against preda-
tors, or supplementary feeding. This fast rate
of growth can be attributed to the availability
of suitable aquatic weeds in large quantity,
warm subtropical temperatures throughout the
year, and lastly low rate of stocking of fish
which was about 200 fish per ha.

It is interesting to note that apparently there
was no obvious change in the density and
quality of aquatic weeds in the tank even after
the introduction of the fast growing grass carp
in the tank. Therefore, the aquatic vegetation
in the tank can support a greater standing
crop of grass carp without significant effect
on the present growth rate of fish. It is not
known whether the browsing of the carps on
the tender branches of aquatic weeds like
Hydrilla sp. help further growth of the piant
instead of eliminating them completely.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to the Bhoiraj Fisheries Co-
operative Society, Kolhapur and the local
office of the State Fisheries Department for
their valuable help, without which it would
not have been possible to write this report.
I am also thankful to Professor V. B. Masure-
kar, for his suggestions during the preparation
of this report.

JAY S. SAMANT

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

ALIKUNHI, K. H. AND SUKUMARAN, K. K. (1964):
Preliminary observations on Chinese Carps in
India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 60 B(3): 171-188.

JHINGRAN, V. G. (1976): Fish and Fisheries of
India, Hindustan Publishing Corporation (India),
New Delhi, 954 pp.

KURONUMA, K. (1968): New system and new
fishes for culture in the Far East. FAO Fish. Rep.

(44) 5: 123-142.

NIKOLSKI, G. V. (1956): Fishes of the Amur
Basin. Moscow Acad. Sci. SSR (in Russian).

(1961): Special Ichthyology, 2 ed.

(Trans. from Russian), Jerusalem. Israel program
for scientific translations, 538 pp.

WOYNAROVICH, E. (1975): Elementry guide to
fish culture in Nepal. FAO Rome, 131 pp (memo).

22. BAMBOO BRIDGE FISHING WITH LIFT NET

(With a text-figure)

The fisherfolk of Nepal have devised varied
fishing methods which may probabiy date back
to basic culture of mankind. During the fish-
ery resource survey of the Kulaekhani area of
Nepal, an unique fishing method was witness-
ed. This is locally known as ‘Thakaulight
Kurnae”’ which means waiting for fish under
bamboo bridge. In the fishing village of Kulae-
khani every fisherman has ownership of his
own ‘“Thakaulighat’’ or ‘‘traditionally owned
fishing section’’. Fishing snow trout sitting on
bamboo platform and dipping and lifting net
is an impressive spectacle that may be observ-
ed in Kulaekhani streams.

For bamboo bridge fishing following acces-
sories are needed:

I. Bamboo bridge:

The bamboo bridge fishing platform is set
above an ideal river section, where quiet pools
and fish shelter occur. The bamboo bridge is
made by stretching green bamboo stems across
two supporting rocks. The bamboo bridge lies
just about 60 cm above the water level of the
fishing pool. The bridge so made is meticul-
ously tied with vines draped with green leafy
twigs of shrubs.

Il. Dip net or lift net:

The lift net is prepared from the fibre of
the plant (Bhoehmeria platyphylla). It is squa-
rish in shape and measures about 125x 125 cm.
The mesh size of the net is about 1.5 cm. The
netting material weighs 60 gm. The four cor-
ners of the lift net are tied respectively and
held between four bamboo poles each measur-
ing 120 cm (figure 1). Each adjacent pair of
bamboo poles is held in each hand of the
fisherman while operating the net in water.
As soon as fishes swim over the net the poles
in each hand are clapped together.

III. Stone slabs:

In the vicinity of the fishing area white
stone slabs are put together. The stone slabs
attract and entice fish to swim nearby and
provide the fisherman good background to see
the fish. The catch is made by dipping the
net, and lifting it from the water at the right
moment when a shoal of snow trout is gather-
ed over the stone slabs.

FISHING OPERATION

A fisherman sits on the bamboo bridge and
watches the water quietly. When he detects a

395

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Riga:

moving shoal of fish, he orients the net in a
favourable plane so that the net hangs loosely.
The swimming fish passing by is then lifted
clear out of water. While operating, the ends
of the lift net are held tightly so that the
captured fish may not escape.
Environmental conditions

The bamboo bridge fishing is practised in
clear water pools of hill streams during spring
and summer. In monsoon this method is not
fruitful due to high turbidity of the water. Ge-
nerally a warm sunlit day is chosen for fishing.
This is an efficient and selective method of
fishing in hill streams. This method is useful
for sampling snow trout population in hill-

396

Showing bamboo bridge fishing with lift net. (B, Bamboo bridge; H, Bamboo
pole; K, Knot of netting material; W. Stone slabs; S, Fish shoal trapped inside the net.

streams as it is selective and allows the fisher-
man to catch only large fish and discard smal-
ler ones. About 5-8 kg. of fish may be har-
vested daily (in 8 hours of fishing) by this
method. The hydrography of Kulaekhani river
has now changed greatly due to the erection
of a dam and diversion of streams. This me-
thod is now used in adjacent hill-streams and
the upper reaches of Kulaekhani Khola, for
capturing snow trout (Schizothorax plagiosto-
mus and S. richardsonii).

Brandt (1972) opined that the term ‘lift net’
and ‘dip net’ bear more or less the same mean-
ing. He preferred use of the former term be-
cause the catch is collected not be dipping

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the nets but by lifting them again. Therefore,
the term ‘lift net’ is used in the present con-
text. Brandt (1972), Went (1964) and Treide
(1965) described lift nets and operating plat-
forms of entirely different design and _ struc-
tures used in fishing in European waters. The
present method of fishing appears to be a novel
type. Enquiries show that the indigenous fish-

CHIEF INVESTIGATOR,

FISH ECOLOGY AND FISHING GEAR STUDY
PROJECT,

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY,

KIRTIPUR, KATHMANDU,

NEPAL,

November 10, 1980.

ing method has been used for over two cen-
turies.

ACK NOWLEDGEMEN1S

I am grateful to National Council for
Science and Technology, Govt. of Nepal for
financial helps, and to Dr. K. L. Shrestha,
secretary NCST, for facilities.

TEJ KUMAR SHRESTHA

REFERENCES

Branpt, A. V. (1972): Fish catching methods
of the world. Fishing News Ltd.

TREIDE, D. (1965): Die Organisierung des indian-
schen Lachsfanges in westlichen Nordamerika Verof-
fentl. des Museums fur volkerkunde zu Leipiz, 14,

Berlin.

WENT, A. E. J. (1964): The pursuit of salmon
in Ireland. Proc. Roy. Irish Academy, 63. Sect, C.
No. 6, 191-244.

23. OCCURRENCE OF A SPECIES OF PALINNOTUS (AMPHIPODA)
ON PORT BLAIR SHORE (ANDAMAN ISLANDS)

(With fifteen text-figures)

While examining the Phytal-faunal associa-
tions of littoral algal samples of Halimeda
opuntia and Jania rubens collected at Port
Blair, Andaman Islands, three specimens of
the extremely rare amphipod genus Palinnotus
Stebbing (1900) were collected. A_ perusal
of literature reveals the existence of only four
species of Palinnotus. The distribution of the
species of this genus is given in Table 1 along
with reference. The present record forms the
first report of Palinnotus from eastern Indian
Ocean.

A brief description and illustrations of the
Palinnotus are given below.

The specimens collected ranged 2 to 3.13
mm in length and 1 to 2 mm in breadth. The
presence of an elongate ovatoquadrate article
2 of the paraepod 5, subquadrate or trapezoi-
dal article 4 of paraepod 5, clawed dactyle of
paraepod 5, a distinct small conical fleshy
palp of first maxilla and well defined median
spination on article 6 of gnathopod 1 and
absence of such spination on gnathopod 2 are
the diagnostic features. The absence of a nasi-
form posterior lobe and distal constriction on
article 2 of paraepod 5 readily differentiate
the specimens from P. natalensis, P. thomsoni
and P. holmesi. The specimens differ from

307

398

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

rn A.& 12, 13 A445 - 4

2-5 mm

Genus Palinnotus Stebbing
Figs. 1-15: 1. Entire Specimen—Dorsal view, 30 mm line; 2. Margins of side plates,
75 mm line; 3. First Antenna, 62.5 mm line; 4. Second Antenna, 75 mm line; 5. Man-
dible, 62.5 mm line; 6. First Maxilla, 50 mm line; 7. Second Maxilla, 62.5 mm line;
8. Maxilliped, 62.5 mm line; 9. First Gnathopod, 62.5 mm line; 10. Second Gnathopod,
50 mm line; 11. Third Paraepod, 50 mm line; 12. Fourth Paraepod, 75 mm line;
13a. Fifth Paraepod, 62.5 mm line; 13b. Fifth Paraepod tip enlarged, 75 mm line;
14. Telson and Uropods, 75 mm line; 15. Pleopod, 75 mm line.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

TABLE 1
Species Locality Reference
I. P. thomsoni New South Wales, Pacific coast Stebbing (1899)

of Australia.

Watson’s bay, New South Wales,
Pacific Coast of Australia.

II. P. natalensis

Travancore, west coast of India,

Tsipingo, Natal,
Africa.
Arbian sea.

II. P. holmesi Japan Sea.

IV. P. alaniphlias
V. Palinnotus sp.

P. alaniphlias in that, in the latter species,
article 2 of paraepod 5 is evenly quadriform
and scarcely broader than article 3 and the
dactyle of paraepod 5 is unclawed. Further,
unlike in P. alaniphlias, the outer plates of the
maxilliped in the Port Blair specimens are
not large and do not extend equally with palp.
In view of the characters used to differentiate
the species in this genus, these differences
should suffice to name a new species. How-
ever, such an attempt is kept in abeyance
because Pillai (1954) and Barnard (1972)
have reported variability of characters within

DEPTT. OF LIFE SCIENCES,

REGIONAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (NCERT),
BHUBANESWAR, (ORISSA),

December 20, 1980.

Hawaii, Pacific Ocean.
Port Blair, Andaman Islands,
Bay of Bengal.

Barnard, J. L. (1972)

East coast of Barnard, K. H. (1940)

Krishna Pillai, N. (1954)

Gurjanova, E. (1938)
Barnard, J. L. (1970)
Present Report

species in this genus.
ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

Grateful thanks are due to Professor Eme-
ritus Dr. P. N. Ganapati, Andhra University
for his constant encouragement and keen in-
terest and to the Commander and crew I.N.S.
Circars, Visakhapatnam for arranging the
Andaman trip for one of us (ALNS). The
authorities of Regional College of Education
(NCERT), Bhubaneswar kindly extended
facilities to carry out the work.

A. L. N. SARMA
D. G. RAO

REFERENCES

BARNARD, J. L. (1970): Sublittoral Gammaridea
(Amphipoda) of the Hawaiian Islands. Smithsonian
Contributions to Zoology. No. 34: 1-286.

(1972): Gammaridean Amphipoda
of Australia, Part-I. Smithsonian Contributions to
Zoology, No. 103: 1-333.

BARNARD, K. H. (1940): Contributions to the
Crustacean fauna of South Africa. 12 further addi-
tions to the Tanaidacea, Isopoda and Amphipoda
together with keys for the identification of hitherto
recorded marine and fresh water species. 4nn. S.
Africa Mus., XXXII, pt. 5: 381-543.

GuRJANOVA, E. (1938): Amphipoda Gammaridea
of Siaukhu Bay and Sudezukhe Bay (Japan Sea).

In: Reports of the Japan Sea Hydrobiological Ex-
pedition of the Zoological Institute of the Academy
of Sciences of the Union of Soviet Socialistic Re-
public in 1934., Part-I: 241-404.

Pitval, N. K. (1954): On the occurrence of Palin-
notus natalensis (Amphipoda) in Travancore. Bul-
letin of the Central Research Institute, University
of Travancore, Series C, 3: 27-29.

STEBBING, T. R. R. (1899): Amphipoda from the
Copenhagan museum and other sources, Part II.
Trans. Linn. Soc. London. VII, 395-432.

(1900): Arctic Crustacea:
collection. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 7,
1-16.

Bruce
Vol. 3:

399

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

24.

ANACHORESIS OF EARTHWORMS

(With a plate & a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION

The present study was undertaken (1) to
examine how far three different species of
earthworms exhibit their individualities in
forming the burrows in the soil of similar
nature and their work output; (2) to observe
the nature of burrowing movements while at-
tempting to enter the soil and the way in which
they draw themselves into the soil; and (3)
to note the movements in a burrow.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Three locally available earthworms, Phere-
tima elongata E. Perr, Lampito mauritii Kin-
berg and Pontoscolex corethrurus Fr. Mull,
were collected from fields and maintained in
the laboratory in troughs filled with garden
soil. Blocks of 10x 10x 110 cm. were prepar-
ed by kneading the soil with sufficient amount
of water. Individual worms were left on each
block covered with small Petri dish in order
to prevent the worm moving away from the
block and to initiate burrowing. After 12
hours the block was carefully sliced both
transversely and vertically and numbered in
X and Y axis to trace the actual path of the
worm and these pieces were dried at 110°C
after removing the worm. Five per cent vinyl
acetate in acetone was introduced into the
holes by means of rubber teated pipette with
a fine nozzle. After polymerization of the vinyl
acetate, casts were collected by dissolving the
block in water and the pieces were washed in
running tap water. The tubular pieces thus
obtained were glued in the same way they
were in the blocks with synthetic resin adhesive
‘Fevicol’ (Pidilite Industries Pvt. Ltd., Bom-
bay).

400

But for the haphazard movement of the
worm, the entire block could have been used
in introducing the vinyl acetate into the track
of the worm. As this was not possible, the
blocks had to be sliced in order to get the cast
of entire track of the worm.

The average diameter of the bore and the
bore and the angle of entry into soil from sur-
face were measured with the help of these
casts. From these data, the work output of
each was calculated using the equation

W=t *r Idg

2

Where W=work done, r=radius of the

burrow cross section, d=density of the soil

material, 1=length of the burrow track,

g=acceleration due to gravity of the place

where the burrow is made

In order to examine the movements of the
worm in a burrow the following experiment
was conducted. One per cent agar (Sarabhai
M. Chemicals, India) gel with 1% cellulose
(Karl Schleicher and Schull... W. Germany)
was prepared by adding the mixture slowly
into boiling water with constant stirring. The
thickened gel was chilled in the refrigerator
in 500 ml beaker. A small depression was
made on the surface of the gel and the worm
was held in the hand in such a manner that
the anterior tip of the worm came into con-
tact with the depression on the gel surface.
As the worm advanced in the medium the
characteristic movements of the prostomium
and anterior segements to make way through
the medium were observed through the trans-
parent gel. Application of water soluble paint
to the posterior tip of the worm would leave
the trail along the path as it moved in the
gel.

nals
:

o ee?

is
wa

ie

J. Bombay NAT. Hist. Soc. 7& PLATE
Kale, Bano & Krishnamoorthy: Earthworms

Fig. 2. Burrow casts of earthworms—A) Pheretima elongata; B) Lampito mauritii;
C) Pontoscolex corethrurus; D) Agar cellulose gel preparation showing burrowing of
Pontoscolex.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs Ie
Pheretima elongata and Pontoscolex corethrurus while attempting to enter soil.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Darwin (1881) noted species—specific dif-
ferences in the time taken by earthworms to
burrow into different kind of soils. The pass-
ing of contractile waves over the anterior half
of the body and the passive withdrawal of the
posterior half during movement was described
by Yapp (1956). The characteristic movements
by the worms while attempting to enter the soil
thus came to be related to soil types in which
they were found. A short funnel-like prostom-
ium and the lifting up of the anterior precli-
tellar segments helped Pheretima elongata to
apply pressure on the soil surface (Fig. 1). The
fine prostomium of Pontescolex corethrurus
which can be extended and withdrawn exerts a
piston like action while making its way into the
soil without the use of body segments; this is
similar to what was reported earlier by Yapp
(1956) (Fig. 1) Lampito mauritii which falls
in between these two genera in applying the
pressure of anterior segments without propul-
sive prostomium, prefers to enter the soil
through the loosened areas and avoids making
a burrow aperture on the smoothened surface.

Diagrammatic representation of prostomium and preclitellar segements of

The burrow casts of worms of these three
species obviously depict their individuality to
work in a given type of soil. Pheretima elon-
gata displays greater excavation of soil while
burrowing than Lampito mauritic and Ponto-
scolex corethrurus (Fig. 2a, b, c, and Table 1).

TABLE 1

THE WORK DONE BY Pheretima elongata, Lampito
mauritii AND Pontoscolex corethrurus IN SoIL

SS PENNE

Work done
Species (ergs per day Q
Mean + S.E.)
Pheretima elongata 7.849=0.22 60°
Lampito mauritii 3.796 0.212 430
Pontoscolex corethrurus 0.376=0.007 153°

OSE sa UE AA a UR Oe
Note: §@ =Angle of worm entry into the soil.

The powerful musculature and prostomium of
Pheretima elongata are suitable for its burrow-
ing to depths of 20 to 75 mm in hard soils
of marshy regions. Lampito mauritti on the:
other hand is active in loose soil. For the
same reason this probably explains why its
numbers are high in arable lands and loose
garden soil. The uncertain nature of move-

401

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

ment of this species could well be made out

in the cast (Fig. 2b) which reveals the hap- ~

hazard movement of the worm. Both burrow
casts (Fig. 2c) and observations made in the
agar cellulose gel (Fig. 2d) show that Ponto-
scolex corethrurus prefers to move almost
parallel to the surface to start with and later
tends to move vertically downwards into the
soil. Under favourable conditions it is found
in subsurface soils.

Recently, Dexter (1978) studied the tunnel-
ling in soil by earthworms. The tunnelling was
independent of soil strength over the range of
micropenetrometer resistance from 0.3 to 3
M Pa. These strengths are obviously larger
than the coelomic fluid pressures. This pos-
sibly would suggest that the worms tunnel by
ingesting soil particles from ahead of them;
even though they can push very loose soil out
of the way.

DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY,

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES,
BANGALORE-560 024,

October 15, 1979.

Previous observations in relation to inter-
specific zonation in the glass cage filled with
soil of homogeneous nature (Kale et al. 1977)
when taken together with the present findings
regarding the anachoresis of these three species
of earthworms bring out in clear focus their
morphological and behavioural adaptation vis-
a-vis their respective habitats. Further investi-
gations are likely to throw more light on these
interesting invertebrates.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are greatly indebted to Prof. J. V. Bhat
of Microbiology Department, Kasturiba Medi-
cal College, for critically going through the
manuscript and for suggestions. We are also
thankful to Dr. R. Narayana, Director of In-
struction (BSH), University of Agricultural
Sciences, Bangalore, for encouragement.

RADHA D. KALE
KUBRA BANO
R. V. KRISHNAMOORTHY

REFERENCES

Darwin, C. (1881): The formation of vegetable
mould through the action of worms with some ob-
servations on their habitats, London.

Dexter, A. R. (1978): Tunnelling in soil by earth-
worms. Soil Biol. Biochem. 5: 447-449.

KALE, R. D., BANo, K. AND KRISHNAMOORTHY,
R. V. (1977): Feeding zones and interspecific zona-
tion in earthworms. Curr. Sci. 46: 79.

YApp, W. B. (1956): Locomotion of worms,
Nature, Lond. 177: 614-616.

25. SOME ENTOMOLOGICAL NOTES FROM A VISIT TO THE .
VALLEY OF FLOWERS

The Valley of Flowers in the Garhwal Hima-
laya is situated at an altitude of C. 11,500 ft.
contains a large and diversified variety of
flowers which have a short span of life during
the summer months. The short span of life
restrict the time available for reproductive acti-
vities. Pollination by insects is one of the major
factors that affect most of the flora in the

402

valley. It was therefore felt that it would be
interesting to study insect fauna in relation
to the flowers of the Valley.

The valley is divided into numerous mea-
dows by the river Pushpavati and several sub-
sidiary streams and a snowbridge. Collections
were made in each area. It was observed that
there was difference in time of flowering for

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

each species of plant. When we reached the
valley on 27th July, the red flowers of Poten-
tilla atrosanguinea were in full boom. After
30th July they started to wither and the yellow
flowers of Potentilla ambigua appeared in large
numbers. Besides these, there were patches of
Pedicularis pectinata; Lentopondium alpinum
and Geranium wallichianum; Anaphalis roy-
leana; Bupleurum himalayense and Androsace
sarmentosa. Single plants of Meconopsis acu-
leata were also observed growing in between
rocks and stones. Silene vulgaris and Codonop-
sis rotundifolia were present at the entrance to
the valley. Plants like Polygonum polystach-
yum and P. rumicifolium and Senecio chrys-
anthemoides were also present at frequent in-
tervals. The creamy white flower of Anemone
narcissiflora started to wither from 7th August.
The fern Polystichium aculeatum occurred in
a big patch in the valley. (See Appendix 1).
During the period of stay, 140 specimens of
insects, and 2 specimens of spiders were col-
lected. Bumble bees (Bombus spp.) and Dip-
terous flies play a major role in pollination.
Flowers of Poftentilla spp. were visited by
Bumble bees and few butterflies only, while
dipterous flies preferred plants with umbelifer-
ous inflorescene. Upto 15 to 20 Syriphid and
Tachinidae flies were observed on a single
plant. Only a few species of butterflies were
seen in the valley and it appeared that they
play a limited role in pollination. Besides the
pollinators, bugs and coccinellidae beetles were
noticed hiding below the leaves and coming
to the upper surface when there was sunshine.
The species collected are listed below.

HEMIPTERA
Family: LYGAEIDAE

Lygaeus equestris. Found on the leaves of
Geranium spp. and Polygonum spp.

Distribution: Common _ Palaearctic
Muree

species,

Family: PENTATOMIDAF

Tolumia lanticep. Found on the leaves of Ge-
ranium and Polygonum spp.

Family: CICADIDAE

Cosmopsaltria sp. One specimen collected from
a tree trunk in the valley.

LEPIDOPTERA
BUTTERFLIES
Family: PAPILIONIDAE

COMMON YELLOW SWALLOWTAIL
chaon. asiatica Men.

Collected from the plateau of the valley of
flowers. One specimen collected across the
snowbridge. Not very common. One or two
specimens were observed flying at a distance.
Sits on Potentilla, Senecio and Anemone spp.
Distribution: Mussoorie, Dist. Dehra Dun; and

3000 to 9000 ft. in Kumaun. Chitral to

Nepal.

Papilio ma-

Family: NYMPHALIDAE

QUEEN OF SPAIN FRITILLARY Argynnis lathonia
i.

Very common throughout the valley. A fast
flier which suddenly settles on flowers. Visits
Geranium wallichianum Sweet, Chamaenerium
lantifolium, and Potentilla atrosanguinea fre-
quently.

Distribution: Mussoorie, Dist. Dehra Dun; and

5000 to 10000 ft. in Kumaun.

PAINTED LADY Vanessa cardui Linn. Common.

Visits Geranium sp. settles on stones and
soil near streams.

Distribution: Mussoorie, Dist. Dehra Dun,

Kashmir, Kulu Valley, and 6000 to 10000

ft. in Kumaun.

403

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

INDIAN TORTOISE SHELL Vanessa cashiirensis
Kollar.

Not very common. Mostly settles on stones,
near dung (cow and horse dung). One speci-
men was collected from the snowbridge sitting
on decaying organic matter.

Distribution: Mussoorie, Dist. Dehra Dun,
and 2000 to 18000 ft. in Kumaun.

Family: PIeRIDAE

COMMON BRIMSTONE Gonepteryx rhamni ne-
palensis Db.

Very common. The female is more numert-
ous than the male. A fast flier which visits
flowers of Potentilla, Geranium, Erigeron,
Pedicularis, and Chamaeneriun.

Distribution: Mussoorie, Dist. Dehra Dun,
and 3000 to 9000 ft. in Kumaun.

DARK CLOUDED YELLOW Colias electo fieldi

Mene.

Common in open field. Visits Pedicularis
pectinata, Impatiens gigantea.

Distribution: Mussoorie, Dist. Dehra Dun,

Dun Valley, and upto 14000 ft. Kumaun.

Family: SATYRIDAE

COMMON SATYR Aulocera swaha Kollar.
Common throughout the valley. Found visit-
ing Pedicularis, Geranium and Anemones.
Distribution: Mussoorie, Dist. Dehra Dun,
Kulu. Valley, 6000 to 10000 ft. in Kumaun.
NARROW BANDED SATYR Aulocera brahminus
Blan.
Common.
Distribution: Mussoorie, Dist. Dehra Dun,
Nila Pass and 6000 to 10000 ft. in Kumaun,
Kulu Valley.

Family: LYCAENIDAE

COMMON COPPER Lycaena phleas Linn.
Common. Moderate flier, flies near the
ground and suddenly settles on flowers like

404

Lentopodium, Bupleurum sp., Androsace sar-
mentosa Wall. Common across the river Push-
pavati.
Distribution: Mussoorie, Dist. Dehra Dun,
and 5000 to 9000 ft. in Kumaun.
YAMFLY Loxura atymnus.
Only one specimen was collected at the en-
trance of the valley.

Distribution: Mussoorie, Dist. Dehra Dun,
4500 ft. in Kumaun.
MOTHS

Family: SATURNIDAE

Actias selene Hub.

Collected at Govindghat.
Distribution: Throughout India.
Leopa katinka Wasw.

Collected at valley of flowers.

Distribution: Himalayas, Assam.

DIPTERA
Family: ScIARIDAE
Leptosciara sp.

Collected on plants with umbeliferous inflore-
scence.

Family: BIBIONIDAE

Bibio sp.
Found on Geranium spp. and Polygonum spp.

Family: EMPIDIDAE

Rhamphomyia sp.
Very common on Polygonum spp.

Family: SYRPHIDAE

Metasyrphus confrater
Wied.

M. luniger Mg.
Eristalis sp.
Chrysotoxum sp.
Cheilosia sp.

Feeding on plants
with Umbeliferous
inflorescenee and
restricted to
certain areas. —

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Family: CALLIPHORIDAE

Calliphora vomitoria L.
Collected on Horse Dung.

Family: TACHINIDAE

Servillia rufoanalis
Macquart
S. ursinoidea Tothill

Collected on plants
with Umbeliferous
inflorescence.
HYMENOPTERA

Family: SPHECIDAE

Psen orientalis Common on

Ectemnius martjanowii — Potentilla
tibeticus Leclerq. spp. and Geranium
spp.

Family: VESPIDAE
Paravespula sp.
Family: TENTHREDINIDAE
Tenthredo sp.
Family: APIDAE

Very common. Collected
on various flowering
plants

Halictus sp.
Bombus sp.

Family: ICHNEUMONIDAE

Netelia sp.
Ichneumon sp.
Ophion sp.

BomMBAY NATURAL HIsTory SOCIETY,
HorNBILL House,

SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH Roapb,
Bomsay-400 023,

March 10, 1981.

COLEOPTERA
Family: CoccINELLIDAE

All specimens were collected from valley.
Adalia luteopicta Muls. on Potentilla spp. and
Geranium spp.
Distribution: Nepal, North East India, China,
Tibet. |
Epilachna ocellata Redte. on Potentilla spp.
and Geranium spp.
Distribution: In the Himalayas from Kashmir
to North Bengal.
Coccinella septempunctata.
Distribution: Throughout India.
The first two species were restricted to some
patches only while the third species was quite
common in the valley.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Project was sponsored by the Sdélim
Ali Nature Conservation Fund. I am thank-
ful to Mr. J. C. Daniel, Curator for his sug-
gestions and encouragement. My thanks are
due to Mr. S. A. Hussain, Mr. P. B. Shekar,
Mr. Vasant Naik and members who accom-
panied, for their co-operation during the Camp.
I am also thankful to the Director, Botanical
Survey of India, Northern Region, for identi-
fying the plants collected at the Valley of
Flowers.

NARESH CHATURVEDI

405

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

APPENDIX I

COMMON FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE VALLEY OF FLOWERS

WN eH

13:

14.
15.
16.
We

18.

19.
20.

21

DapL.

°

Plant Species

RANUNCULACEAE

. *Aconitum falconeri Stapf

* Anemone narcissiflora L.

. *A. rivularis Buch.-Ham.

Thalictrum sps.

PAPAVERACEAE

Meconopsis aculeata Royle

ROSACEAE

*Potentilla atrosanguinea Lod.
*P. ambigua Camb.

COMPOSITAE

. Leontopodium alpinum Cass.

*Senecio chrysanthemoides De.

. Solidago virga aurea L.
. Anaphalis royleana DC.
. Erigeron sps.

GERANIACEAE
*Geranium wallichianum Sweet

POLYGONACEAE

*Polygonum polystachyum Wall.

*P, viviparum L.
*P. rumicifolium Royle
Rumex acetose L.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

*Pedicularis punctata Deene

P. pectinata Wall.
*Euphrasia kurramensis Pennel

SAXIFRAGACEAE
Saxifraga brachypoda Don.
PRIM ULACEAE

* Androsace sarmentosa

Distribution

Few plants observed in the meadow only.
Common growing at frequent intervals.

steel spe
Common at entrance of Valley.

One or two plants growing between stones. Com-
mon throughout Valley.

Throughout Valley.
“dees

Patches observed near streams.

Throughout Valley.

Distributed among other plants.

Several patches seen.

Observed on a meadow at the confluence of the
two streams.

Throughout the valley.

Small patches of shrubs observed frequently.
Bese
ce dig=

Patches of these plants seen only near Pushpavati
river and other smaller streams.

A few patches seen near the entrance to the valley.

Patches seen near streams.

Es cca,

406

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

_— a ae TS a SS OOD OLN RTA a NG SIT DT V9 TON ONTO CG UAE CUNT CTT TRUDI Te PIP MEDS RPS I

FUMARIACEAE
23. *Corydalis ramosa
BALSAMINACEAE
24. *Impatiens gigantea Edgew
ERICACEAE
25. Rhododendron spp.
BORAGINACEAE

26. *Myosotis sylvatica Hoftm.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

27. *Silene vulgaris
28. *Stellaria decumbens Edgew.

CAM PANULACEAE

29. *Codonopsis rotundifolia Benth.

ONAGRACEAE
30. *Epilobium roseum Schreb
FERN

31. Polystichium aculeatum

Common throughout the valley.
Common.
Isolated bushes present throughout the valley.

Dense clumps were observed at the entrance and
in between stones present near nullah.

Common.

Near the Fern patch and also near entrance to the
valley.

Uniformly distributed.

A. big patch.

*—not recorded by B. N. Ghildyal: ‘A Botanical Trip to the Valley of Flowers’, Journ. Bom. nat. Hist.

Soc. Vol. 54, p. 365-386.

26. FIRST RECORD AND A NEW HOST RECORD OF TRICHO-
GRAMMA CHILOTRAEAE NAGARAJA AND NAGARKATTI FROM
THE PUNJAB

The Trichogramma chilotraeae Nagaraja and
Nagarkatti was described from eggs of stem
borer, Chilo infuscatellus Snellen, from Plas-
sey, Nadia District of West Bengal (Nagaraja
and Nagarkatti 1969).

During the survey of natural enemies of
maize and sugarcane borers of the Punjab it
was recovered from the eggs of C. infuscatellus

and C. partellus (Swinhoe) in May and April,
1979 respectively from Jullundur district. This
is the first record of this parasitoid from the
state and from C. partellus. The incidence of
parasitism varied from 13.00 to 16.6 per cent.

The T. chilotraeae was multiplied on the
eggs of Corcyra cephalonica Stainton. It com-
pleted its life cycle in 9-10 days at 26.34

407

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

0.9°C and 69 + 6 per cent relative humidity,
in the laboratory.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Dr. Sudha Nagarkatti,

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY,
PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,
LUDHIANA, PUNJAB, INDIA,
January 2, 1980.

Project Coordinator, National Centre for Bio-
logical Control, Bangalore for the identification
of parasitoids. Our thanks are also due to the
Professor-cum-Head, Department of Entomo-
logy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana
for providing the facilities for research work.

MANINDER
G. C. VARMA

REFERENCE

NAGARAJA, H. AND NAGARKATTI, S. (1969): Three
new species of Trichogramma (Hymenoptera: Tri-

chogrammatidae)
(4): 393-400.

from India.

Entomophaga 41:

27. THE CARPENTER BEE (XYLOCOPA FENESTRA) IN THE
INDIAN THAR DESERT

The Carpenter-bee (Xylocopa fenestra), on
the one hand damages timber and on the other
acts aS a prominent pollinating agent. Hence
it is of much economic and biological import-
ance. These observations on Xylocopa were
made around Jodhpur city ,and desert areas
of Jodhpur and Jaisalmer districts from Feb-
ruary 1976 to May 1979.

Habitat and distribution. Light jungles of
Acacia senegal as well as of Calotropis pro-
cera, large orchards and gardens, agricultural
farms having large trees and vegetable crops
and villages having thatched huts were the
favourite haunts of Xylocopa and Calotropis
scrub and gardens with large flower flowering
trees were the preferred habitats.

Roost sites (tunnels). For the roost tunnels,
thick Calotropis shrubs were preferred, in the
wild. Its roost tunnels were observed in thick
dry stems of Capparis, castor (Ricinus com-
munis) grown in farms and courts of houses
and Jatropha gossypifolia in gardens. The tun-
nels were also observed in the dry wood of

408

several other trees such as Prosopis cineraria,
Ficus religiosa and Acacia senegal etc.

In city areas it has taken to roosting in
empty open water pipes of houses, five Xylo-
copas have been living in such pipes in my
house.

Favourite flowers

IN THE WILD. Calotropis procera and Tephro-
sia purpurea were observed to be the most
favourite flowers for the Xylocopa, next were
Tecomella undulata, Prosopis cineraria, P.
juliflora and Solanum xanthocarpus etc.

IN GARDENS. Hollyhock (Althae rosea), Cas-
sia fistula, C. siamea, Luffa spp., Cucurbita
spp., Antirrhinum orontium, Adhatoda vasica,
and Ipomoea carnea flowers were the favourite
cultivated flora of Xylocopa. .

Daily activities cycle. On mild winter days, it
comes out about 30-45 minutes after sunrise
and flies around most of the day (except at
noon, if gets too hot) till sunset. In sum-
mer, it comes out early, about 30 minutes be-
fore sunrise and flies around for about three

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

hours after sunrise, then retreats to its hideout
and again emerges late in afternoon about two
hours before sunset to 30 minutes past sunset.
Annual activities cycle. It was observed under
hibernation from late November to early Feb-
ruary when temperature is below 24°C, yet it
was occasionally observed hovering during the
mid-day on warm spells during the winter. It
was observed to be in semiaestivation from
May to June, when temperature rises above
35°C and humidity was low (less than 60%),
flighting only in the early morning and late
afternoon.

In the rainy season it was active after rains,

BHAGWATI BHAVAN,
RATANADA ROAD,
JODHPUR-342 020,
June 19, 1979.

but hides during showers.

Predators. Calotes versicolor picks up the un-
wary Xylocopa. The green bee-eater (Merops
orientalis), drongo (Dicrurus adsimilis) and
the grey shrike (Lanius excubitor) were also
observed, occasionally taking Xylocopa. Moni-
tor lizard (Varanus sp.) catch them close to
the roost site tunnel (log or dry branch of a
tree).

Breeding. The young were mainly observed in
March. The breeding tunnels were seen in
Calotropis, Capparis and Prosopis cineraria
trees or Shrubs and dry wood stems.

INDRA KUMAR SHARMA

28. CATOPSILIA CROCALE/POMONA

I refer to R. K. Varshney’s paper under the
title Revised Nomenclature for Taxa in Wyn-
ter-Blyth’s book on the BUTTERFLIES OF
INDIAN REGION (1980, J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc., 76 (1): 33-41) and his new combination
of Catopsilia crocale crocale Cr. and Catop-
silia crocale pomona F. and his statement that
“numerous authors have reported that they
interbreed in the nature and are, thus, conspe-
cific’. Talbot “FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, But-
terflies, 1. (2nd edit.) is not mearly as categoric
as Varshney implies. He writes “in the Indian
area there is no difficulty in separating them,
but in the Malayan islands, and in Australia
and New Guinea, the characters, so constant
in India, become intermixed and much diffi-
culty is experienced in separating the two
forms’. He goes on to quote Corbet as saying
that in Malaya pairs found in copula are al-
ways crocale X crocale or pomona * pomona,
and adds a remark by Corbet that he(Corbet)

feels certain that in Malaya they are not con-
specific, whatever may be the position in the
more easterly parts of their range. Frustorfer,
in Setz’ INDO-AUSTRALIAN RHOPALOCERA, states
categorically that the genitalia differ, in contra-
diction to Talbot, who states that they are the
same. Frustorfer goes on to write that both
de Niceville and Hagen state that both species
have been bred from the same brood. In spite
of these statements, both Frustorfer and Tal-
bot treat the two as separate species. In Aus-
tralia, I.F.B. Common in AUSTRALIAN BUTTER-
FLIES (Jacaranda Pocket Guides) treats both
as forms, not subspecies, of C. pomona and
says nothing about interbreeding.

Personally, I would prefer to treat them as
separate species until considerably more ex-
perimental breeding has been done. With the
technique of hand-pairing this should not be
difficult.

I also wonder how careful and accurate de

409

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Niceville and Hagen’s breeding records were.
Here, in East Africa, we once had a classic
example of the chaos that can be caused by
a laboratory assistant trying to conceal casua-
lities in his cultures. Working on the black
Charaxes, in an attempt to work out the rela-
tionship between the various forms of female
and the related males, this individual replaced

P. O. Box 95617,
MoMBASA,
KENYA,

July 2, 1980.

dead larvae in his broods with others collect-
ed from the bush (the larvae of several species
are almost impossible to separate) and, as a
result, associated separate and distinct species
as members of the progeny of the same female.
It took much time and trouble to sort out
the resulting muddle.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO

29. ROLE OF PARASITES AND PATHOGENS IN THE NATURAL
CONTROL OF SAFFLOWER CATERPILLAR, PERIGEA CAPENSIS
GUEN.

Safflower caterpillar, Perigea capensis Guen.
(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is one of the most
destructive pests of safflower (Carthamus tin-
ctorius Linn.) and niger (Guizotia abyssinica
Cass.) and is widely distributed throughout
India (Narayanan 1961).

In Central India, the pest remains active
from July to February and infests niger from
July to October and safflower from October to
February. During the course of investigations
during 1976-77, five hymenopterous parasites
namely Apenteles ruficrus Holiday, Rogas per-
currens Lyle, Eriborus argenteopilosus Cam,
Euplectus euplexiae Roh. and a nematode par-
asite (Mermis sp.), nuclear polyhedral virus
and a green muscardine fungus (Metarrhizium
anisopliae) were recorded as natural enemies
of the larvae of P. capensis. The previous re-
cords of the larval parasites of the pest are
A. ruficrus, R. percurrens (Narayanan, 1961);
Protapenteles sp., Heterogamus sp., E. euple-
xiae (Ayyar, 1920); Apanteles antipoda
(Wilkinson, 1929) and A. fluripes, Chelonus
munakata (Lal, 1944). During the present
studies FE. argenteopilosus, Habrocytus sp.,

410

Mermis sp., nuclear polyhedral virus and fun-
gus M. anisopliae were recorded for the first
time on the insect.

The percentage parasitization by important
parasites and pathogens is presented in Table 1.

A rufricus remained active from first week
of August to first week of February and para-
sitized on an average 13.0 per cent larvae,
with maximum of 30.7 pe rcent parasitization
in the first week of October. R. percurrens
started its activity from first week of Septem-
ber and remained active upto first week of
February, parasitizing on an average 19.0 per
cent larvae during its active period. With a
maximum of 42.4 per cent in the second week
of Novmber. FE. argenteoplosus remained
active only during September and October
and parasitized maximum 2.0 per cent larvae
in the first week of September. Two other
hymenopterous parasites FE. euplexiae and
Habrocytus sp. have no significance in the
natural control of P. capensis as they parasitiz-
ed less than 0.5 per cent larvae only during
November-December.

Nuclear polyhedral virus was the most

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

TABLE 1

PERCENTAGE LARVAL PARASITIZATION OF Perigea capensis GUEN. BY IMPORTANT PARASITES AND PATHOGENS

oa A. ruficrus R. percu- E. argent- Mermis M. ani- N.P.V.
week) rrens copilosus sp. sopliae
July
16-22 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
23-27 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
August
30-5 6.7 0.0 0.0 6.7 0.0 20.0
6-12 5.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Q2)2
13-19 8.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 29.2
20-26 11.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 38.5
27-2 11.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 33213
September
3-9 5.1 2.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 152
10-16 4.7 Dil 2.0 1.3 2.0 133
17-23 5.9 3.9 0.7 2.0 2.6 15.0
24-30 4.8 2.4 0.8 1.6 2.4 13.7
October
1-7 30.7 10.7 0.0 2.9 3.6 21.4
8-14 29.7 : 9.4 1.4 1.4 Die. 20.3
15-21 29.4 8.1 0.7 0.7 Died, 18.4
22-28 23-1 38.5 0.8 0.0 LS 77
November
29-4 16.3 38.8 0.0 0.0 23 17k
5-11 14.4 42.4 0.0 0.0 1.6 16.8
12-18 13.3 41.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.7
19-25 a) S15 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.7
26-2 12.8 39.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 16.2
December
3-9 16.2 14.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.4
10-16 Li 15.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 20.0
17-23 14-3 Mt 0.0 0.0 0.0 22.9
24-31 18.2 OT 0.0 0.0 0.0 31.8
January
1-7 10.5 31.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 31.6
8-14 20.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 40.0
15-21 14.3 Veil 0.0 0.0 0.0 35.07
22-28 9.1 9.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 9.1
February
29-4 16.7 16.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
5-11 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Average
during 14.16 19.58 1.05 1.56 2.34 2.97

active period

411

14

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

effective agent for the natural control of the
pest infecting on an average 21.8 per cent

larvae during its active period from first week —

of August to last week of January. Maximum
40.0 per cent larval infection was observed in

the second week of January. The infection —

of green Muscerdine fungus (M. anisopleae)
was seen in the first week of September and
continued up to second week of November
with maximum 3.6 per cent infection in the
first week of October. The incidence of Mer-
mis sp. waS maximum 6.7 per cent in the
first. week of August, although its activity

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY,
J. N. AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,
JABALPUR-482 004,

September 25, 1980.

continued upto the third week of October
but the incidence was low. | |

A. ruficrus, R. percurrens and nuclear poly-
hedral virus were the most potential agents
for the natural control of the larvae of. P.
capensis and wiped out together 66.5 to 80.2
per cent larval population from the last week
of October to last week of November.

~ ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to Dr. R. R. Rawat, Pro-
fessor and Head, Department of Entomology,
J.N.K.V., Jabalpur for providing facilities.

K. C. PALIWAL
S. S. JAKHMOLA

REFERENCES

AyyYar, RAMKRISHNA, T. V. (1920): On the in-
sect parasites of some Indian crop pests. Proc. 3rd
Ent. Mtz., pp. 931-936.

LaL, K. B. (1944): Description of two new and
redescription of a third species of Apenteles (Bra-
conidae) from India. Indian J. Ent. 4: 163-166.

NARAYANAN, E. S. (1961): Monograph of Niger

and Safflower. The Indian Central. Oilseeds Com-
mittee, Hyderabad, pp. 150.

WILKINSON, D. S. (1929): A _ revision of the
Indo-Australian species of the genus Apanteles
(Hymenoptera: Bracon) Part I and I. Bull. Ent.
Res. 19: 79-105; 109-146.

30. INCIDENCE OF JOWAR ARMY WORM, MYTHIMNA SEPARATA
(WALKER) (LEPIDOPTERA: NOCTUIDAE) ON MAIZE COBS

The army worm, Mythimna separata (Wal-
ker) is known to be an important defoliator of
jowar. This species has also been reported to
infest maize, paddy, wheat, oats and other
millets (Ghosh 1924).

During the months of September-October,
1979, we observed the caterpillars of M. sepa-
rata. damaging severely the cobs of maize at
the Regional Research Station, University of

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY,
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE,
DuHaARWAR-580 005,

September 3, 1980.

412.

Agricultural Sciences, Dharwar Campus. Kar-
nataka. The caterpillars fed on the silk of the
cob and also on the developing tender grains
at the tip of the cob. The number of cater-
pillars per cob ranged from one to two. The
percentage of damaged cobs ranged from 15.87
to 60.86 in different plots, the average being
36.62. ’

R. GOVINDAN

J. S.§ AWAKNAVAR
C. THIPPESWAMY
M. C. DEVAIAH

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCE

GHOoSH, C. C. (1924): A note on the occurrence
of Cirphis unipuncta (Haw.) in the role of army
worm. Rep. Proc. 5th Ent. meeting, Pusa, pp. 90-91.

31. NEW RECORD OF PYGAERA RESTITURA WALKER (NOTO-
DONTIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA) ON POPLAR

Poplar is an important deciduous forest/
ornamental tree in India. In October 1975,
a serious incidence of Pygaera restitura Wal-
ker was observed. The trees had a withered
look owing to the severe feeding on the leaves
by the larvae of this insect. The young larvae
were gregarious in feeding. They nibble from
the undersurface of the leaves and only the
epicuticle was left. The older instar larvae
were solitary and completely devoured the
leaves, leaving behind only the main veins.
The pupae concealed in silken cocoons were
also found either in a rolled leaf or by the
joining two or three leaves by silken threads.

The adults obtained by rearing these larvae

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY,
PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,
LUDHIANA,

January 11, 1980.

were identified as Pygaera restitura Walker.
In India this insect is so far known to infest
Casearia tomentosa in South Coorg (Gardner
1943) However, a related species, ie. P. ana-
stomosis L. (=Clostera anastomosis) is fe-
corded from poplar in U.S.S.R. (Egorov
1962) and Yugoslavia (Maksimovic 1973).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

f am _ thankful to the Director, Common-
wealth Institute of Entomology, London for
identification and to Dr. O. S. Bindra, the then
Prof. and Head, Department of Entomology,
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana for
providing facilities.

G. S. MANN

REFERENCES

Ecorov, N. N. (1962): On the biology of Pyga-
era anastomosis LL. (Lepidoptera,
(In Russian). Rev. Ent. URSS. 41: 294-99
RAE, 52:256).

GARDNER, J. C. M. (1943): Immature stages of

(fide

Notodontidae) --

Indian Lepidoptera (5). Indian J. Ent. V: 89-105.

Maksimovic, M. (1973): Contribution to the
investigation of the population dynamics of Clos-
tera anastomosis L. during an outbreak. Sastita
Bilia, 24: 351-73 (fide RAE, 64: 3052).

32. EUPATORIUM CAPILLIFOLIUM (DOG-FENNEL)
NATURALISING IN INDIA

(With a text-figure)

During a recent botanical trip to Arunachal
Pradesh we collected specimens of FEupato-
rium capillifolium (amk.) Small, from Deo-

mali in Tirap Forest Division where this spe-
cies is grown in the Forest Rest House com-
pound as an ornamental plant. From the wiry,

413.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Fig. 1. Eupatorium capillifolium (Lamk,) Small
A, Shoot; B, Flower; C, Corolla and achene.

414

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

tangled nature of the branches, the plant had
a superficial resemblance to Ephedra foliata.
Deb (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70(1): 92.
1973) has also reported that it is cultivated
as a garden plant in Margherita—Jairampur.
Evidently, it must be becoming a popular per-
ennial in gardens at other places also. Lately,
a few specimens were received for identifica-
tion from Saugar University (M.P.) where the
collector, T. R. Sahu recorded the plant to be
found growing wild in marshy places in Hos-
hangabad. This would mean that Eupatorium
capillifolium has, in all probability, escaped
from cultivation and run wild in that area.
The plant is otherwise native of Southern
United States, and there are about 5 more
South American species of Eupatorium which
have already become naturalised in India.

Eupatorium — capillifolium (Lamk.) Small,
Mem. Torr. Club. 5:311. 1894; Britton &
Brown, Ill. Fl. North United States, Canada
3:307, f. 2. 1898; Britton, Fl. Bermuda, 387.
f. 2. 1918; Britton, Bhama, FI. 437. 1920—
Artemisia capillifolia Lamk. Encycl. 1:267.

SYSTEMATIC BOTANY BRANCH,

FoREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE & COLLEGES,
DeEHRA DuwuN,

June 10, 1980.

1783—Eupatorium foeniculaceum Willd. Sp.
Pl 32750. 1804.

Erect, paniculately much branched. Stem
finely pubescent, 1-3 m high. Leaves crowded,
dissected into filiform segments, glabrous, al-
ternate, the lower petioled, the upper sessile.
Head numerous. c 3 mm, short-peduncled,
racemose-paniculate, 3-6-flowered; involucral
bracts in about 2 series, linear, cuspidate, nar-
rowly scarious-margined, glabrous. Flowers
greenish white or yellowish. Corolla regular,
tube slender, 5-lobed. Anthers obtuse and en-
tire at the base. Style branches elongated.
Achene 5-angled. Pappus numerous capillary,
scabrous bristles arranged in one row.
Specimens examined:

Vaid & Naithani Ser. Il No. 731, Deomali,
Arunachal Pradesh, 5-11-1976 (Cult.).

T. R. Sahu, s.n. Hoshangabad (Madhya Pra-
desh) Feb.-April 1979.

Distribution: Southern United States, Bermu-
da, Bahamas, Cuba and West Indies.
English Name: Dog-Fennel, French-Fennel.
Use: As an ornamental in gardens.

K. M. VAID
H. B. NAITHANI

33. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF BIHAR AND ORISSA-II

During the course of detailed botanical ex-
plorations in Ganjam district of Orissa by
us for the last seven years, several in-
teresting plants were collected. Reported here
are 14 species which were not hitherto record-
ed from Bihar and Orissa. Syzygium cunea-
tum (Duthie) Wall ex Brahmam & Saxena,
a new nomenclatural combination.

The specimens are preserved in the herbar-
ium of the Regional Research Laboratory,
Bhubaneswar.

Acalypha racemosa Wall. ex Bail

A. paniculata Mig.

Brudhakhol, common _ roadside weed, fl.
& fr. 4.vii.77. Brahmam 2623. Also seen at
Buguda and Berhampur.

Distribution: Deccan Peninsula; Sri Lanka,
Java and Tropical Africa.

Aganosma cymosa (Roxb.) G. Don
Echytes cymosa Roxb.
Mahendragiri, 1000 m., in mixed forests

415

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

along streams, fr. 25.x.78. Saxena & Brahmam
3546.

Local names: Madiki (Saora), Malti (Ori-
ya).

Distribution: Western Peninsula;
Sri Lanka, China.

Silhet,

Argyreia choisyana (Wight) Wight ex C.B.
Clarke

Batatas choisyana Wight

Chandiput, a climber, seen climbing over
hedges, fr. 6.x1.73. Saxena 1438.

Sorada, fl. 16.1x.77. Saxena 2889.

Khallikote, in thickets, fl. 10.vii.77. Brahmam
3314.

Distribution: Deccan, hills of the ceded dis-
tricts.

Combretum latifolium Blume

C. extensum Roxb. ex D. Don

Adava, in the forest along a
26.11.78, Saxena & Brahmam 3322.

Brudhakhol, fl. 1.10.78 Saxena & Brahmam
3293.

Distribution: Deccan Peninsula, Sri Lanka,
Singapore. Burma, Indochina, Thailand, Ma-
laysia.

Cyanotis vaga (Lour.) J. A. & J. H. Schultes

C. barbata D. Don

Mahendragiri, 1000 m. in moist situations.
fl. 25.x.78. Saxena & Brahmam 3648.

Distribution: Subtropical Himalaya from
Kashmir to Khasia Mountains, Burma, China,
Java.

stream, fi.

Dunbaria conspersa Benth.
Serango, 800 m., fl. & fr. 1.x1.73 Saxena
ee
Distribution: | Eastern tropical Himalayas,
North Bengal, Duars, Assam, Western Penin-
sula; Silhet, Malaya, China and North Aus-
tralia.
Justicia glabra Koenig ex Roxb.
Raphidospera glabra (Roxb.) Nees

416

Narayani, in the forest undergrowth, fl. &

fr. 8.iv.77. Saxena, Brahmam & Panigrahi
2508, 2514.
Mahendragiri, 1000 m. fl. & fr. 24.x.78.

Saxena & Brahmam 3357.
Ganjam fort, in shady places, fl. 8.vii.77.
Brahmam 2508.
Distribution:
Lanka, Java.

South Deccan Peninsula; Sri

Justicia prostrata (C. B. Clarke) Gamble
J. diffusa Willd. var. prostrata C. B. Clarke
Rambha, in open grassy places close to
Chilka lake, fl. & fr. 8.1v.77. Saxena, Brah-
mam & Panigrahi 2491.
Parsurampur, fl. 31.x.73 Saxena 1122.
Distribution: Madras, Karnataka, South-
wards to S. Travancore; Sri Lanka.

Maoutia puya (Hook.) Wedd.

Boehmeria puya Hook.

Mahendragiri, 1000-1300 m., on hillsides, fl.
23.x1.79. Saxena & Brahmam 3969.

Distribution: Himalayas from Garhwal &
Assam; Burma, Japan.

Moschosma polystachyum Benth.
Serango, along paths in the forest, fl. 5.1.78.
Brahmam 2976. Also seen at Ajayagad.
Distribution: Deccan Peninsula, West Ben-
gal; Sri Lanka, Burma, Java, Philippines,
China and Tropical Africa.

Polystachya flavescens (Blume) J. J. Smith
P. wightii Reichb.
P. purpurea Wight
Mahendragiri, 1350 m, an epiphyte, fr.
25.x.78. Saxena & Brahmam 3621.
Distribution: N. Kanara, Western Ghats
Southwards at 600-1200 m; Sri Lanka, Malaya,
Sumatra, Philippines.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Sida rhombifolia Linn. ssp. retusa (Linn.)
Borssum
S. rhombifolia
Mast. |
Mahendragiri, 1200 m., in open forest, fl.
& fr. 26.x.78 Saxena & Brahmam 3695.
Distribution: Tropics of both hemispheres.

Linn. var. retusa (Linn.)

Sophora interrupta Bedd.
Mahendragiri, 1300 m, in exposed. places,
fl. & fr. 22.xi1.79. Saxena & Brahmam 3868.
Distribution: Cuddapah to North Arcot and
hills of Karnataka.

Syzygium cuneatum (Duthie) Wall. ex Brah-
mam et Saxena comb. nov.

REGIONAL RESEARCH LABORATORY,
BHUBANESWAR-751 013,
April 5, 1980.

Eugenia cuneata Duthie in Hook. f., FI.
Brit. India 2:495, 1978.

Mahendragiri, 1300 m in exposed places.
Saxena & Brahmam 3723.

Distribution: ‘Khasia Mountains,
m; Silhet.

900-1500

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Prof. P. K. Jena, Direc-
tor and Dr. P. K. Dutta, Project Coordinator,
Regional Research Laboratory, Bhubaneswar
for the facilities and to the Director, Botanical
Survey. of India and the staff of the Central
National Herbarium, Howrah for their co-
operation and facilities provided for consulting
the Herbarium.

M. BRAHMAM
H. O. SAXENA

34. A SHORT NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF LASIA
HETEROPHY LLA SCHOTT IN MAHARASHTRA

(With two text-figures)

During the plant exploration of Bhandara
district, Maharashtra State Lasia heterophylla
Schott was found along streams in thick forest.
This species has not been recorded earlier by
Cooke (1901-1908). or Haines (1916). Hence
it is a mew record for Maharashtra State.
However. the species is reported from Rampa
Hills in Madras Presidency (Gamble 1928).

Singhbhum in Bihar (Haines pe and Ben--

gal (Prain 1903).

In view of its rarity and spschi of any
known published illustration for the plant a
line drawing is given along with a brief des-
cription. -

Lasia hetcraphyila Schott, Maletemata bota-
mica, 21,1832: Hook, Fl. Brit.“Ind. “62° 550.
1893.

A stout, prickly, marsh plant. Rhizome,
densely spinous. Leaves, when young, hastate
or sagittate. Petioles terete, sheathing towards
the base. Peduncles as long as the petioles.
Spathe opening. at the base, longer than the
cylindric spadix. Perianth segments 4, pink.
Flowers hermaphrodite. Berries densely, minu-
tely muricate at the--apex.

FI. & Frt.: April-June. Loc. Daldali forest,
Malhotra 149713.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to’ Dr. B. D. Sharma, De-
puty Director, Botanical Survey of India, Wes-
tern Circle, Poona for encouragement and to
the Director, Botanical Survey of India, How-
rah for facilities.

417

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Figs. 1-2, Lasia heterophylla Schott
1. A flowering and fruiting twig; 2. A floret.

418

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
WESTERN CIRCLE, PUNE 400 001,
May 19, 1980.

S. K. MALHOTRA
K. MADHUSUDAN RAO

REFERENCES

Cooke, T. (1901-1908): The Flora of the Pre-
sidency of Bombay. London,

GAMBLE, J. S. (1928): The Flora of the Presi-
dency of Madras. London.

Haines, H. H. (1916): Descriptive list of trees,

shrubs and economic herbs of the Southern Circle,
Central Provinces, Allahabad.
(1924): The Botany of Bihar and

Orissa. London.

PRAIN, D. (1903): Bengal Plants, Calcutta.

35. NOTES ON SOME PLANTS RECORDS FOR BENGAL

In course of floristic study of Jalpaiguri dis-
trict of West Bengal, several rare and interest-
ing plants were collected from different forest
areas of the district. While examining the pre-
viously collected materials held at Herb
(CAL) and the present collections from the
district. I came across different taxa not re-
corded earlier in the Flora of West Bengal.
This note is in continuation of previous com-
muications on the distribution of plants in
Jalpaiguri district and notes on some species
(Sikdar 1976, 1979 & 1981 and Sikdar &
Ghosh 1978 & 1979a, b). The occurrence of
seven more taxa in the district is recorded
here with annotations.

MENISPERMACEAE

Pycnarrhena plenifiora (Wall.) Miers., Con-
(mb, 32553. t 14). 1871; Hook. ,,,. Fl. Brit.
India 1:106. 1872; Prain, Bengal Plants 1: 136.
1903 (repr.); Kanyilal e¢ al., Fl. Assam 1(1):
58. 1934. Cocculus planiflorus Wall. Cat. n.
4961. 1831, nom. nud. Pycnarrhena_ planiflora
Hook. f. & Thoms., Fl. Ind. 206. 1855.

A woody climbing shrub: leaves 12-15.5 x
3.2-5.5 cm, alternate, oblong-lanceolate, gla-
brous and shining above, bluntly acuminate,
nerves arching near the margin; flowers yellow-
ish-white, dioecious, in fascicles from the leaf-

axils; male in short congested panicles, females
1-2 flowered; fruit + 1.2 cm, greenish, smooth.

Specimens examined: Gosaihat, Moraghat
range, O. & frt., 3rd,Jun;.1975, Sikdar 461:
Titi, Madarihat range, fl. & frt., 2nd Mar.
1976, Sikdar 4475; fl. & frt., Sth Mar. 1976,
Sikdar 4529; fl. & frt., 6th Mar. 1976, Sikdar
4556.

Common particularly near the foothills of
Titi area, sometimes along the forest fringe,
occasionally associated with Hiptage madha-
blota, Boehmeria malabarica, Ardisia solana-
cea etc.

This species is found in Bhutan, Bangladesh,
China and in Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal
Pradesh, Tripura and Mizoram in_ India.
Prain (i.c.) reported it from Chittagong (Ban-
gladesh).

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Ceropegia angustifolia Wight, Contrib. Ind.
Bot: 31. 1834; Hook.’ f., Fl. Brit:\India 4:72.
1883; Kanjilal e¢ al., Fl. Assam 3:308. 1939;
Huber, Mem. Soc. Biol. 12(1):203. 1957;
Raizada, Suppl. copy of Duthies Fi. Upper
Gangetic plain 149. 1976.

An extensive climber, pubescent; leaves 5-
18 x 0.8-1.6 cm, narrowly lanceolate, acumi-
nate, with decurved margin, coriaceous; ped-

419

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALY BIST SOCIETY. Vol= 75

uncles 3-5 flowered; corolla tube purplish;
corona of + 10 lanceolate ciliate lobes.

Specimens examined: Mahakalguri, Alipur-
duars, fl., 26th Sept. 1891, FE. A. Heawood
Esqr. 73: East of Chalsa, Jalpaiguri, fl., 25th
Aug. 1908, 7. H. Burkill 30788.

Grows in dense forest under shade.

It has been reported so far from Sikkim,
Khasi hills and Dehra Dun only. It is worth
recording the extension of its distribution fur-
ther south-westward in the northern plain tract
of West Bengal.

Hoya obcordata Hook. f. in Fl. Brit. India
4:56. 1883.

Herb with branched, creeping and rooting
stem; leaves 1.2 cm long, obcordate, tip round-
ed or with a_ slight notch, base rounded;
flowers in loose peduncled umbel.

Specimens examined: On way to Sinchula,
+ 1700 m, Buxaduar range, fl., 2nd May 1934,
K. Biswas 2001. :

A rare species known only from Sikkim
Himalaya. ,

ORCHIDACEAE

Ascocentrum micranthum (Lindl.) Holtt.,
Gard. Bull. 11:275. 1947; Orch. Malaya 1:
735. 1953; Rao & Balakrishnan in Rec. Bot.
Surv. India 20(2): 205. 1973: Babu, Herb. FI.
Dehra Dun 480. 1977. Saccolabium micran-
thum Lindl. Gen. Sp. Orch. 220. 1833; Hook.
f.. fl. Brit. India 6e59. 1890. Cleisostomea
micrantha (Lindl.) King & Pantling in Ann.
R: Bot)Gard. Cale823iht93 12. 1898 Rraim:
Bengal Plants 2:768. 1903 (repr.): Duthie,
Fl. Upper Plain 2:293. 1903 (tepr.).

Small epiphyte with stout compressed stem;
leaves 7-12 cm long, narrowly oblong, unequal-
ly and obtusely 2-lobed; flowers small, pinkish-
white, usually pink on the tip, arranged in
small lateral dense-flowered racemes.

Specimens examined: Buxaduar, 850 m,

420

Buxaduar range, fl., 14th May 1976, Sikdar
4665; Buxa to Bhutan road, 1150 m, fl., 17th
Mar. 1949, V. Narayanswami 2647.

Occasional, rather restricted to the Buxa-
duar hills over 700 m alt., growing on Spatho-
dia campanulata, Duabanga grandiflora etc.

It is usually found in Nepal, Bhutan, Ban-
gladesh, Burma and Sikkim, Assam, Naga
Hills, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in India. Prain
(/.c.) menioned its distribution in Chota Nag-
pur.

Pholidota articulata Lindl. var. griffithii
(Hook. f.) King & Pantling in Ann. R. Bot.
Gard. Calc. 8:147, t. 204. 1898; Rao & Bala-
krishnan in Rec. Bot. Surv. India 20(2):216.
1973; Babu, Herb. Fl. Dehra Dun 1977. Pho-
lidota griffithii Hook. f., Ic. Pl. 9:t. 1811. 1889
(‘griffithi’); FI. Brit. India 5:845. 1890; Hara,
EL Bast; Eiimals 193.7 1971.

Epiphytic stout herbs, branched with 6-12
cm long furrowed internodes; leaves 7.5-
8.5 x 2.5-3.0 cm, narrowly oblong-lanceolate,
2-from the nodes, young ones sheathed at the
base: flowers 5 cm across, white tinged with
brown and pink, in 2.5-5 cm Jong decurved
racemes.

Specimens examined: Way to Buxaduar,
750 m, Buxaduar range, fl., 12th May 1976,
Sikdar 4615; Buxa to Bhutan road, 1200 m.
fl, 16th May 1949, V. Narayanswanui 2559;
Tobgaon, 1400 m, fl, 18th May 1949, V.
Narayanswamit 2709 & 2731.

Frequent, restricted to the Buxaduar hills.

It has been reported from Nepal, Bhutan
and Sikkim in the Eastern Himalayas and
Khasi hills and Uttar Pradesh. .

CYPERACEAE

Carex japonica Thunb., Fl. Jap. 38. 1784:
C. B. Clarke in Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 6:
736. 1894.

A glabrous

sedge; rhizome with brown

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

scales; stem stout, 3-winged with stolons; leaves
as long as the stem: spikes 5, close together.

Specimen examined: Gajalduba, Apalchand
range, fl. & frt., 26th Apr. 1962, S. K. Muker-
jee 5580.

It occurs in Nepal, Japan and in India in
the Sikkim Himalaya, Khasi hills, Manipur and
Himachal Pradesh.

Cyperus substramimeus Kuk. Pfl. R. Heft
HON 398) 193808 Sern im 7k Males: Ser. ‘1,
7(3): 653. 1974. C. stramineus Nees in Wight,
Contr. 74. 1834, non Desf. 1820. Pycreus stra-
muneus (©. 1B. Clarke. in, Elook., 1., FI. Brit.
India 6:589. 1893; Prain, Bengal Plants 2:855.
1903 (repr).

A tufted annual sedge with spicate congest-
ed inflorescence.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,
BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

P. O. BOTANIC GARDEN,
HowrAH-711 103 (W.B.),
March 13, 1980.

Specimen examined: Near Buxaduars, Buxa-
duar range, fl. & frt., 2nd Feb. 1934, K. Biswas
2037,

It often grows in grassy localities.

It is found in Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Burma
and Malay peninsula and also reported from
Orissa, Assam, Khasi hills, Karnatak, Andhra
Pradesh and Andaman Island.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am sratetul to Dr. R. S. Rao, Ex Joint
Director in Charge, Botanical Survey of India,
Howrah for valuable suggestions, to Dr. M.
P. Nayar, Deputy Director, Central National
Herbarium for facilities and to Dr. R. B.
Ghosh, Systematic Botanist of the same Insti-
tute for kindly going through the manuscript.

J. K. SIKDAR

REFERENCES

SIKDAR, J. K. (1976): A note on Amblyanthop-
sis bhutanica (Myrsinaceae) from India. Bull. Bot.
Surv. India, 18 (1-4): 244-246.

——-—— (1979): Two . plant records for
West Bengal. Geobios 6: 90-91.
= (1981): Some new plant records

for West Bengal from Jalpaiguri district. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 78(1): 103-106.

—— AND GHOoSH, R. B. (1978): Senecio
bhot Clarke—An interesting taxon for Indian Flora.
86-88.

Geobios 5:

(19794): Mitracarpus ver-
ticillatus (Schum. & Thonn.) Vatke—from Eastern
India. Geobios 6: 237-238.

AND ——— (1979b): A __ little
known plant of West Bengal. Geobios Vol. 6: 287-
288.

36. CULTIVATION OF ENDANGERED PLANTS IN SOUTH INDIA
(With a plate)

INRODUCTION

The Experimental Garden of B.S.I., South-
ern Circle, Yercaud has been introducing and
cultivating some of the endangered plants of
the country.

Nepenthes khasiana Hook. f. erected as a
species from the Khasi hills of the present
Meghalaya by J. D. Hooker in 1893, is now
treated as endangered due to its restricted
distribution in the country and absence from
any other part of the world. The genus Nepen-

421

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

thes forming an unigeneric family Nepentha-
ceae has about 60 species, distributed in the
old world tropics. Only one species namely
N. khasiana Hook. f. has been reported from
India, particularly from Khasia and Jaintia
hills. Hooker’s note ‘a specimen of this in
Herb. Wallich is marked as from “‘Courtallam,

mentai garden at Yercaud subsequently, after
locating an area with more or less similar en-
vironment. Pot and bed culture were practised.
The comparative climatic data for Shillong
(obtained from Meteorological Observatories,
Poona) and Yercaud (A. V. N. Rao ef al.
1979) are furnished in Table (1).

TABLE 1

CLIMATIC FACTORS OF SHILLONG AND YERCAUD

Bice: 60108

Mtrs.
Shillong, Meghalaya 1500 MSL
Yercaud, Shevaroy Hills 1380 to

Herb. Heyne’’, but has never been found
there by any subsequent collector, and it is
inconceivable that the natives should not know
so remarkable a plant’ is interesting. Courtal-
lam is in Tamilnadu of South India and there
has not been any other report upto now of the
appearance of this species either in Courtallam
or any other part of India.

MATERIAL, METHODS AND OBSERVATION

The Experimental garden of the Botanical
Survey of India, Southern Circle, Yercaud
obtained and introduced in May 1975 and
1977 plants from Meghalaya but these did not
establish in spite of the best care. However,
2 plants in pots from Shillong displayed in the
exhibition at National Botanic Garden, Luck-
now in February, 1978 were received intact
and introduced into the experimental garden
at Yercaud. As these performed better, sub-
sequently more plants were collected with soil
from its natural habitat namely Jurrain R.F.
of Jaintia hills (Plate, Fig. 1). Then environ-
mental factors of this area were also noted.
The plants were introduced into the experi-

422

1511. MSL

Humidity

Annual rainfall Temperature
Max. Min.
2400 mm 241 °Ce B160C 57 to 89%
1600 mm 28.0°C 11.0°C 67 to 87%

Two plants received from Shillong in Feb-
ruary, 1978 were kept in the same medium
upto loth July, 1978. Repotting of one of the
plants in a new medium of 2 parts of clayey
soil, 2 parts of leaf mould and 1 part of sand
was made and the other divided into 4 sets
in sucker region with Seradix treatment were
planted in the new medium. The undivided
plant thrived well with good foliage and pitcher
formation etc. (Plate, Fig. 2 and table 2) and
the divided plants did not establish. Later 15
plants were brought again with the soil of its
place of collection in March, 1979 particularly
from areas where Lycopodium cirnuum, Dro-
sera burmanni etc. were growing were put in
pots initially in the same medium. Subsequent-
lv, in June, 1979 whitish clayey soil from the
area where associated plants were growing at
Yercaud was brought and made into a bed with
water flow arrangement. Six plants were put
into this bed and the remaining repotted with
2 parts of the above soil and 2 parts of hum-
us. These plants have been doing well with
better foliage growth and pitcher formation
(Plate hig'/3)e

‘pnesisx je sinj[nd pog ‘¢ ‘SI

‘pnesiaxX 3e jod UI 4Ueg “7 ‘Bly

‘ST[IY vluler “Uleling 78 yeVIqey [einjeu UI sjUL[g *[ ‘3Iq
| “sty

Duvispyy Sayjuedany : welueURigns x» dsolioueg ‘ory
ALVIg 9Z (00$ “LSIH “LVN Avawog ‘¢

pa

De
Pen ST
ee

i
pe ertne Hir
ie hee)
Mite hiys

ae aia

Tape F
ae

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

TABLE 2

GrowTH BEHAVIOUR OF Nepenthes khasiana Hook. F.

Sl. tate Pitcher Max. size
ae Bice ae initiation of pitcher
leaf date in cm
1 2) 3 4
a. 26.8.1978 12.10.1978 12.00
b. 5.10.1978 25.11.1978 13.00
Ch 30.10.1978 24.12.1978 10.5
d. 25.12.1978 13.2.1979 14.0
N.B.: Average difference between Col. No.
Month of sucker initiation: February.

Months without pitcher formation: M
CONCLUSION

The above observations indicate possibilities
of this species establishing well in Yercaud.
The data furnished in table 2 indicate months
of pitcher formation and sucker initiation in
this climatic condition. The approximate
period of lapse between leaf formation and
pitcher initiation and the average span of life
of the pitcher average period of its function-
ing as insect trap are also furnished.

It is interesting to note that the size of the

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
EXPERIMENTAL GARDEN &
NATIONAL ORCHIDARIUM,
YERCAUD, SALEM DT.,

TAMIL Napu 636 601,

March 21, 1980.

IN YERCAUD, SHEVAROY HILLS

LengthX J caf area in

Date of Date of Breadth. of
peace pitcher leaf incm °,0ms at
pitcher li collapsing at Max. maturity
maturity

5) 6 i 8
20.12.1978 27.2.1979 2907-1 145.00
2A 979 9.4.1979 30.5 x 7.0 148.5
24.2.1979 25.4.1979 25.0) <6) 132.25
10.4.1979 10.6.1979 31.0 x 7.0 SRS)
2) Si 3) 11S = Dedays
BUG un = GO4e ve
SQ OnES eli
D) GEOl en C—O
arch to May

pitcher shows a direct correlation to the area
of the leaf irrespective of the period of for-
mation.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. S. K. Jain, Director,
and Dr. N. C. Nair, Deputy Director of Bota-
nical Survey of India respectively for their
interest and encouragement. We are also thank-
ful to the Deputy Director General of Obser-
vatories, Govt. of India, Poona for furnishing
the climatic data of Shillong.

A. V. N. RAO
A. K. BANERJEE
A. SUBRAMANIAM

423

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

37. MELOCHIA NODIFLORA SWARTZ (STERCULIACEAE)—A
NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

During a recent visit to Trivandrum (Ke-
rala) one of us (P.V.S.) located a large popu-
lation of Melochia L. which was not identical
to the already described species from India.
On closer scrutiny of these specimens, it turn-
ed out to be Melochia nodiflora Swartz a
hitherto unknown species in India.

Further studies enabled us to locate this
plant from various other parts in Kerala and
Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu. It is not repre-
sented in MH, the herbarium of University
College, Trivandrum or in other herbaria of
the region. The plant is a native of Tropical
America. This may be a new introduction here
and is rapidly spreading. It shows luxuriant
growth near the margins of open drains, canals,
pools and ditches where human disturbance is
very minimum. The plant has also been locat-
ed in open drier areas where the population
is very sparse, and the plants are stunted. This
species can easily be distinguished from the
other two species of the genus represented in
India namely M. corchorifolia L. and M. um-
bellata Stapf based by the key given below
As this forms a new record for India and is
not described or illustrated in any of the Indian
floristic works a detailed description along with
figures based on fresh materials collected by
us, is given here to facilitate easy identifica-
tion.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF MELOCHIA L. IN INDIA

1. Herbs or shrubs, flowers in densely crowded
clusters, filaments variously united, capsules glo-
bose to sub-globose.

2. Herbs, flowers in terminal clusters, filaments
united halfway or more, but never upto the
tip, capsules globose........ M. corchorifolia

2. Shrubs, flowers in axillary clusters, filaments
united almost upto the tip, capsules sub-
globose M. nodiflora

e, 16) se), a) e) le) ledpelmercie) ie! (ee) iercer jee) 6) el ence

424

|. Small trees, flowers in umbellate corymbs, fila-

ments united at the base, capsules oblong....
M. umbellata
Melochia nodiflora Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind.
occ. 97. W708: CoA Backer &/ RG Baldi dal
Java 1: 405-406. 1963. M. borbonica Cav. Diss.
Ty SONG SS)

Shrubs or undershrubs, 0.50—2.50 m_ tall.
Stems woody, terete, much branched. Branches
drooping, older ones with reddish tinge, stel-
lately pubescent. Leaves broadly ovate or
ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, cordate at base,
margins sharply serrate. Petioles 0.2-3.5 cm
long. Lamina 1-13 x 0.75-7 cm, sparsely pub-
escent on both surfaces, main nerves about
7-10 pairs. Stipules 5-6=x2 mm, lanceolate,
acuminate, ciliate. Flowers subsessile, in dense
3-15 flowered axillary clusters. Bracts foliace-
ous, 6-9 x 3-4 mm, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate,
hirsute. Calyx united + halfway, lobes imbri-
cate in bud, equal, 2-3 x 1-1.5 mm, ovate-lan-
ceolate, acuminate, sparsely pubescent, mar-
gins reddish. Petals spathulate, macrescent,
3-4 x 1.5-2 mm, white with purple veins, veins
prominent on innerside, base conical, cream
coloured and without veins, margins hyaline.
Stamens 5. Filaments united almost upto the
apex, + 2.5 mm Jong, glabrous. Anthers 1 mm
long, basifixed, extrorse. Carpels 5, 3.5-4 mm.
Ovary sessile, hispid. Styles 5, free or slightly
connate at base. Capsules sub-globose, 4 mm
in diam., hispid, reddish when young, longi-
tudinally 5-grooved, septicidally dehiscent.
Seeds + 2.51.5 mm, ovate, angular or 3
faced, brown with a white spot at the tip.
Testa smooth, minutely reticulate.

Specimens examined: KERALA. Along. the
streams, Kariavattom, Trivandrum, 8-11-1979,
P. V. Sreekumar s.n. (MH); TAMIL NADU:
Along ditches, on way to the millet breeding

otf ole sel sehyel elie ese) (0) eee’ lelikia\\ i sw. al {eM(o Kel ey eileletielietiietienternis,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

station, Coimbatore, 15-12-1979, P. V. Sree-
kumar 58038 (MH); near the railway station,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
COIMBATORE-3,
February 25, 1980.

Coimbatore,

23-1-1980, P. V. Sreekumar

58039 (MH).

P. V. SREEKUMAR
N. C. NAIR

38. A REASSESSMENT OF THE TAXONOMIC POSITION AND
STATUS OF AGLAIA BOURDILLONIT GAMBLE (MELIACEAE)
WITH NOTES ON THE NOMENCLATURE OF RELATED TAXA

Beddome (1871), while illustrating Aglaia
roxburghiana (Wt. et Arn.) Miq. in Flora
Sylvatica, depicted two plants as plates 130A
and 130B. Of these two illustrations, figure
130A is based on Beddome’s Annamallay
(Tamil Nadu) collection and Gamble (1915)
described it as a variety namely, A. roxbur-
ghiana (Wt. et Arn.) Miq. var. beddomei
Gamble. The figure 130B in FLORA SYLVATICA,
based on a specimen from Attramallay ghats
(Tamil Nadu) is given with the following note.
“B is a variety from Tinnevelly hills (Attra-
mallay ghats) a male tree with dessections of
the flowers, this variety has leaves obovates-
pathulate, the dessections all from the male
flowers, but the female flowers only differ in
having a fertile ovary’. Later Gamble (1915)
based on the illustration 130B of Beddome
(1871) and specimens of Bourdillon exacily
matching with it at ‘Madras Herbarium’
(Gamble 1918) described the species. 4. bour-
dillonit.

. In the protologue of A. bourdillonii, Gamble
(Anonymous, 1915) distinguished it from A.
minutiflora Bedd., a species which he consi-
dered to be closely related to A. bourdillonii.
However a comparison of Beddome’s (1874)
plate 193, which is the type of A. minutiflora
with that of A. bourdillonii (Bourdiilon s.n.,
Acc. no. 9099, MH) shows that these two
species differ considerably in their number

of leaflets in a leaf (i.e. 15 leaflets per leaf in
A. minutiflora and 5-7 leaflets in a leaf in
A. bourdillonii) and in the length of the in-
fiorescence (i.e. about 45 cm in A. minuti-
flora and about 15 cm in A. bourdillonii).
Moreover the acuminate leaflets are stellate-
tomentose in A. minutiflora whereas in A.
bourdillonii the leaflets are obtuse or blunt at
apex and scaly beneath. Again, in the key to
the different species of Aglaia Lour. in Flora
of the Presidency of Madras, Gamble (1915)
considered A. minutiflora and A. bourdillonii
as belonging to one group characterised by
exserted stamens. But the stamens in A. bour-
dillonii are included in the corolla tube and
this character is also depicted in Beddome’s
plate 130B. In fact, A. bourdillonii is very
closely related to A. roxburghiana in its habit,
size and shape of the leaves, nature of inflore-
scence and flowers with the stamens enclosed in
the corolla tube. And perhaps it is because of
these resemblences between the two taxa that
Beddome (1871) considered his Attramallay
collections as a variant of A. roxburghiana
and not that of A. minutiflora for which he
was having specimens at that time.

Regarding the taxonomic status of A. bour-
dillonii, authors like Harms (1940) and Chou-
dhuri (1967) followed Gamble (1915) in
treating it as a distinct species. However a
study of the collections of 4A. bourdillonii and

495

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

A. roxburghiana at Central National Herbar-
ium,, Botanical Survey of India (CAL), Her-
barium Southern Circle, Botanical Survey of
India, Coimbatore (MH) and Herbarium of
the Presidency College, Madras (PCM) show-
ed that A. bourdillonii differs from A. roxbur-
ghiana only in the nature of their intlorescence,
the former possessing profusely branched lon-
ger and comparatively slender flowering bran-
ches, whereas in the latter the inflorescence is
less branched, shorter and stouter exactly
agreeing with the description given by Wight
and Arnott (1834). Eventhough slight varia-
tions are noticed in the length of the petiole
and shape of the leaves, such characters are
of little taxonomic significance because of their
overlapping nature in these two taxa. Hence
it is considered here that A. bourdilionii can
only rank a varital status under A. roxbur-
ghiana and this view also gets support from
Beddome (1871) who first illustrated A.
bourdiilonii mentioning it only as variety of
A. roxburghiana.

According to Backer and Bakhuizen van
den Brink Jr. (1965) the correct name for A.
roxburghiana (Wt. et. Arn.) Mia. is A. elaeg-
noidea (Juss.) Benth. Hence the following new
combinations are also proposed here to render
the nomenclature of A. roxburghiana var.
beddomei Gamble and A. roxburghiana var.
courtallensis Gamble up to date.

1. Aglaia elaegnoidea (Juss.) Benth. var.
beddomei (Gamble) K.K.N. Nair comb.
nov.—A. roxburghiana (Wt. et Arn.)
Miq. var. beddomei Gamble, FI. Presid.
Madras 1:180, 1915.—A. roxburghiana
sensu Bedd. Fl. Sylvat. t. 130A. 1871.
Type: Flora Sylvatica t. 130A (Icono-

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
CaLCUTTA- 700 016,
March 3, 1980.

426

type).
Distribution: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Kerala, Tamil Nandu.

2. Aglaia elaegnoidea (Juss.) Benth. var.
bourdillonii (Gamble) K.K.N. Nair Stat.
et comb. nov.

A. bourdillonii Gamble, Bull. Misc. Int.
Kew 1915: 346-47. 1915 & Fl. Presid.
Madras 1: 180. 1915; Harms in Engl. &
Prantl. Pflanzenfam. (ed. 2) 19b: 146.
1940; Choudhuri, Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal
21(1): 6.1967.—A. roxburghiana sensu
Bedd. Fl. Sylvat. t. 130B. 1871.

Type: Attramallay Ghat, Bourdillon s.n.
(Acc. no. 9099, MH).
Distribution: Tirunelveli
Nadu).

3. Aglaia elaegnoidea (Juss.) Benth. var.
courtallensis (Gamble) K. K. N. Nair.
comb. nov.—A. roxburghiana (Wt. et.
Arn). var. courtallensis Gamble, Fl. Pre-
sid. Madras 1: 180. 1915.

Type: Chokampatty, Tirunelveli hills,
without collector's name & number (Acc.
no. 9058, MH).
Distribution: Tirunelveli
Nadu).

hills (Tamil

hills (Tamil

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to Dr. N. C. Nair, Botanical
Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore
and Prof. E. Govindrajlu, Department of Bo-
tany, Presidency College, Madras, for supply-
ing herbarium specimens. Thanks are also due
to the Deputy Director, Central National Her-
barium, Botanical Survey of India, for facili-
ties to work in the herbarium.

K. K. N. NAIR

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

ANONYMOUS, (1915): XXXII—Decades Kewen-
sis Plantarum Novarum in Herbario Hortii Regnii
Conservatarum Decas LXXXVI Kew, Bull. 1915:
344-350.

BACKER, C. A. & BAKHUIZEN VAN DEN BRINK, R.
C. (1965): Flora of Java. vol. 2. Netherlands.

_ BeppoME, R H. (1871): Flora Sylvatica of South-
ern India. vol. 1. Madras.

(1874) :
Orientalis Madras

Icones Plantarum Indiae

CHOUDHURI, A. B. (1967): Studies on the Melia-
ceae of India and neighbouring countries. Bull. Bot.
Soc. Bengal 21 (1) 1: 1-24.

GAMBLE, J. S. (1915): Flora of the Presidency
of Madras. vol. 1. London.
== - (1918): Notes on the Flora of
Madras. Kew Bull. 1918: 222-228.

HarMs (1940): Family Meliaceae in Engler &
Prantl. Pflanzenfamlien (ed. 2) /9b: 138-148, Berlin.

WicHT, R. & ARNoTTr, W. (1834): Prodromus
Florae Peninsulae Indiae Orientalis. London.

39. TWO NEW COMBINATIONS OF THE GENUS ASEMANTHIA
(STAPF) RIDLEY (RUBIACEAE)

Mussaenda Linn., one of the established
genera of Rubiaceae with a number of species,
is well characterised by one of the calyx lobes
being usually deciduous and forming a large
petaloid white or coloured leaf like structure.
A closely related genus Acranthera Arn. ex
Meissn. is referred by the more herbaceous
form of the plants than the typical Mussaenda
Linn. but was merged to Mussaenda Linn. by
Baillon (1880) while Schumann (1891) main-
taind it as a distinct species. Later Stapf
(1894) recorded it as a well marked genus
after the exclusion of the species like Acran-
thera maingayi Hk. f. and A. griffithii Hk. f.
Simultaneously he (1.c.) has proposed a new
Section Asemanthia Stapf under Mussaenda
Linn. considering the taxa of Acranthera
maingayi Hk. f., A. griffithii Hk. f. and Mus-
saenda mutabilis Hemsl. which differ in the
bushy straggly growth of the plants, absence
of enlarged calyx-lobes and finally the long
corolla tube. Ridley (1940) has elevated it
to a distinct genus with distribution to Malay
Peninsula and the islands of Borneo but nearer
to Indian Mussaenda Linn.

His treatment is as under;

Asemanthia maingayi (Hk. f.) Ridley in
Kew Bull. 1940:600.1940; Basionym: Acran-
thera maingayi Hk. f. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 3:92.
1880; Synonym: Mussaenda muiabilis Hemsl.
in Hook. f. Ic. Pl. 18: t. 1718, 1887; Mussa-
enda maingayi (Hk. f.) Stapf in Trans. Linn.
Soey (Se. (2) 455,172.) 1894.

King (1903) has described a new variety
hirsuta under Mussaenda mutabilis Hemsi. on
the basis of densely velvety nature of stem and
under surface of leaves especiaily along the
nerves. Ridley (1923) has also described one
more variety montana under this same taxon
based on dwarf compact nature of the plant
with smaller leaves. On examination of these
varieties we suggest as Mussaenda mutabilis
Hemsl. belongs to the genus Asemanthia
(Stapf) Ridley, a new combinations for the
two taxa as:

Asemanthia maingayi (Hk. f.) Ridley var.
hirsuta (King) Sinha et Mitra comb. nov.;

Basionym: Mussaenda mutabilis Hemsl. var.
hirsuta King in Jour. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 72(2):
1822) 1903:

Syntype: Perak, King’s collector 225 (CAL);
Malacca, Derry 253 (CAL).

427

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Asemanthia maingayi (Hk. f.) Ridley var.
montana (Ridley) Sinha et Mitra comb. nov.;:

Basionym: Mussaenda mutabilis Hemsl. var.
montana Ridley in Fl. Mal. Peninsula 2:58.
1923.

Type: Malacca, Mount Ophir, Padang Batu,
Ridley 3215 (CAL).

BOTANICAL SURVEY. OF INDIA,
INDIAN BOTANIC GARDEN,
Howral-711 103,

February 22, 1980.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank to Mr. K. Rammurthy, Dr. G.
G. Maity and Mr. G. S. Giri for valuable sug-
gestions and help.

A. K. SINHA
B. MITRA

REFERENCES

BAILLON, H. E. (1880): Rubiaceae in Histoire
des Plantes 7: 257-546. Paris.

Kino, G. (1903): Materials for a flora of Mala-
yan Peninsula XIV (Mussaenda). Journ. Asiat.
Soc. Beng. 72(2): 181-187

RIpLeY, H. N. (1923): The Flora of the Malaya
Peninsula 2: 58-59. L. Reeve & Co., London.

— (1940): Notes on some Malayan

428

Rubiaceae. Kew Bull. 1940: 593-613.

SCHUMANN, K. (1891): Rubiaceae in A_ Engler
and K. Prantl’s Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfam. 4
(4): 1-156. Leipzig.

STapr, O. (1894): On the flora of Mount Kina-
balu' in North Borneo. Trans. Linn. Soc. (Sr. 2)
4: 69-263.

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NOTES ON THE BREEDING OF INDIAN CUCKOOS. By J. H. Becking

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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Hornbill House, : EpITors,
Shaheed Bhagat Singh Rout Journal of the Bombay
Bombay 400 023. | Natural History Society.

VOLUME 78 NO. 3 : DECEMBER 1981
Date of Publication : 28-12-1981

CONTENTS
PAGE
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTEC{ION IN INDIA—PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS.
By M. S. Swaminathan su eilae Pad
OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF Hipposideros lankadiva KELAART, 1850 (CHIROP-
TERA, RHINOLOPHIDAE). By H. R. Bhat and M. A. Sreenivasan 436

A LIST OF TAXA OF INDIAN FERNS NOT INCLUDED IN BEDDOME’S HANDBOOK TO THE
FERNS OF BrRiriSH INDIA AND A SUPPLEMENT TO THE HANDBOOK TO THE FERNS
OF BrITISH [NpIA. By N. C. Nair and R. D. Dixit 443
REDEFINITION OF RHESUS MACAQUE—BONNET MACAQUE BOUNDARY IN Bee TNGULAT
INDIA (PRIMATES: Macaca mulatta, M. radiata). By Jack Fooden, Anil Mahabal

and Subhendu Sekhar Saha. (With a text-figure) 463
THE VEGETATION OF NAGZIRA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY AND ITS ENVIRONS (MAHARASHTRA
STATE). By S. K. Malhotra and K. Madhusudan Rao ain: IS)

BEHAVIOUR OF Lissemys punctata (REPTILIA, TESTUDINATA, TRIONYCHIDAE) IN A
DRYING LAKE IN RAJASTHAN, INpDIA. By Walter Auffenberg. (With two text-figures) 487
THE TIMING OF BREEDING SEASON AND INTERBREEDING BETWEEN THE COLOUR PHASES
IN THE INDIAN REEF HERON, Egretta gularis (Bosc). By R. M. Naik, B. M. Para-

sharya, B. H. Patel and A. P. Mansuri Wee AOE
ALPINE FLORA OF TUNGNATH IN GARHWAL HIMALAYA. By J. K. Semwal and R. D.

Gaur te aO8
THE FOOD HABITS OF THE INDIAN HaAreE, Lepus nigricollis, IN CHATRI FOREST, AMRA-

VATI, MAHARASHTRA. By J. H. Sabnis Sits
TEACHING OF BOIANICAL NOMENCLATURE THROUGH PRACTICAL APPLICATION—-AN URGENT

NEED. By A. N. Henry and M. Chandrabose 519
SOME FRESH-WA7TER OLIGOCHAETA FROM BOMBAY CITY AND ENVIRONS. By K. Vanna

Naidu and K. Abhinender Naidu. (With fifty-eight text-figures) 524
WEEDY ELEMENTS IN THE FLORA OF CHANDRAPUR DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA STATE.

By S. K. Maihotra and Sirasala Moorthy 539
FooD OF JUVENILE Garra mullya (SYKES) (FAMILY CYPRINIDAE). By V. S. Somvanghi:

and S. S. Bapat. (With two tex!-figures) ae ny.
MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR. By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida .. 548

NEw DESCRIPTIONS:

A new species of Homalium Jacq. (Flacourtiaceae) from Burma. By M. P. Nayar

and G. S. Girl. (With a text-figure) 568
A new Homalium Jacq. (Flacourtiaceae) from South India. By A. N. Henry and

M. S. Swaminathan. (With three text-figures) ine wp O
Drimia razu sp. nov. (Liliaceae) from Maharashtra, India. By M. Y. Ansari. (With

eight text-figurcs) 572
A new species of Dendrobium Sw. (Orchidaceae) from South India. By M. Ghandiat

bose, V. Chandrasekaran and N. C. Nair. (With ten text-figures) 575
Dimeria copeana, a new Grass from Kerala, India. By P. V. Sreekumar, V. J. Nai

and N. C. Nair. (With nine text-figures) S/T
A new genus and species of Alga from Karnataka (india). es S.. P.. _{osmani aad

S. G. Bharati. (With a text-figure) . Fie SON TA Le To.
REVIEWS: fo NS

. Stones of silence. (J. C. Daniel) ( 581
: Birds of Africa. (Humayun Abdulali) Sd 8 § 1JOZ Loe S82
3. Fresh Water Animals in India. (B. F. Chhapgar)* ey tr an cea eee Pee)

Sa,
2

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES: LINES

805 A EEN

if
ra

MAMMALS: 1. Density and diet-dependent growth rates of Bandicota bengalensis under

laboratory conditions. (With two text-figures). By Shakunthala Sridhara and R. V. Krishna-
moorthy (np. 586); 2. Some observations cn behaviour of Rodents during Solar Eclipse.
(With a text-figure). By Ranjan Advani (v. 590); 3. Apparent allomaternal care in an in-
sectivorous Bat Hippcsideros speoris. By G. Marimuthu and P. F. L. Selvanayagam (p. 591);
4. Imvortance of fruits in the diet of Chital in dry season. By A. J. T. Johnsingh (p. 594).
Birps: 5. Solar Eclipse—Notes on behavicur of Egrets. By S. Ashok Kumar (pv. 594);
6. On the occurrence of long-distance movement in the Yellow-wattled Lapwing, Vanellus
(= Lobipluvia) malabaricus (Boddaert). By A. D. Johns and R. I. Thorbe (». 597); 7. The
Southern Gieen Pigeon (Treron phoenicoptera chlorigaster Blyth) in Kutch. By M. K. S,
Hanvant Sinhji (p. 599); 8. Possible interspecific hybrids between Columba livia and
C. rupestris. By S. Dillon Ripley (n. 599); 9. Some observations on a nest of the Common
Crow-Pheasant, Centropus sinensis (Stenhens). By Manjit Singh Dhindsa and H. S. Toor
-(p. 600); 10. ‘Heloers’ among the Black Drongo (Dicrurus adsimilis). By A. Thangamani,
K. Paramanandham and A. J. T. Johnsingh (». 602); 11. Insectivorous birds asscciated
with the rice ecosystem at Madurai. By S. Thirumurthi, B. Rajendran and D. Krishnadoss
(p. 603); 12. A queer nesting site of Bank Myna, Acridotheres ginginianus. By B. S. Lamba
(p. 605); 13. The ‘Balling’ of Crows. By Lavkumar Khacher and Naresh Chaturvedi
(p. 606); 14. Occurrence of the Redheaded Bunting (Emberiza brunniceps Brandt) in
Bombay. By Jasjit Man Singh (p. 606).

REPTILES: 15. Age at onset of sexual maturity in male Indian Mugger (Crocodylus palu-
stris, Lesson) reared under ideal husbandry conditions in cavtivity. By H. R. Bustard and
L. A. K. Singh (v. 607); 16. Gharial attacks on man. By H. R. Bustard and L. A. K. Singh
(p. 610); 17. A wate on the Slender Coral Snake, Callophis melanurus. By Tej Prakash
Vyas and (Mrs.) Madhu Vyas (p. 611).

FISHES: 18. On a collection of Cobitid Loaches of the genus Noemacheilus Van Hasselt
from Poonch Valley (Jammu and Kashmir). By Surendra Nath (p. 612); 19. Occurrence
of Zebrias japonicus (Bleeker) (Soleidae: Pisces) in the Bay of Bengal, off Visakhapatnam.
(With a text-figure). By K. Srinivasa Rao and M. Rama Murty (p. 614).
INsEcTS: 20. Botany and Entomology as supplementary sciences. By D. G. Sevastopulo
(p. 616); 21. Notes on the Carpenter Ant Camponotus irritans (Smith). By Indra Kumar
Sharma (p. 616); 22. Activity and abundance of flower visiting insects of Almond (Prunus
amygdalus Batsch) at Ludhiana (Punjab). By G. S. Mann and Gurdip Singh (np. 617);
23. Butterflies of Arunachal Pradesh. By Naresh Chaturvedi, Rex Pimento and S. A. Hus-
sain (p. 618); 24. New record of Heliothis peltigera Denis and Schiffermuller on Sunflower.
By Gurdip Singh, G. S. Grewal and S. S. Sandhu (». 621); 25. Notes cn the mating be-
haviour in akon griseus Guer and L. robustus Stall (Heterontera: Nenidae). (With
a text-figure). By M. Selvanayagam and T. K. Raghunatha Rao (p. 621); 26. Cystiphora
taraxaci Kieffer (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) mining the leaves of Taraxacum officinale Wig oes
(Compesitae) in Kashmir. By M. Zaka-Ur-Rab (p. 624).

HIRUDINEA: 27. Occurrence of Palearctic Leech Hemiclepsis marginata asiatica Moore in
Renuka Lake, Himachal Pradesh. By M. Chandra (p. 625).
BoraNy: 28. A note on some new hosts of Orobanche aegyptiaca Pers. By J. C. Dagar
(p. 626); 29. A note on Sabia paniculata Edgew. ex Hook. F. & Thoms. (Sabiaceae) from
West Bengal. By J. K. Sikdar and R. B. Ghosh (0. 626); 30. Some noteworthy plants from
West Bengai. By J. K. Sikdar and S. Maji (p. 628); 31. Notes cn two rare and interesting
plants from South India. (With three text-figures). By M. Chandrabose and S. R. Srinivasan
(p. 630); 32. A note on the occurrence of Hypochoeris radicata L. (Asteraceae) in N.W.
Himalayas. By A. k. Goel and U. S. Bhattacharyya (p. 632); 33. New Indian record of
Ardisia parilalina Mez (Myrsinaceae). (With a text-figure). By G. S. Giri and M. P. Nayar
(p. 633); 34. Acanthus carduaceus Griffith—A scarcely known endemic plant from’ West
Bengal. (With a text-figure). By J. K. Sikdar and G. G. Maiti (p. 635); 35. A note on
the occurrence of Crotalaria acicularis Buch.-Ham. in Karnataka and Maharashtra. (With
seven text-figures). By S. K. Malhotra and Sirasala Moorthy (vp. 637); 36. Newly recorded
and rediscovered ferns at Mt. Abu, Rajasthan. By T. N. Bhardwaja, C. B. Gena, Tejinder
Takker, Ranjeet Kaur and C. Wadhwani (p. 639).

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BomBAY NaTurRAL History SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1979-80. 642
‘STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL. History SOCIETY... —--...... 650
MINUTES CK THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING .. 664

JOURNAL

Ore Tne

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY

1981 DECEMBER

Vol. 78

No. 3

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN INDIA—
PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS’

M. S. SWAMINATHAN?

In India all the basic life support systems
are under serious strain and stress. Both the
human and animal population pressures have
reached a level now where the flora, fauna,
soil and water and also the atmospheric con-
ditions, are becoming more and more adver-
sely affected. Consequently, the renewable
base of agriculture is being eroded.

I have personally been a student only of the
struggle for the conservation of genetic vari-
ability in domestic plants. I have not studied
non-domesticated species. But I know that the
problem is serious even among domesticated
plants and animals. If the maintenance of
natural variability in domesticated species of
both animals and plants is such a difficult
task, the order of effort needed in the case of
non-domestic animals can well be imagined.

In India, where we have enormous amount

1ZTecture delivered at the inaugural meeting of
the Species Survival Commission of the International
Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources—New Delhi, 19 February, 1981.

2Member, Planning Commission, Yojana Bha-
van, New Deiiui-110 001.

of animal wealth in the form of cattle, sheep,
goats, pigs and poultry, we find that it is be-
coming rather difficult even to get sometimes,
really true specimens of some of our native
indigenous cattle breeds. Take, for example,
the ongole breed of work animal from Andhra
Pradesh, a very famous breed, which has been
used extensively in cross-breeding in Brazil
and elsewhere; to-day one finds it very difh-
cult to get a pure strain. In several cultivated
plants, we had enormous variability in the
past. In the north-eastern region alone, for
instance, we collected over 5,000 strains of rice.
Some of them later proved to be important
donors of genes for resistance to new pests
and diseases, which arise along with the chang-
ing ecology of rice cultivation consequent upon
fertilization, dense crop canopies with little
light penetration to the bottom of the plant
and so on. The intensive production techni-
ques of today are based on an altered micro-
environment. The pest syndrome also changes
with a change in agronomic methodology.
We have both, at the national and inter-
national levels today some institutional mecha-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

nisms for the collection, utilisation and main-
tenance of genetic variability in some of the
major crop plants. I refer to the International
Board for Plant Genetic Resources which acts
as an umbrella organisation for the collection

and preservation of genetic material of the

more important domesticated plants. More re-
cently, there has been a move for organising
a similar kind of umbrella organisation for the
conservation of animal genetic resources.

As far as India is concerned, we have
national organisations like the National
Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources and in the
Sixth Five Year Plan, which has just been
approved, we have also provided funds for a
National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resour-
ces and a National Bureau of Fish Genetic
Resources. In addition, a Bureau of Forest
Genetic Resources will be set up to conserve
the enormous amount of bamboo, teak, neem,
and many other important species occurring
in India.

Thus, a limited amount of organised effort
has been started in the area of preventing gene
erosion. Even this has been a long struggle
for the simple reason that, unlike soil erosion,
which is visible to the eye, gene erosion is not
seen and hence not understood. With thous-
ands of years of human selection and even
with modern techniques of induced mutation
it will not be possible to get the wide spectrum
of variability which one finds in nature. Natu-
ral variability is not only the product of muta-
tion and recombination but also of natural
selection. Hence when such variability is lost,
we lose the fruits of thousands of years of
natural selection. For sustaining agricultural
advance and for ensuring that we have the
capacity to withstand new problems such as
new strains of pests which may arise, it is im-
portant to conserve our genetic wealth both
in wild and domesticated plants and domesti-
cated animals. In the north-eastern Himalayas

430

for example, there are some domesticated ani-
mals like Yak and Mithun. They are both
work and dairy animals. The great degree of
soil damage arising from shifting cultivation
is resulting in the endemic flora becoming do-
minated by plants which are non-edible to
animals. This is almost the last step in the
battle for plant species’ survival. When demo-
graphic pressure on land increases, only those
plants survive which are non-edible, for the
obvious reason that they have a high selection
value. In fact, this is why plants like Ipomea
carnea and Lantana sp. are alone seen all
along the railway lines or on both sides of the
road. Edible wild plants do not survive be-
cause of uncontrolled grazing by animals. To-
day what is happening in the areas under
shifting cultivation is that weeds like Eupato-
rium and Mikenia and others take over and
yak and Mithun cannot eat them. Hence their
stock is now dwindling. Gradually, therefore,
for a wide variety of reasons, we find that
variability in domesticated plants and semi-
domesticated animals is tending to get eroded.

I have mentioned earlier that soil erosion at
least attracts the attention of the finance man.
Soil erosion he understands, because he can see;
but the other erosions are not visible and there-
fore are not understood. Even species survival
is a topic which many refuse to discuss be-
cause of the view, ““What is wrong, it is all
part of the process of evolution, some die,
some survive.”’ It is very difficult to talk in
terms of 100 years from now among people
who take a fairly short range view of things. In
a democracy based on free elections, the Gov-
ernment looks for a four year or five year
term, as the case may be, and, generally, there-
fore, a short term view of problems is the
tule.

In 1980, after the new Government was
elected, a small group of scientists and others
was commissioned to go into the whole ques-

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN INDIA

tion of the adequacy of existing legislative and
administrative arrangements for protecting the
basic life support systems in India.

By and large, the conclusion of that Com-
mittee was that there is a considerable amount
of legislative power within the Government,
both Central and State. In other words, there
has been a whole series of legislative measures,
ending with the Wild Life Protection Act of
1972, which provide extensive legislative
power to Government for restricting damage
to fragile eco-systems and to natural assets.
But, inspite of the existence of these legal pro-
visions, what is actually happening in the field
is quite the reverse. The National Forest
Policy Resolution of the Government of India
of 1952 wanted one-third of the country to
be under forests, instead of 22% as was the
case at that time. According to some of the
experts connected with forest survey, the real
forest canopy in India may now be hardly 11
to 12%. So, instead of reaching a higher level,
we have all the time been losing ground. Habi-
tat destruction is the starting point of wildlife
destruction. We see this all the time, with the
result that even an animal like the elephant
has become an endangered species. Elephant
killing is going on still inspite of all the legis-
lation and restrictions. It is a very simple
phenomenon. For example, in the Assam foot-
hills, every year man makes inroads into the
forests. When you cut more forests, then
the elephant is forced to come out and
it goes to a village. May be a man is killed,
or damage takes place to property, and the
elephant is named a rogue elephant and de-
stroyed.

Natural habitat destruction in this country,
I would say, is the most important cause of
concern from the point of view of wildlife
preservation. Some of you might have seen a
recent book by George Schaller written after
many years of travel in the Himalayas. This

book, STONES OF SILENCE came out recently.
I would quote one particular passage.

‘‘At most a few hundred Kashmir stags,

a sub-species of red deer, survive in the

Vale of Kashmir, their only home. Yet as

recently as 1947 there were over 4,000, the

animals having brought to the verge of ex-
tinction because no one cared. There are
many species similarly threatened, all in
need of some one concerned enough to fight
for their needs. The fact that a living being
can vanish from the earth solely because
of man’s improvidence and neglect is ap-
palling and the utter finality of it touches
the conciousness of far too few. I have met

in the Himalayas many species without a

future.”

You know this situation only too well because
you have all been working in this field.

But I do not agree with Schaller when he
says no one is concerned about them. What
I generally find is that there is now an aware-
ness everywhere of this problem. Awareness
has also led to analysis, like the Species Sur-
vival Commission’s analysis and the red data
book it produces which lists these endangered
species, our own Wild Life Protection Act,
World Conservation Strategy, Global 2000
report commissioned by the U.S. President and
sO on.

Analysis, unfortunately, is not followed by
action, and that is where the chain is broken,
because the normal logical sequence is aware-
ness, analysis and appropriate action. But when
we go to the third step, we find that legislative
measures alone cannot provide the action
forum which is needed. This, I find, is the
greatest challenge, particularly to countries
like India, which have a totally different set
of economic problems than the affluent coun-
tries. Each country in terms of species survival
may have its own problems. Here’ our most
important problem is the demographic pres-

431

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

sure of man and animal on land and water
resources. The other components of the eco-
destruction system-are (a) careless technology;
(b) greed of the rich; and (c) needs of the
poor for fuel, fodder and food.

The Committee I referred to earlier has
suggested, that we should have an implement-
ing mechanism, an action mechanism, which
is somewhat better structured than what we
had so far. As a first step, the Government
have set up a Department of Environment
under the charge of the Prime Minister. It
has been suggested to all the State Govern-
ments, as we have a federal Constitution, to
set up similar departments of environment as
a sort of co-ordinating body. The Environment
Department will have its own advisers in all
the major development Ministries and they
will have a feed back relationship with the
parent Department of Environment. We have
in India so far only one other field with such
an arrangement, namely, the Ministry of
Finance and the Financial Adivsers, who. are
located in each spending Ministry, such as,
Agriculture, Irrigation, Coal or Energy and so
on, but who also: owe their allegiance partly
to the Department of Expenditure in the
Ministry of Finance. It is a duality of func-
tion. We think that: environment is so import-
ant in terms of development that a similar
arrangement should be made, so that we have
these people- responsible to the Department
of Environment: on the one hand and to the
Min‘stry on the other, so that the environ-
mental impact assessment can be done with
speed and care. - ! :

This structure has just come into existence
and we hope that with the development of such
a structure at the Government of India level,
further damage to life support systems can be
arrested and a systematic eco-restoration pro-
gramme initiated. The National Committee on
Environmental Protection and Co-ordination

432

(NCEPC) has done during the last 10 years
a considerable amount of work in terms of
developing blueprints for bio-sphere reserves.
The blueprint on the Nilgiri bio-sphere reserve,
for instance, has brought to light the vast
amount of wealth of animal, fish and plant
life existing in this region. In fact, this region
of Western Ghats and the region represented
by the Silent Valley Reserve Forest in Kerala,
are really veritable mines of biological wealth
of great value. A new species of rice called
Oryza malampuzhensis was described for the
first time from this area. There are several
reports of this kind, which have been prepared
for the preservation of important centres of
animal and plant life. For example, one of
the finest marine national parks could be in
the Mandapam-Rameswaram area in_ the
coastal belt, particularly the Krusadi Islands.
As a young student I had been to the islands
to collect crustaceans for class room exami-
nation. It used to be such a beautiful place
then. Two years ago when I again went there,
I found a sea of change. I blame the zoology
Professors and zoology students who over the
years have ravished the area collecting speci-
mens for their examinations and study. Un-
consciously, over a period of time the whole
area has been denuded of its wonderful wealth
of species. Until recently, no one thought of
preserving for posterity this paradise of crus-
taceans. The Mandapam Marine National
Park is yet to come into existence.

There is a whole series of bio-sphere reser-
ves for which the NCEPC has developed de-
tailed operational blue-prints. More areas are
also being declared as national parks. For
example, the Valley of Flowers in Uttarkand
will soon be developed as a national park.
Even for the Silent Valley -Area the Kerala
Government has issued a notification, declaring
it a National - Park.

We have several areas which are being de-

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN INDIA

veloped as Gene Sanctuaries. The idea behind
a Gene Sanctuary is to protect an environment
in which considerable genetic variability occurs
in species of economic value. It could also be
in terms of a pathogen. In the case of patho-
gens, these are called the “Hot spot Screen-
ing Location,” where considerable variability
in the pathogen occurs. For example, there
is a famous Hot Spot Location in the Toluca
Valley near Mexico City where there is con-
siderable biotype variation in Phytophthora
infestans, the fungus which was _ responsible
for the Irish potato famine of the last century.
Even the Indian potato revolution was faci-
litated by the opportunity to grow potato ma-
terial at the hot spot location in Toluca valley
for selection for resistance to infection with
late blight. It is important, therefore, that we
have these hot spot locations, which are the
areas where one could select the genetic ma-
terial and also preserve them. It is of parti-
cular importance for the poor countries, which
cannot have expensive phytotrons or climate
houses, where every environmental parameter
can be reproduced artificially.

The north-eastern region is also the
home of citrus, Citrus indica. TEEven what
is called the Mandarin orange has _ its

centre of variability in this area. We find there
a considerable variability in Citrus indica in
the Garo Hill region of Meghalaya. This area
is now likely to be devastated as a result of
the frequency of shifting cultivation becoming
shorter and shorter. It has now become al-
most a five year circle, while earlier, it used
to be 50 to 60 years shifting cultivation cycle.
Therefore, a Citrus Gene Sanctuary, the first
of its kind in this country, is being developed
in the Garo Hills. Garo Hills is also the home
of very interesting varieties of wild cot-
ton such as cernum cotton, Sikkim and
the north-eastern region is also the area
where one finds very primitive races of

rice, corn and maize. In fact, the primitive
strains of maize found in Sikkim raise the
question as to when corn came to India. It
was not probably post-Columbus, but was ap-
parently long before, since this kind of primi-
tive maize closely resembles the types found
in the excavations in Mexico. The ancestry of
tetraploid cotton, Gossypium hirutum also
suggests that plant exchange between the old
and new worlds is one of great antiquity.

We had for the Indian Science Congress
early this year, the focal theme of environ-
ment. A distinguished biologist from the North-
Eastern Hill University, Shillong gave a paper
on desertification in North Eastern India. This
is an area which receives one of the highest
rainfalls in India, and yet in terms of the
denudation of the biological potential of the
area it can be considered to be under a pro-
cess of desertification. It is in this kind of
ironical situation we find ourselves more and
more now.

People now understand the importance of
species survival. Although the awareness in
terms of human welfare and human happiness
exists, I do not think the realisation that con-
servation is another name for survival has gone
home for the simple reason that the poor are
not concerned with tomorrow, but with today.
The hungry people want bread today, not to-
morrow. Therefore until the basic human needs
are satisfied, the substrate for the concept of
development without destruction to take root
will not exist.

We have given several suggestions in the
VI Plan on operational mechanisms for action.
We have, for example, suggested structured
methodologies by: which analysis can be con-
verted into action at the field level. For exam-
ple, an eco-development task force will be or-
ganised like the territorial army with ex-ser-
vicemen. Eco-development camps for both
students and non-student youth coming from

433

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

different parts of the country will be held in
different parts of the country so that youth
can participate in the establishment of national
parks, marine national parks, gene sanctua-
ries and bio-sphere reserves. Over 50 per
cent of our population is below the age of 25
and, therefore, they are the people who are
going to determine the future of the country.
Unless at that level there is more involvement,
not only awareness but involvement in action,
we cannot progress. We have now provided
a methodology by which young boys and girls
working in schools and colleges and even non-
student youth can come and participate in
the development of specific projects, so that
by living together they understand the pro-
blems. The third aspect is that, apart from the
Eco-development force and the student eco-
development camps, we will try to provide
appropriate support for local communities. The
local communities could take care of their local
habitats and environment, and wildlife pro-
tection. In other words, the protection of en-
vironmental assets will become a joint sector
activity involving the people and Government.

In this country species survival, habitat sur-
vival or habitat protection and the conserva-
tion of our genetic resources will all have
to be associated with some tangible benefits
to the local community. One must learn from
past errors. Take the case of the tribals. After
all, the forest dweller is the tribal. Between
him and the forester or the forest officer many
a time there has been misunderstanding and
even conflict. The forest dweller considers the
forest officer almost an enemy, rather some-
body who is trying to take away his traditional
source of living, the traditional source of fuel,
fodder, some minor forest produce. Even here
disharmony has started between those who
serve the forest and those who live out of the
forest.

But these tribal communities have a num-

434

ber of advantages. They, by and large, still
live according to the old joint family system
in India. They are all fairly well-knit commu-
nities, and they can be greatly influenced for
good or bad. I feel that even where the local
inhabitants like tribals do not have the requi-
site educational qualifications, in all our game
sanctuaries, wildlife reserves, bio-sphere re-
serves, national parks, the staff should be main-
ly from the local people. The local people
should be trained for the job rather than told
that they lack the requisite qualification. We
have to see that they find some benefit out of
them in terms of employment. Employment in
this country is crucial because, our malnutri-
tion problem today is better stated in terms
of million man-years of jobs rather than mil-
lion tonnes of foodgrains. Unless one has a
job, there is no purchasing power and, if there
is no purchasing power, there is no food.
Hence, if we can relate the conservation move-
ment in terms of tangible benefits of employ-
ment and purchasing power to the local com-
munity, the pre-requisites for a successful con-
servation movement would have been met. I
would not say all the time it is necessary but
once awareness comes, then automatically pro-
tection follows. May be, after 10 to 15 years,
things will change; and people may evolve to-
wards that stage. It was in the city of Lenin-
grad during the German seige of World War
II, that people did not think of consuming the
genetic wealth of the Vavilov collection of
potatoes, wheat, etc., although they died of
hunger. They preferred to starve rather than
erode the genetic stocks of wheat and potatoes.
since they were aware that the genetic wealth
is immortal, while the human being is a mor-
tal. That a mortal should not do damage to
something which ought to be immortal is a
kind of awareness which will take time to
permeate in a society, but we should develop
the methodology by which this will happen.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN INDIA

The success of our survival movement will
really depend upon our policy to demonstrate
that this is a movement not only for tomorrow
but that it is a movement which is essentially
for today. The movement itself should become
a process of wealth creation and employment
generation. Some tangible benefits must be
seen by the people.

This is why I always say that in poor coun-
tries the ecology movement must be based on
concepts of economic ecology. In countries
which are already well advanced where the
quality of life is high, it is a question of pro-
tecting the already high standards of living
which have been achieved. Here it is a ques-
tion of providing the basic minimum needs, of
calories, of clothing, of shelter. Economic eco-
logy should show the way for accelerated eco-
nomic advance on a sustainable basis.

Therefore, we find here contrasting require-
ments in relation to species survival work. The
parameters under which it can succeed will be
different. In one case, it can be ‘‘don’t’’, i.e.
it can be regulatory mechanism; in the other
case, it has to be ‘“‘do’’ you will have to do
this. “Don’t”? would not work; it has to be a
series of “do’’s. And that is where the econo-

mic ecology movement, which is to be the
major spring board of action in poor coun-
tries, will have to have a plan of action for
species survival, which in its operational con-
tent may be somewhat different, obviously,
from those which we have today in affluent
nations.

Our immediate task must be to stop further
damage and the next task, at least in relation
to the hill ecosystem, is to restore the damage
done, to the extent possible, by the end of this
century. In other words, these are the two
kinds of tasks. However, the process of de-
nudation is still going on, the process of re-
storation is yet to begin. If these two tasks,
are performed well, then automatically they
will take care of the problem of species sur-
vival. For this to happen, we need also an
understanding among economists and financial
experts that ecological economics has an added
dimension in the calculation of cost, risk and
return, namely, a time dimension extending to
infinity. If we are able to bring about in each
country a proper blend of ecological econo-
mics and economic ecology, we will find that
the work of your commission will turn from
the present mood of agony into one of endur-
ing ecstacy.

435

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOLOGY OF HIPPOSIDEROS
LANKADIVA KELAART, 1850 (CHIROPTERA,
RHINOLOPHIDAE)’

H. R. BHAT AND M. A. SREENIVASAN?

Hipposideros lankadiva roosts in deserted temples and subterranean caves in asso-
ciation with certain other species of frugivorous and insectivorous bats. There is a
vear round fluctuation in their population in their roosts, depending upon the re-
productive status of the colony. The species has a single estrous cycle each year,
with pregnancy from February to May and parturition in May and June. The suckl-
ing period is estimated to be six to eight weeks. Males generally segregate from the
females during later part of pregnancy or during nursing of the neonates. While for-
aging, females leave behind their neonates in the roost. At birth the male to female

percentage is 55:45.

Hipposideros lankadiva is the largest Hip-
posideros found in Peninsular India and Sri
Lanka with forearms of the adults measuring
80 to 90 mm, The subspecies entities given by
Anderson (1908) for various forms are now
clubbed together (Tate 1947, Ellerman and
Morrison-Scott 1951, Brosset 1962). The in-
formation on the biology of this species has
been summarised by Brosset (1962).

This communication presents some addition-
al information on the biology of this species
collected during a serological survey of bats
in the Kyasanur Forest disease area and its
neighbourhood between 1969 and 1978 (Bhat
et al. 1978).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The colonies were traced by searching the
known ancient temples and by enquiring with
villagers. Whenever possible, the colonies were
visited periodically and the ecological data,
associated species and approximate population
size were recorded. Samples of specimens

1 Accepted October 1979.
2 National Institute of Virology, 20-A, Dr. Am-
bedkar Road, Pune-411 001.

436

were collected with the help of sweepnets and
mistnets, and their weight and reproductive
status were recorded. For females, the status
of mammae, false teats and lactation were
recorded. Each adult female was dissected and
the grossly visible embryos, when present,
were removed along with the embryonic mem-
branes and surrounding uterine wali and
weighed. Depending upon the weight, colour
and reproductive status each specimen was
arbitrarily classified as neonate, juvenile or
adult.

OBSERVATIONS

Colonies recorded:

Eleven colonies recorded during the study
are listed with ecological details in table 1.
Of the 11 colonies, those at Sampagaon, Bail-
hongal, Chandravalli, Banavara, Kamalashile
and Manki were visited only once. Thigadi
colony was first visited on October, 1969 and
subsequently on 29 June, 1970, 12 February,
1971, 18 June, 1971 and 5 August, 1971. Yel-
lapur colony was visited thrice. The colonies
at NisIneer and Muroor are still under perio-
dic observations.

BIOLOGY. OF HIPPOSIDEROS. LANKADIVA

Breeding cycle:

Because of the migratory habit of the species
and the population fluctuation, 1t was not pos-
sible to make a monthly collection of adequate
number of specimens from any colony through-
out the year. However, the overall observa-
tions on several colonies and a number of col-
lections made at NisIneer and Muroor have
enabled us to construct an approximate pic-
ture of the breeding cycle of the species.

At Nislneer, 38 out of 53 adult females col-
lected during February, March and April were
in various stages of pregnancy (Table 2). The
embryos weighed between 0.02 to 8.0 gm. The
smallest embroys were seen in February and
the largest in April. Three specimens carrying
suckling babies and one lactating female were
collected in May and June respectively. Juve-
nile specimens were seen between June and
December. It was not possible to differentiate
the juveniles from adults after December.

In all 149 adult females were collected from
Gersoppa, Muroor and Kamalashile, of which
16 were pregnant, 91 were carrying suckling
babies and 11 were lactating (Table 3). The
March sample had the smallest embryos weigh-
ing an average of 0.75 gm, while the May
sample had the largest weighing an average
of 11.4 gm. Neonates were seen between the
last week of May and middle of June. A few
free flying juveniles were first seen in the first
week of June. The pregnancy was invariably
in the left uterus with the exception of two
individuals.

The adult females including the pregnants
weighed an average of 38.5 gm (31.8 to 45.8
em). The adult males weighed an average of
44.0 gm (30.0 to 61.0 gm).

Associated species:

Hl. lankadiva was observed to share the
habitat with seven other species of bats name-
ly, Rousettus leschenaulti, Eonycteris spelaea,

Hf. speoris, Rhinolophus rouxi, R. lepidus,
Miniopterus schreibersi and Megaderma lyra
(Table 1). In the mixed colonies H. lankadiva
either occupied a separate area of the habitat
or mixed freely with the associated species,
particularly with R. leschenaulti and #H.
speoris.

Population fluctuation and Social habits:

During the first collection at Thigadi on 19
October 1969, the colony had about 3000
individuals of adults and juveniles. In Feb-
ruary, 1971 the habitat was free from this
species. In June 1971 the colony was in full
strength with more than 3000 individuals con-
sisting of juveniles and lactating females carry-
ing neonates. The small colonies located at
Sampagaon and Bailhongal appeared only
during the rainy season from June to August,
and consisted of adults. Ten specimens col-
lected from Yellapur on 28 June 1970 were
all males. Subsequently only one bat was seen
on 27 March 1971 and none on 17 June 1971.

The Muroor cave, when first visited on 29
March 1972, did not have any H. lankadiva.
During the second visit on 31 May 1972 a
colony of about 200 females and 100 males
was seen. Most of the females were carrying
babies. The adult males occupied a separate
part of the cave away from females. In the
evening the bats started emerging at 19.15 hrs.
While Rousettus leschenaulti was the first to
emerge from the cave, H. lankadiva was the
last to emerge. When the empty cave was sur-
veyed at 20.15 hrs, three adults and a group
of 86 neonates were seen. The neonates were
deposited individually on the side wall with
10 to 20 cm spacing between each other. All
neonates were with sealed eyelids. Majority of
them had greyish brown fur and rest were
naked. Of the 64 neonates 35 were males and
29 were females giving an approximate 55:45
male-female percentage.

437

SOCIETY, Vol. 78

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

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440

BIOLOGY OF HIPPOSIDEROS LANKADIVA

The Nislneer colony, where two years study
was done, had approximately 500 individuals
on 22 April, 1972. On 17 May, 1972 the
colony was depleted to about 250 individuals.
Three females with neonates and 15 males
were collected. On the same night the cave
was examined at 20.30 hrs. Six naked neonates
with sealed eyelids were clinging to the wall
with a spacing of about 30 cm.

Homing:

Eleven bats trapped at Gersoppa on 15
March 1971 were marked by clipping a small
triangular piece from the right or left ear. They
were released at 8 and 13 miles from Gersoppa
at 21 hrs. On 19 March one of the specimen,
marked and released at a distance of 8 miles,
was recovered. Again on 2 June two speci-
mens released at the same place were recover-
ed.

DISCUSSION

Eleven colonies of H. lankadiva were re-
corded during the present study. The largest
colony at Thigadi had about 3000 individuals.
The species is as common as H. speoris and
H. bicolor, the other two common species of
Hipposideros found in the area. Apparently,
the species is not so rare as presumed by
Brosset (1962). Periodic and year round ob-
servations made on some of the colonies have
revealed that the species does not stay per-
manently at one place. Maximum concentra-
tion takes place during the breeding season
and the males have a tendency to segregate

during the late pregnancy and parturition
period. Contrary to the observation recorded
by Brosset (1962), hibernating colonies were
not observed during the study.

The species apparently follows the repro-
ductive pattern of the majority of Microchir-
optera (Wimsatt and Trapido 1952) with a
mono-estrous restricted breeding season.
Grossly visible embryos were first observed
in the month of February and the neonates
during the later half of May and earlier half
of June. This suggests a gestation period of
about 5 months. Each female produces only
one young at each pregnancy which is generally
conceived in the left uterus. While foraging,
the females leave behind the neonates in the
habitat and pick them up when they return.
This is consistent with the observations made
on some other species of bats (Bhat ef al.
1973).

The segregation and migration of bats do
not permit the determination of exact sex
ratio (Gopalakrishna and Madhavan 1970).
During the present study an approximate
estimation was done on the suckling neonates
and the male-female percentage of 55 to 45
was recorded. This aproximates with the
estimation of sex ratio by Abdulali (1949).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Director, National
Institute of Virology, Pune for the keen inte-
rest in the study and encouragement. Technical
assistance received from the staff is gratefuily
acknowledged.

REFERENCES

ABDULALI, H. (1949): Sex ratio in Indian bats.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48: 423-427.

BHAT, H. R., SREENIVASAN, M. A. AND GEEVAR-
GHESE, G. (1973): Community rearing in Rhinolo-
phus rouxi Temminck, 1835 (Chiroptera, Rhinolo-
phidae) in KFD area, Shimoga District, Mysore

State. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 69: 645-646.

BHAT, H. R., SREENIVASAN, M. A., GOVERDHAN,
M. K., NAIK, S. V. AND BANERJEE, K. (1978): Anti-
bodies to Kyasanur Forest disease virus in bats in
the epizootic-epidemic area and _ neighbourhood.
Indian J. Med. Res. 68: 378-392.

44]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

BrosseET, A. (1962): The bats of central and Soc. 67: 171-175.
western India. Part 2. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. TATE, G. H. Hi (1947): Mammals of “Easter

59: 583-624. F :
Asia. M illan, N k, ee

ELLERMAN, J. Ro AND MorRIsoN-Scor I. C.NS. 0" a York, 366 pp.-
(1951): Checklist of palaearctic and Indian mam- WImSATT, W. A. AND TrRAPIDO, H. (1952): Re-

mals. British Museum (Nat. Hist.) London, 810 pp. production and reproductive cycle in the tropical
GOPAPALAKRISHNA, A. AND MADHAVAN, A. (1970): American Vampire bat, Desmodus rotundus muri-
Sex ratio in some Indian bats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. nus. Amer. J. Anat. 91: 415-446.

442

A LIST OF TAXA OF INDIAN FERNS NOT INCLUDED

IN BEDDOME’S HANDBOOK TO THE FERNS OF BRITISH

INDIA AND A SUPPLEMENT TO THE HANDBOOK TO
THE FERNS OF BRITISH INDIA’

N. C. Nair? AND R. D. DIXxIT?

A list of additional fern taxa reported from India after the publication of Beddome’s
Handbook to the Ferns of British India (1883) and its supplement (1892) is provid-
ed with the authority of such reports and distribution in India.

It is nearing one hundred years since Bed-
dome, who belonged to the forest service of
the then Presidency of Madras from 1856
to 1882 presented a comprehensive summary
of all the known Indian species of ferns in
his HANDBOOK TO THE FERNS OF BRITISH
INDIA, CEYLON AND MALAY PENINSULA (1883).
His further observations enabled him to pub-
lish a supplement to his Handbook in 1892.
After these monumental works several novel-
ties have been discovered from various parts
of Indian territory. Information about them
and information about the heterosporous
Indian ferns which Beddome (1883, 1892)
did not include are scattered in numerous pub-
lications and the present paper is an attempt
to bring together all these informations in the
form of a list with its original citation and
localities in India to make the task easier for
any one who takes up the revision of ferns of
India. For new records reported for the first
time from India, the publication reporting
this is also given in addition to the original
citation. The list, which by no means can be
claimed to be complete, is arranged in alpha-

1 Accepted March 1980.
- 2Botanical Survey of India,
Coimbatore-641 003.

3 Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey
of India, Allahabad.

Southern Circle,

betical sequence. Further additions will be

reported subsequently.

In some cases synonyms are also provided
to fix the identity.

Acrostichum speciosum Willd. Sp. Pl. 5: 117,
1810; Thothathri et al. in Journ. Bomb.
nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 249, 1977.
Distribution: Great Nicobar Islands.

Actiniopteris semiflabellata Pichi-Serm. in
Webbia /7: 24, f. 4. 1962; Ito in Hara FI.
East. Himal. 458, 1966.

Distribution: E. Himalaya.

Adiantum assamicum Nayar in Bull. Nat. Bot.
Gard. 94: 1, 1964.

Distribution: Gauhati, Assam.

Adiantum capillus-junonis Rupr. Distr. Cr.
Vasc. Ross. 49, 1845; Panigr. in Bull. Bot.
Surv. India 2: 312, 1960.

Distribution: Eastern India.

Adiantum cuneipinnulum Nair et S. R. Ghosh
in Acta Bot. Indica 2: 78, 1974. Adiantum
cuneatum Langsd. et Fisch. in Ic. Fil. 23,
t. 26, 1810 (non Forst, 1786); Mehra and
Bir in Research Bull. (N.S.) Panjab Univ.
15 (Pt. 1-ID: 105, 1964 (non A. raddianum
Pr. Tent. 158, 1836).
Distribution: | Darjeeling,
Kerala.

Adiantum incisum Forsk. Fl. Aeg. 187, 1775.
Distribution: Throughout India.

Tamil Nadu,

443

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Adiantum indicum Ghatak in Buil. Bot. Surv.
India 5: 71, 1963.

Distribution: Orissa, Bengal.

Adiantum refractum Christ in Bull. Ac. Geogr.
Bot. Mans. 1902: 224, 1902; Mehra and
Bir in Res. Buil. (N.S.) Panjab Univ. /5 (Pt.
I-IT): 106, 1964.

Distribution: Lachen Valley, North Sikkim.

Adiantum thalictroides Willd. ex Schl. Abmbr.
P]. 5: 53, 1832; Nair et Ghosh in Journ.
Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 246, 1978.
Distribution: Peninsular India.

Adiantum zollingeri Mett. ex Kuhn. in Ann.
Mus. Lugd. Bot. 4: 280, 1869; Ghatak in
Bull. Bot. Surv. India 5: 75. 1963.
Distribution: South India.

Alsophila henryi Bak. in Bull. Misc. Inf. Kew.
1898: 229, 1898. Cyathea henryi (Bak.)
Copel. in Philipp. Journ. Sci. Bot. 4: 38,
1909; Holtt. in Kew Bull. /9: 478, 1965.
Distribution: Sikkim.

Angiopteris crassipes Wall. (Cat. no. 187.
1828 nomen) ex Presl, Suppl. Tent. Pterid.
23, 1845; Bitter in Engl. Pfi.-fam. 1, 4: 438,
1900; Nishida in Hara Fi. East. Himal. 454,
1966.

Distribution: Ghorwa Sanichare.

Angiopteris salicifolia (Presl) de Vries, Mo-
nogr. 34, 1853: Bitter in Engl. Pfl.-fam. 1,
4: 439, 1900; Nishida in Hara Fl. East.
Himal. 454, 1966. Psilodochea salicifolia
Presl, Suppl. Tent. Pterid. 28, 1845.
Distribution: Darjeeling.

Angiopteris wallichiana Pr. Suppl. 22, 1845;
de Vries, Monogr. 27, 1853.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Angiopteris wightiana de Vries, Monogr. 28,
1853. |
Distribution:\ndia (Peninsula)

Antrophyum callifolimm Bl. Enum. Pl. Java
111, 1828; Dixit et Nair in Journ. Indian
Bot. Soc. 53: 283, 1974.

Distribution: South Andamans.

444

Antrophyum henryi Hieron, in Hedw. 57:
208, 1915; Dixit et Nair in Journ. Indian
Bot. Soc. 53: 281, 1974.

Distribution: Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim.

Arachniodes assamica (Kuhn) Ching. Acta
Bot. Sin. 10: 256, 1962. Aspidium assami-
cum Kuhn. Linn. 36: 108, 1869. Polysti-
chopsis assamica (Kuhn) Tagawa in Journ.
Jap. Bot. 33: 94, 1958. Byrsopteris assamica
(Kuhn) Morton in Amer. Fern. Journ. 50:
l53. 1960:

Distribution: Assam.

Arachniodes carvifolia (Kunze) Ching in Act.
Bot. Sin. /0: 256, 1962; Nair in Bull. Bot.
Surv. India 11: 186, 1969. Aspidium carvi-
folium Kunze in Bot. Zeit. 283, 1848, Ru-
mohra carvijolia Ching in Sinensia 5: 60,
1934.

Distribution: Eastern India.

Araiostegia beddomei (Hope) Ching in Chien
et Chun Fl. Republ. Pop. Sin. 2: 288, 1959;
Panigr. in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 2: 313,
1960. Davallia beddomei Hope in Journ.
Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. /2: 527, 1899.
Distribution: YE. India.

Araiostegia perdurans (Christ) Copel. in Univ.
Calif. Publ. Bot. 72: 400, 1931; Ito in Hara
Fl. East. Himal. 468, 1966. Davallia perdu-
rans Christ in Bull. Herb. Bioss. 6: 970,
1898.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Arthromeris lungtauensis Ching in Contr. Inst.
Bot. Nat. Acad. Peiping 2: 98, 1933; Taga-
wa in FI. East. Himal 490, 1966.
Distribution: E. Himalaya.

Arthromeris jarrettii Sastry et Chowdhury in
Bull. Bot. Surv. India 11: 442, 1969.
Distribution: Subansiri District, N.E.F.A.

Asplenium affine Sw. forma majus Sledge
in Kew Bull. 15: 408, 1962.
Distribution: South India.

LIST OF INDIAN FERNS

Asplenium crinicaule Hance var. sikkimense
Bir in Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 43: 564, f.
9-12, 1964. |
Distribution: Eastern Himalaya.

Asplenium decrescens Kunze, Linn. 24: 261,
1851.

Distribution: Nilgiri.

Asplenium elasticum Fee, Gen. 196, 1850-
1852.
Distribution: India.

Asplenium falcatum Lam. var. bipinnatum

Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Bot.
s¢ 262. 1965:
Distribution: Western Ghats.

Asplenium indicum Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus.
(Nat. Hist.) 3: 264, 1965. Asplenium plani-
caule Wall. ex Mett. in Abhandl. Senckenb.
Naturforsch. Ges. 3: 201, 1859 (non Lowe,
1858). Asplenium laciniatum sensu Bedd.
Handb. Ferns Brit. India 154, 1883 pro
parte non D. Don.

Distribution: Kerala, Kumaon to Assam.

Asplenium khasianum Sledge in Kew Bull. /5:
397, 1962.

Distribution: TE. Himalayas.

Asplenium laciniatum Don var. acutipinna
Bir in Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 43: 558, f.
5-6, 1964.

Distribution: Darjeeling, Sikkim, N.E.F.A.,
Himalaya, South India.

Asplenium laciniatum Don var. subintegri-
folium Hook. Mehra et Bir in Res. Bull.
(N.S.) Panjab Univ. 15: 157, 1964; Bir in
Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 43: 558, f. 3-4,
1964.

Distribution: Darjeeling, North Sikkim.

Asplenium nidus Linn. var. acutifolium Bir
in Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 43: 567, 1964.
Distribution: Sikkim.

Asplenium nitidum Sw. Syn. Fil. 84: 280,
1806; Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.)
Bot. 3: 265, 1965. Asplenium glaucophyllum
Alderw. van Rosenb. in Bull. Jard. Bot. Bui-

tenz. Ser. 2, 7: 6, 1912; Holtt. in Fl. Mal 2:
440, 1954.
Distribution: South India, Himalayas.

Asplenium obscurum Blume, Enum. Pl. Jav.
2: 181, 1828; Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus.
(Nat. Hist.), Bot. 2: 247, 1965. Asplenium
cristatum Wall. Cat. 9. n, 211, 1829 nomen
(non Lam. 1786).

Distribution: Nilgiri and Palni Hills and
North India.

Asplenium paucivenosum (Ching) Bir in Bull.
Bot. Surv. India 4: 3, 1962; Mehra et Bir
in Res. Bul. (N.S.) Panjab Univ. 15: 159,
1964. Ceterach paucivenosa Ching in Bull.
Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. 2: 210, t. 28, 1931.
Ceterachopsis paucivenosa Ching in Bull.
Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol., Bot. Ser. /0: 9, 1940.
Distribution: Darjeeling, North Sikkim.

Asplenium paucivenosum (Ching) Bir forma
majus Bir in Amer. Fern. Journ. 62: 46,
1972.

Distribution: Darjeeling, Sikkim.

Asplenium perakense Matthew et Christ,
Journ. Linn. Soc. 39: 214, 1909; Panigr. in
Bull. Bot. Surv. India 2: 314, 1960.
Distribution: E. India.

Asplenium planicaule Wall. var. obtusa Bir
in Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 43 (4): 561, f.
8, 1964.

Distribution: Darjeeling, North Sikkim, Shil-
long, Cherrapunjee, Orissa.

Asplenium planicaule var. yoshinagae
(Mak.) Tagawa., Bir in Journ. Indian Bot.
Soc. 43: 562, 1964. A. yoshinagae Mak.
Phan. Pter. Jap. Ic. 3, t. 64, 1900.
Distribution: Himalayas.

Asplenium pseudolaserpitiifolium Ching ex
Tardieu et Ching in Notul. Syst. (Paris)
5: 150, 1936; Ito in Hara FI. East. Himal.
488, 1966.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Asplenium rockii C. Chr. Contrib. U. S. Nat.

Herb. 26: 332, t. 27, 1931 et Ind. Fil. Suppl.

445

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GHIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

3: 37, 1934; Balkr. et Hazra in Bull. Bot.
Surv. India 6: 315, 1964.
Distribution: Assam, Andhra Pradesh.

Aspienium sarelii Hook. in Blakiston, Five
months on the Yangtsze 363, 364, 1862; Bir
et Sukla in Nova Hedwig. /6: 477, 1968.
Asplenium saulii Baker in Hook. et Baker
Syn. Fil. ed. 2: 216, 1874; Hope in Journ.
Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 13: 661, t. 18, 1901
(excl. Syn. A. pekinense Hance).
Distribution: N. W. India.

Asplenium tenerum Forst. f., Florul. Ins.
Austr. Prodr. 80, 1786; Sledge in Bull. Brit.
Mus. (Nat. Hist.), Bot. 3: 253, 1965. As-
plenium elongatum Sw. Syn. Fil. 79, 1806;
rook Spy Pil. 3) idee so0!

Distribution: South India.

Aspienium unilaterale Lam. var. majus (C.
Chr.) Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.)
Bot. 3: 246, 1965.

Distribution: North and south India.

Asplenium unilaterale Lam. var. umnilaterale
Mehra & Bir in Res. Bull. (N.S.) Panjab
Univ. 15: 157, 1964.

Distribution: North Sikkim.

Athyrium crenatum (Sommerf.) Rupr. ex
Nyland. Spicil. Pl. Fenn. 2: 14, 1844; Ste-
wart, Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 72: 413, 1945.
Aspidium crenatum Sommerf. vet. Ak.
Handl. 1834: 104, 1835.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Athyrium aff. flabellulatum (Clarke) Tard-
Blot.; Mehra et Bir in Res. Bull. (N.S.)
Panjab Univ. 75: (Pt. I-IT), 140, 1964.
Distribution: North Sikkim.

Athyrium himalaicum R. C. Ching ex Mehra
et Bir in Res. Bull. (N.S.) Panjab Univ.

15 (Pt. I-ID: 137, 1964.
Distribution: North Sikkim, Eastern Hima-
ayas.

Athyrium mackinnoni (Hope) C. Chr. Ind.
Fil. 143: 1905; Stewart in Bull. Torr. Bot.
Club 72: 414, 1945; Journ. Indian Bot. Soc.

446

30: 139. 1951. Asplenium mackinnoni Hope
in Journ. Bot. 34: 124, 1896; Journ. Bomb.
nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 122, 1902.
Distribution: Trans-Indus to Sikkim, Pahl-
gam.

Athyrium mehrae Bir in Nov. Hedw. 4: 165;
1962; Mehra & Bir in Res. Bull. (N.S.)
Panjab Univ. /5 (Pt. I-III): 140, 1964.
Distribution: Sikkim.

Ahyrium nigripes (Bl.) T. Moore Ind. Fil. 39,
1857; 98, 1858; Sledge in Ann. Mag. Nat.
Hist. Ser. 12, 9: 454, t. 14, 1956; et Bull.
Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. 2: 285, 1962. Aspi-
dium nigripes Bl. Enum. Pl. Jav. 2: 162,
1828. Asplenium nigripes (Bl.) Hook. Sp.
Fil. 3: 222, 1860; Hope in Journ. Bomb.
nat. Hist. Soc. 1/4: 119, 1902.
Distribution: Assam, Sikkim, Nilgiris.

Athyrium puncticaule (Bl.) Moore, Ind. Fil.
186, 1860; Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat.
Hist. Bot. 2: 288, 1962.

Distribution: South India.

Athyrium rupicola (Hope) C. Chr. Ind. Fil.
145, 1905; Stewart in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club
72: 414, 1945. Asplenium rupicola Hope in
Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. /2: 531, t. 5.
1899.

Distribution: Kashmir to Kumaon, Punjab,
Simla.

Athyrium setiferum C. Chr. Ind. Fil. 146,
1905. Asplenium tenellum Hope in Journ.
Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. /2: 529, t. 4, 1899
(non Roxb. 1816 nee Fee 1850-52).
Distribution: Himalayas, W. Nepal.

Athyrium solenopteris (Kunze) T. Moore var.
pusillum (Kunze) T. Moore Ind. Fil. 187,
1860; Sledge in Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.
Ser. 12, 9: 457, t. 15, 1956: et Bull. Brit.
Must. Nat. Hist. 2: 287, 1962; Bir et Vasu-
deva in Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 68:
XO ETT
Distribution: Nilgiris.

LIST OF INDIAN FERNS

Athyrium subtriangulare (Hook.) Bedd. var.
sikkimense Bir in Nova Hedw. 4: 168,
f. 9-11, 1962; Mehra et Bir in Res. Bull.
(N.S.) Panjab Univ. /5: 143, 1964.
Distribution: North Sikkim.

Azolla imbricata (Roxb.) Nakai in Bot. Mag.
Tokyo 39: 185, 1925; Ito in Hara FI. East.
Himal. 500, 1966. Salvinia imbricata Roxb.
ex Griff. in Calcutta Journ. 4: 470, 1844.
Distribution: E. Himalaya.

Azolla pinnata R. Br. Prod. Fl. N. Holl. 167,
1810; Bak. Handb. 138, 1887; Eng. et Prantl
No fi. 401, 1902; Tiwari in Journ. Indian
Bot. Soc. 43: 451, 1964; Panigr. in Bull.
Bot. Surv. India 2: 1960.

Distribution: Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, E.
India.

Belvisia mucronata Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus.
Nat. Hist. Bot. 2: 140, 1960.

Distribution: Western Ghats, Eastern India.

Bolbitis deltigera (Wall. ex Clarke) C. Chr.
Ind. Fil. Suppl. 3: 46, 1934; Nayar et Kaur,
Bull. Nat. Bot. Gard. Lucknow 6&8: 41,
1964. Meniscium deltigerum Wall. Cat. 59,
1828 ex Clarke in Trans. Linn. Soc. 2, Bot.
1: 572, 1880. Campium deltigerum (Wall.
ex Clarke) Copel. in Phil. Journ. Sci. 37:
S67.) £38, (1928;

Distribution: N. E. India.

Bolbitis kanarensis Nayar et Chandra in Amer.
Fern. Journ. 54: 19, 1964; Nayar and Kaur
in Bull. Nat. Bot. Gard. Lucknow 88: 48,
1964.

Distribution: Western slopes of the Western
Ghats in Belgaum-Goa Region.

Bolbitis semicordata (Moore) Ching var.
incisa Nayar et Chandra in Amer. Fern.
Journ. 54: 15, 1964; Nayar et Kaur in Bull.
Nat. Bot. Gard. Lucknow 88: 61, 1964.
Distribution: Kerala, North Kanara.

Bolbitis undulata (Wall.) Ching in C. Chr.
Ind. Fil. Suppl. 3: 50, 1934; Nayar et Kaur
Comp. Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. India 102,

1974, Notholaena undulata Wall. Cat. 140,
1828.
Distribution: N. E. India.

Bolbitis virens (Wall. ex Hook. et Grev.)
Schott. Gen. Fil. ad. t. 14. 1834; Nayar et
Kaur in Bull. Nat. Bot. Gard. Lucknow
688: 71, 1964. Acrostichum virens Wall. ex
Hook. et Grev. Icon. Fil. t. 221, 1831. Lep-
tochilus virens (Wall. ex Hook. et Grev.)
C. Chr. Ind. Fil. 288, 1906.

Distribution: Western Ghats, Sikkim, Bur-
ma, Siam.

Botrychium daucifolium Wall. ex Hook. et
Grev. var. parvum v. A. v. R. in Bull. Jard.
Bot. Buitenz. /: 3, 1911; Suppl. Malayan
Ferns 445, 1916. Scepteridium daucifolium
Wall. ex Hook. et Grev. var. parvum (v.
A. v. R.) Nishida in Journ. Jap. Bot. 4/:
319, 1966.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Botrychium lanuginosum Wall ex Hook. et
Grev. var. nepalense (Nishida) Nair et Dixit
comb. nov. Japanobotrychium lanuginosum
(Wall.) Nishida ex Tagawa var. nepalense
Nishida in Journ. Jap. Bot. 47: 319, 1966.
Distribution: Himalayas.

Botrychium multifidum (Gmel.) Rupr. Beitr.
Zur. Pflanzenkunde de Russ. Reiches. 11:
40, 1859; Panigr. et Dixit in Bull. Bot. Surv.
India 9: 286-287, 1967, ssp. multifidum.
Osmunda muitifida Gmel. Nov. Comment,
Acad. Petrop. /2: 517, 1768. Botrychium
multifidum var. dichotomum Farwell in Rep.
Mich. Acad. Sci. 18: 87, 1916. Sceptridium
multifidum (Gmel.) Nishida var. multifidum
ex Tagawa in Journ. Jap. Bot. 33: 200,
1958.

Distribution: Sikkim: Lachen Valley.

Cheilanthes dubia Hope in Journ. Bomb. Nat.
Hist. Soc. 12: 528, 1899. Aleuritopteris
dubia (Hope) Ching in Hong Kong Nat.
10: 200, 1941.

Distribution: Dehra Dun and Mussorie.

447

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Cheilanthes hancockii Bak. in Kew Bull. 1895:
Ito in Hara Fl. East. Himal. 460, 1966.
Distribution: Himalayas, Kalimpong, Gang-
tok.

Cheilanthes keralensis Nair et Ghosh in Journ.
Indian Bot. Soc. 55: 52, 1976.
Distribution: Kiripara, Kanyakumari Dist.

Cheilanthes kuhnii Milde in Bot. Zeit. 25:
149, 1867; Ito in Hara FI. East. Himal. 460,
1966. Aleuritopteris kuhnii (Milde) Ching
in Bull. Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. Ser. 2, /:
272. 1949.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Christella harveyi (Mett.) Holtt. in Kew Bull.
31: 306, 1976. Aspidium harveyi Mett. in
Kuhn, Linnaea 36: 115, 1869.

Distribution: Indian Botanic Garden, Cal-
cutta (1972) under Lastrea richardsii var.
multifida T. Moore.

Christella hokouensis (Ching) Holtt. in Kew
Bull. 37: 327, 1976. Cyclosorus hokouensis
Ching in Bull. Fan. Mem. Inst. ser. 2, 1:
289, 1949. Thelypteris hokouensis (Ching)
Reed in Phytologia 17: 283, 1968.
Distribution: South Lushai.

Christella kumaunica Holtt. in Kew Bull. 3/:
318, 1976.

Distribution: Kumaun.

Christella lebeufii (Baker) Holtt. in Nayar et
Kaur, Comp. Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit.
India with Suppl. 206, 1974 et Kew Bull.
31: 332, 1976. Polypodium lebeufii Baker
in Ann. Bot. 5: 461, 1891. Dryopteris lebeu-
fi (Baker) C. Chr. Ind. Fil. 274, 1905.
Thelypteris lebeufii (Baker) Panigr. in Notes
Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinb. 33: 498, 1975.
Distribution: Assam.

Christella malabariensis (Fée) Holtt. in Kew
Bull. 31: 317, 1976. Nephrodium malaba-
riense Fee 10 c Mem. 43, 1865. Thelypteris
malabariensis (Fée) Panigr. in Notes Roy.
Bot. Gard. Edinb. 3: 497, 1975. Cyclosorus
meeboldii (Resenst.) Ching in Bull. Fan.

448

Mem. Inst. Biol. Bot. 8: 210, 1938. Dryop-
teris meeboldii Resenst. in Fedde, Report.
12: 247, 1913. Christella meeboldii (Ros-
enst.) Holtt. in Nayar et Kaur, Comp. Bedd.
Handb. Ferns Brit. India with suppl. 208,
1974.

Distribution: Southern India and North East
India.

Christella papilio (Hope) Holtt. in Nayar et
Kaur, Comp. Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit.
India with Suppl. 208, 1974 et Kew Bull.
31: 322, 1976. Nephrodium papilio Hope
in Journ. Bomb. Nat Hist. Soc. /2: 625,
t. 12, 1899. Dryopteris papilio (Hope) C.
Chr. Ind. Fil. 282, 1905. Cyclosorus papilio
(Hope) Ching in Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol.
Bot. &: 214, 1938. Thelypteris papilio
(Hope) Iwats. in Mem. Coll. Sci. Univ.
Kyoto B 3/: 175, 1965.

Distribution: Darjeeling, South India.

Christella semisagittata (Roxb.) Holtt. in Kew
Bull. 31: 334, 1976. Polypodium semisagit-
fatum Roxb. in Calcutta Journ. Nat. Hist.
4: 491, 1844. Thelypteris semisagittata
(Roxb.) Morton in Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb.
38: 360, 1974.

Distribution: Bengal, Assam.

Christella siamensis (Tagawa et Iwats.) Holt.
in Kew Bull. 37: 332, 1976. Thelypteris sia-
mensis Tagawa et Iwats. in Acta Phytotax.
Geobot. 22: 101, fig. 5, 1967.

Distribution: North-East India.

Christella subelata (Bak.) Holtt. in Kew Bull.
31: 331, 1976. Nephrodium subelatum Bak.
in Bull. Misc. Inf. Kew 1906: 11, 1906.
Nephrodium multilineatum var. assamicum
Bedd. in Journ. Bot. 31: 228, 1893. Chris-
tella assamica (Bedd.) Noltt. in Nayar et
Kaur. Comp. Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit.
India with Suppl. 210, 1974.

Distribution: Assam.

Christella subpubescens (Bl.) Holtt. in Webbia

00: 000, 1976 et Kew Bull. 37: 323, 1976.

LIST OF INDIAN FERNS

Aspidium subpubescens Bl. Enum. Pl. Jav.
149, 1828.
Distribution: North-east India.

Christella zeylanica (Fée) Holtt. in Nayar et

Kaur, Comp. Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. India »

with Suppl. 208, 1974; et Kew Bull. 31:
334, 1976. Nephrodium zeylanicum Feée, 10
e, Mem. 42, 1865. Thelypteris srilankensis
Panigrahi in Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinb.
33: 499, 1975. Nephrodium extensum var.
minor Bedd. Ferns Brit. India t. 201, 1866.
Distribution: Nicobar.

Colysis latiloba (Ching) Ching in Bull. Fan.
Mem. Inst. Biol. 4: 330, 1933; Tagawa in
Hara Fl. East. Himal. 490, 1966. Polypo-
dium latifolium Ching in Bull. Fan. Mem.
Inst: Biol. 2: 21, Pl). 7,193 1.

Distribution: Himalaya and Assam.

Colysis macrophylla (Bl.) Presl Epim. Bot.
147, 1849; Thothathri e¢ al. in Journ. Bomb.
nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 249, 1977. Grammitis
macrophylla Bl. Enum. Pl. Java 119, 1828.
Distribution: Great Nicobar Islands.

Colysis pothifolia (Hamilt. ex D. Don) Ito in
Journ. Jap. Bot. //: 89, 1935. Hemionitis
pothifolia Hamilt. ex D. Don Prodr. FI.
Nepal 13, 1825.

Distribution: E. India.

Colysis selliguea (Mett.) Ching in Sunyats. 5:
261, 1940; Thothathri e¢ al. in Journ. Bomb.
nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 251, 1977. Polypodium
selliguea Mett. Pol. III: 214, 1857.
Distribution: Great Nicobar Islands.

Coniogramme caudata (Wall.) Ching in C-.
Chr. Ind. Fil. Suppl. III. 56, 1934; Ito in
Hara Fl. East. Himal. 460, 1966. Grammitis
caudata Wall. Cat. no. 4, 1828 (nomen
nudum). Coniogramme pubescens Hieron,
in Hedwig. 57, 314, 1916.

Distribution: Darjeeling, Himalayas.

Coniogramme falcata (Don) Salom, Nomenel.
139, 1888; Dixit et Das in Journ. Indian
Bot. Soc. 56: 255, 1977. Diplazium falcatum

Don, Prodr. Nepal 13, 1825.

Distribution: Naga Hills, Arunachal Pra-

desh, Sikkim.

Coniogramme indica Fee. Mem. Fam. Foug.
10: 22, 1865.

Distribution: Eastern India.

Coniogramme intermedia Hieron. in Hedw.
57: 301, 1916. var. glabra Ching, Ic. Fil.
Sin. 4: 143, 1935; Ito in Hara FI. East.
Himal. 461, 1966.

Distribution: Himalayas, Darjeeling.
Coniogramme intermedia Hieron. in Hedw.

57: 301, 1916 var. villosa Ching, Icon. Fil.

Sin. 4: t. 143, 1935; Ito in Hara Fl. East.

Himal. 461, 1966.

Distribution: North Sikkim, N. India.
Coniogramme petelotii Tard.-Blot., Mus. Paris

II, 5: 334, 1933; Dixit et Das in Journ.

Indian Bot. Soc. 56: 257, 1977. C. subcor-

data Ching in Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. 2: 213,

1913 (non Copel. 1910).

Distribution: Meghalaya.

Coniogramma subcordata Copel. Leaflets Phil.
Bot. 3: 823, 1910; Hieron, Hedw. 57: 326,
1916; Dixit et Das in Bull. Bot. Surv. India
17%, 185; 1973\€1978).

Distribution: Darjeeling, Sikkim.
Cornopteris biri Ching ex Bir in Nova Hedw.
725023 1964:

Distribution: Sikkim.

Crepidomanes bilabiatum (Nees et BI.) Copel.
Philip. Journ. Sci. 67: 59, 1938; Sledge in
Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. 60: 306, 1968. T7i-
chomanes bilabiatum Nees et Bl. Nova Acta
1197423) 1823:

Distribution: S. India.

Crepidomanes_ latealatum (van den _ Bosh)
Copel. in Philip. Journ. Sci. 67: 60, 1938;
Iwats. in Hara FI. East. Himal. 456, 1966.
Didymoglossum latealatum van den Bosch.

~in Ned. Kruid. Arch. 5: 138, 1863; Copel.

in Philip. Journ. Sci. 57: 192, 1933.

Distribution: Endemic to Sikkim Himalaya.

449

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Crypsinus chrysotrichus (C. Chr.) Tagawa in
Acta Phytotax. Geobot, 7/4: 193, 1952; Ba-
lak. et Chowdh. in Sci. & Cultr. 33: 62,
1967. Polypodium chrysotrichum C. Chr.
in Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. 26: 320, t. 31,
13:

Distribution: Himalayas.

Crypsinus echinoporous (Tag.) Tagawa in
Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 1/4: 193, 1952;
Nishida in Journ. Coll. Arts & Sci. Chiba
Univ. 4 (4): 579, 1966. Phymatodes echi-
nospora Tagawa in Acta Phytotax. Geobot.
3: 95, 1934.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Crypsinus engleri (Luerss.) Copel. Gen. Fil.
206, 1947; Nishida in Journ. Coll. Arts &
Sci. Chiba Univ. 4: 579, 1966. Polypodium
engleri Luerssen in Engl. Jahrb. 4: 361,
1883.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Crypsinus montanus Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus.
(Nat. Hist.) Bot. 2: 145, 1960.
Distribution: South India.

Crypsinus quasidivaricatus (Hayata) Copel.
Gen. Fil. 206, 1947; Tagawa in Hara FI.
East Himal. 492, 1966. Polypodium divari-
catum Hayata in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 23: 78,
1909; (non Fourn. 1872. Polypodium
quasidivaricatum Hayata, Mat. Fl. Formos.
446, 1911, based on Polypodium divaricatum
Hayata. Phymatodes quasidivaricata (Ha-
yata) Ching in Contr. Inst. Bot. Nat. Acad.
Peiping 2: 83, 1933.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Crypsinus yakushimensis (Mak.) Tagawa in
Acta Phytotax, Geobot. /4: 194, 1952;
Nishida in Journ. Coll. Arts & Sci. Chiba
Univ. 4: 579, 1966. Polypodium — engleri
Luers. var. yakushimense Makino in Bot.
Mag. Tokyo 23: 248, 1909.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Cyclosorus cylindrothrix (Rosenst.) Ching in

Bull. Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. Bot. 8: 199,

450

1938; Mehra et Bir in Res. Bull. (N.S.)
Panjab Univ. 7/5 (Ph. I-III): 154, 1964.
Dryopteris cylindrothrix Rosenst. Fedde Re-
pert. Sp. Nov. 12: 346, 1913.
Distribution: Darjeeling.

Cyclosorus occultus (Hope) Ching in Bull.
Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. Bot. 8: 228, 1938.
Nephrodium occultum Hope in Journ.
Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 627, 1899.
Distribution: Tehri Garhwal.

Cyclosorus papilio (Hope) Ching in Bull. Fan.
Mem. Inst. Biol. Bot. 8: 214, 1938; Mehra
et Bir in Res. Bull. (N.S.) Panjab Univ. /5:
154, 1964. Nephrodium papilio Hope in
Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. /2: 625, t. 12,
1899 and /4: 747, 1903.

Distribution: Darjeeling, North Sikkim.

Cyclosorus polycarpus (Bl.) Holtt. in Fl. Mal.
2: 283, 1954; Thothathri et al. in Journ.
Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 251, 1977. Aspi-
dium polycarpon Bl. Enum. 156, 1828.
Distribution: Great Nicobar Islands.

Cystopteris dickieana R. Sim. in Gardn. &
Farmers Journ. 308, 1848; Alston et Bonner
in Amer. Fern Journ. 47: 76, 1951 et Can-
dollea 75: 212, 1965; Bir et Trikha in Nov.
Hedw. 24: 22, 1974. Cystopteris fragilis
subsp. eufragilis var. baenitzeii (Dorfl.)
Warnst. in Aschers. Graebn. Syn. Mit. Eur.
Fl. 7: 17, 1896. Cystopteris baenitzeii Dor-
fler in Baenitz, Herb. Eur. n. 6510, 1891.
Distribution: Kashmir.

Cystopteris fragilis forma granulosa Bir et
Trikha in Amer. Fern. Journ. 66: 109, 1976.
Distribution: Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir.

Cystopteris fragilis forma himalayensis Bir et
Trikha in Amer. Fern. Journ. 66: fig. 3A,
3B, 1976.

Distribution: Gulmerg (Kashmir).

Cystopteris sikkimensis R. C. Ching ex Bir in
Nova Hedw. 7:504, 1964; Mehra et Bir in
Res. Bull. (N.S.) Panjab Univ. 75 (Pt. I):
136, 1964.

LIST OF INDIAN FERNS

Distribution: North Sikkim.

Dicranopteris linearis (Burm. f.) Underw. var.
altissima Holtt. in Reinw. 4: 276, 1957;
Panigr. et Dixit in Sen. Mem. Vol. Bot. Soc.
Bengal 475, 1969.

Distribution: Arunachal, Assam, Shillong,
Lakhimpur, Khasia and Jaintia Hills, Louw-
lyndoh, Madhya Pradesh, Nilgiri, Malabar.

Dicranopteris linearis (Burm. f.) Underw. var.
demota Holtt. in Reinw. 4: 275, 1957;
Panigr. et Dixit in Sen. Mem. Vol. Bot. Soc.
Bengal 475, 1969.

Distribution: Sikkim, Darjeeling (Lloyd
Botanic Garden), Kurseong.

Dicranopteris linearis (Burm. f.) Underw. var.
latiloba Holtt. in Reinw. 4: 277, 1957;
Panigr. et Dixit in Sen. Mem. Vol. Bot.
Soc. Bengal 474, 1969. :
Distribution: Subansiri, Amji to Palin,
Siang, Pang to Minguing, Kameng, Tirap,
Shillong, Pongging to Jaru Hills, Duphla
Hills, Khasia and Jaintia Hills.

Dicranopteris linearis (Burm. f.) Underw.
var. subferruginea (Hieron.) Nakai in Bull.
Nat. Sci. Mus. Tokyo 29: 66, 1950; Panigr.
et Dixit in Sen. Mem. Vol. Bot. Soc. Bengal
472, 1969.

Distribution: Tirap, Laju Hills, Subansiri,
Apatnang Valley, Assam, Khasia and Jain-
tea Hills, Kumaon, Nilgiri.

Dicranopteris linearis (Burm. f.) Underw. var.
sebastiana Panigr. et Dixit in Bull. Bot.
Surv. India 13: 162, 1971 (1973).
Distribution: Nilgiri, Madurai.

Dicranopteris linearis (Burm. f.) Underw. var.
subpectinata (Christ) Holtt. in Reinw. 4:
277, 1957; Panigr. et Dixit in Sen. Mem.
Vol. Bot. Soc. Bengal 474, 1969. Gleichenia
subpectinata Christ in Bot. Tidsskr. 25: 111,
1901; Dicranopteris warburgii (non Glei-
chenia warburgii) sensu Nakai in Bull. Nat.
Sci. Mus. Tokyo 29, 1950; Ito in Hara FI.
East Himal. 456, 1966. Gleichenia linearis

var. alternana sensu Holtt. (non Mett.) FI.
Mal. 2: 70, 1954.
Distribution: Andaman Islands, Himalayas.

Diplazium donianum (Mett.) Tardieu—Blot,
Aspl. du Tonkin 58, t. 5, 1932; C. Chr. Ind.
Fil, Suppl. 3: 73, 1934. Asplenium donia-
num Mett. Aspl. 177 no. 198 b, 1858. Dip-
lazium splendens Ching in Bull. Fan, Mem.
Insts 25,205. t) 24, i931.

Diplazium polypodioides Bl. var. brachylobum
Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. 2: 307.
1962.

Distribution: South India.

Diplazium simplicivenium Holtt. in Gard. Bull.
Str. Settl. 11: 100-101, 1940; Mehra et Bir
in Res. Bull. (N.S.) Panjab Univ. 15 (1-II):
147, 1964. Athyrium simplicivenium (Holtt.)
Holtt. Fl. Mal. 2: 573, 1954.
Distribution: North Sikkim.

Diplazium squamigerum (Mett.) Christ in Bull.
Soc. Fr 52; Mem. 1; 51, 1905; Stewart: in
Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 72: 416, 1945; Journ.
Indian Bot. Soc. 30: 139, 1951. Asplenium
squamigerum Mett. in Ann. Lugd. Bot. 2:
239, 1866; Hope in Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist.
Soc; 14: 259; 1902.

Distribution: North India, Pahlgam.

Diplazium sylvaticum (Bory) Sw. Synops. Fil.
92, 1806; Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat.
Hist. 2: 301, 1962 Callipteris sylvatica Bory
in Voy. Mers. Afr. 7: 282, 1804. Atlantodia
pinnata Blanco in Fl. Filip. ed. 2, 571,
1845. Athyrium pinnatum (Blanco) Copel.
in Philipp. Journ. Sci. Sect. C. 3, 297, 1908.
Distribution: North and South India.

Diplazium viridissimum Christ in Not. Syst.
I: 45, 1909; Mehra et Bir in Res. Bull.
(N.S.) Panjab Univ. /5 (I-II): 147, 1964.
Athyrium macrosorum Copel. in Leaflet
Philip. Bot. 3: 815, 1910.

Distribution: Lebong, Darjeeling.
Doodia dives Kunze, Bot. Zeit. 144, 1848;

Bedd. Handb. Ferns Brit. India 137, 1883;

451

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Bharg. in Bull. Bot. Surv. India /5: 281,
1973.
Distribution: Nilgiri Dist.

Drymotaenium miyoshianum Makino in Bot.
Mag. Tokyo /5: 109, 1901; Dixit et Nair
in Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 54: 256-258, figs.
1-6, 1975.

Distribution: E. India.

Dryopteris acutodentata Ching in Bull. Fan.
Mem. Inst. Biol. Bot. §: 432. 1938. Nephro-
dium kingii Hope [non Dryopteris kingii
(Bedd.) C. Chr.] in Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist.
Soc. 72: 621, 1899:

Distribution: Northern India.

Dryopteris blanfordii (Hope) C. Chr. Index
Fil. 254, 1905; Mehra et Bir in Res. Bull.
(N.S.) Panjab Univ. ,J5 (Pt. I-I): 133
1964, Stewart in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club /2:
405, 1945. Nephrodium blanfordii Hope in
Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 7/2: 624, t. 11,
1899.
Distribution:
Punjab.

Dryopteris costalisora Tagawa in Act. Phyto-
tax. Geobot. 3: 88, 1934; Ito in Hara FI.
East. Himal. 476. 476, 1966.

Distribution: E. Himalaya, Darjeeling.

Dryopteris fructuosa (Christ.) C. Chr. Index
Fil. 267, 1905; Mehra et Bir in Res. Bull.
(N.S.) Punjab Univ. 75 (Pt. I-III): 132,
1964. Aspidium fructuosum Christ in Bull.
Soc. Fr. 52: Mem. 1, 38, 1905.
Distribution: Lachen Valley, North Sikkim.

Dryopteris gamblei (Hope) C. Chr. Ind. 267,
1905. Nephrodium gamblei Hope in Journ.
Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 12 (3): 533, 1899.
Distribution: Sikkim, Darjeeling, Assam,
Shillong.

Dryopteris harae Ito in Hara Fl. East. Himal.
476, 1966.

Distribution: Sikkim Himalaya (endemic).

Dryopteris hasseltii (Bl.) C. Chr. Ind. Fil. 269,
1905; Ito in Hara Fl. East. Himal. 477, 1966.

Darjeeling, Kashmir, Simla,

452

Polypodium hasseltii Bl. Fl. Jav. Fil. 195,
t. 92, 1829. Polystichopsis hasseltii (BI.)
Holtt. Fl. Mal. 2: 487, 1954.

Distribution: E. Himalaya (Nepal to Assam).

Dryopteris hexagonoptera (Mich.) C. Chr. Ind.
Fil. 270. 1905; Stewart in Bull. Torr. Bot.
Club 72: 411, 1945. Polypodium hexagonop-
terum Michx. Fl. Bor. Am. 2: 271, 1803.
Phegopteris hexagonoptera Fee, Gen. Fil.
243, 1850-52.

Distribution: Zanscar (a
Ladak), North of Simla.
Dryopteris hypophlebia Hayata in Icon. PI.
Formos. 416, 1911; Ito in Hara, Fl. East.

Himal. 477, 1966.
Distribution: Himalayas.

Dryopteris kawakamii Hayata, Mater. FI.
Formos. 416, 1911; Ito in Hara. Fl. East.
Himal. 477, 1966.

Distribution: E. Himalaya.

Dryopteris laterepens (Trotter) C. Chr. Index
Fil. 274, 1905; Stewart in Bull. Torr. Bot.
Club 72: 409, 1945. Polypodium laterepens
Trotter ex Hope in Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist.
Soc. /2: 628, t. 14, 1899.

Distribution: North India.

Dryopteris ramosa (Hope) C. Chr. Ind. 287,
1905; Stewart in Bull. Torr. Bot. Cub. 72:
406, 1945; Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 30: 138,
1951. Nephrodium ramosum Hope in Journ.
Bot. 34: 126, 1896; Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist.
Soc. 1/4: 740, 1903.

Distribution: Kashmir, Punjab.

Dryopteris reflexosquamata Hayata in Icon,
Pl. Formos. 4: 176, f. 114, 1914; Ito in Hara
Fl. East. Himal. 478, 1966.

Distribution: Darjeeling, Himalayas.

Dryopteris repens (Hope) C. Chr. Ind. 288,
1905; Stewart in Bull. Torr. Bot. Club. 72:
408, 1945. Nephrodium repens Hope in
Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 535. 1899.
Nephrodium prolixum Baker in Syn. Fil.
268, 1867.

province of

LIST OF INDIAN FERNS

Distribution: North India—Nepal, Sikkim,
Bhutan, Shillong.

Dryopteris squamiseta (Hook.) O. Kuntze,
Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 813, 1891; Ito in Hara FI.
East. Himal. 479, 1966. Nephorium squami-
setum Hook. Sp. Fil. 4: 140, t. 263, 1862.
Distribution: Himalayas.

Dryopteris yumnanensis (Christ) Copel. Gen.
Fil. 122, 1947; Ito in Hara FI. East. Himal.
479, 1966. Aspidium yunnanense Christ in
Bull. Herb. Boiss. 6: 965, 1898.
Distribution: Himalayas.

Dryopteris subimpressa Loyal in Nova Hedw.
16: 467, 1968.
Distribution:
ling.

Dryopteris submarginata Loyal in Nova Hedw.
16: 465-466, 1968.

Distribution: Eastern Himalaya
Sikkim).

Egenolfia keralensis Nayar et Kaur in Bull.
Nat. Bot. Gard. 94: 4, 1964.

Distribution: Kanthalur; Munnar (Kerala);
Mercara, Coorg.

Elaphoglossum beddomei Sledge in Buil. Brit.
Mus. Nat. Hist. 4: 88, 1967.

Distribution: Nilgiri, Anamalay and Palghat
Hills.

Elaphoglossum marginatum (Wall. ex Feée)
Moore, Ind. Fil. 8: 11, 1857, 361. 1862;
Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bot.
4: 89, 1967. Acrostichum marginatum Wall.
ex Fée in Acrost. 31, 1845.

Distribution: South India.

Elaphoglossum nilgiricum Krajina ex Sledge
in Bull. Brit. Must. Nat. Hist. 4: 94, 1967.
Distribution: Endemic to Nilgiri Hills.

Elaphoglossum stigmatolepis (Fée) T. Moore,
Ind. Fil. 76: 15, 1857; 368, 1862; Christ in
Neue Denkschr. Schw. Ges. Naturw. 36:
52, 1899; Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat.
Hist. 4: 86, 1967. Elaphoglossum ballardia-
num Biswas in Bull. Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist.

Eastern Himalayas (Darjee-

(North

4: 86, 1967. Elaphoglossum ballardianum
Biswas in Bull. Misc. Inf. Kew 1939: 239,
tHe es 1939:

Distribution: Nilgiri and Pulney Hills.

Elaphoglossum yunnanense (Bak.) C. Chr.
Contr. U.S. Nation. Herb. 26: 327, 1931;
Ito, Tagawa et Iwats. in Hara Fl. East.
Himal. 479, 1966. Acrostichum yunnanense
Bak. in Kew Bull. 1898: 233, 1898.
Distribution: Himalayas.

Gleichenia blotiana C. Chr. Bull. Mus. Hist.
Nat. Paris II, 6: 103, 1934; Panigrahi and
Dixit in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 10: 339,
1968. Hicriopteris blotiana Ching in Synya-
tsenia 5: 279, 1940. Diplopterygium blotia-
num Nakai in Bull. Nat. Sci. Mus. Tokyo
29: 49, 1950.

Distribution: Siang, Eyo to Tumbing; Tirap,
Kheti-Inchha, Assam.

Gleichenia laevissima Christ in Bull. Ac. Inst.
Geogr. Bot. HII, 77: 268, 1902; Panigrahi
& Dixit in Bull. Bot. Surv. India /0: 337,
1968, Hicriopteris laevissima Ching in Syn-
yatsenia 5: 280, 1940. Diplopterygium laevis-
sima Nakai in Bull. Nat. Sci. Mus. Tokyo
292052, 1950: "3
Distribution: Forests of the Eastern India.

Gleichenia volubilis Jung. Reis. Java J: 452,
1845; Panigarhi et Dixit in Bull. Bot. Surv.
India 10: 339, 1968. Gleichenia glauca var.
arachnoides C. Chr. Index Fil. 320, 1095.
Hicriopteris volubilis (Jungh.) Ching in Syn-
yatsenia 5: 280, 1940. Diploterygium volu-
bile (Jungh.) Nakai in Bull. Nat. Sci. Mus.
Tokyo 29: 55, 1950.
Distribution: Assam, Khasi
Hills, Mawphlong, Shillong,
Cherrapunji, Darjeeling.

Gonocormus diffusus (Bl.) van den Bosch,
Hymen. Jav. 9, 1859; Iwats. in Hara FI.
East. Himal. 456, 1966. Trichomanes diffu-
sum Bl. Enum. Pl. Jav. 225, 1828.
Distribution: Himalayas.

and Jaintia
Bishnupur,

453

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Holcosorus bisulcata (Hook.) Ching in Syn-
vatsenia 5: 265, 1940; Dixit et Nair in Proc.
Ind. Acad. Sci. B. 86: 385-387, 1977. Gram-
mitis bisulcata Hook. Ic. Pl. t. 998, 1854.
Distribution: E. India.

Humata heterophylla (Sm.) Desv. Prodr. 323,
1825; Thothathri et al. in Journ. Bomb. nat.
Hist. Soc. 74: 251, 1977. Davallia hetero-
phylla Sm. Mem, Ac. Turin 5: 415, 1793.

Distribution: Great Nicobar Island.
Idiopteris hookeriana Walker in Kew Bull. 3:

429, 1957.

Distribution: Malabar.

Lepisorus amaurolepidus (Sledge) Bir et Trikha
in Bir et Vasudeva, Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist.
Soc. 68: 192, 1971; Bir et Trikha in Amer.
Fern. Journ. 64 (2): 60, 1974; Bull. Bot.
Surv. India 11: 266, 1969. Pleopeltis amau-
rolepida Sledge in Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat.
Hist.) 2: 136, 1960. Polypodium gladiatum
Wall. Cat. 279, 1828 (nom. nudum; non
Polypodium gladiatum Kze. 1834).
Distribution: Himalayas, Central
South India.

Lepisorus amaurolepidus (Sledge) Bir et Trikha
var. longifolius Bir et Trikha in Amer. Fern.
Journ. 64: 63, 1974.

Distribution: Nainital, Ranikhet.

Lepisorus angustus Ching in Bull. Fan. Mem.
Inst. Biol. 4: 86, 1933; Bir et Trikha in
Bull. Bot. Surv. India J/7: 268, 1969. Poly-
podium lineare var. thunbergianum f. cau-
datoatteanuata Takeda in Notes Roy. Bot.
Gard. Edinb. 8: 269, 1915. Polypodium
caudato-attenuatum (Takeda) C. Chr. Ind.
Fil. Suppl. III. 146, 1934. Pleopeltis caudato-
attenuata (Takeda) Panigr. & Patn. in Curr.
Sci. 34: 127, 1965. Lepisorus thunbergianus
(Kaulf.) Ching var. angustus (Ching) Kura-
ta in Sci. Report Yokozuka City Mus. No.
Lie 393.1965:

Distribution: Eastern Himalaya.

India,

454

Lepisorus contortus (Christ) Ching in Bull.
Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. Bot. 4: 90, 1933; Bir
et Trikha in Bull. Bot. Surv. India //: 271,
1969. Polypodium contortum Christ in Bot.
Gaz. 51: 347, i911. Pleopeltis contorta
(Christ) Alston et Bonner in Candollea
153 209571956;

Lepisorus aff. excavatus (Bory) Ching in
Mehra et Bir in Res. Bull. Panjab Univ.
(N.S.) 75: 168, 1964.

Distribution: Singhik, North Sikkim.

Lepisorus excavatus (Bory) Ching var. hima-
layansis Bir et Trikha in Amer. Fern. Journ.
64: 58, 1974.

Distribution: Nainital.

Lepisorus excavatus (Bory) Ching var. morto-
nianus Bir et Trikha in Amer. Fern. Journ.
64: 56, 1974.

Distribution: Nainital.

Lepisorus excavatus (Bory) Ching var. scolo-
pendrium (Ham.) Ching in Bull. Fan. Mem.
Inst. Biol. 4: 69, 1933; Kitamura in Fauna
Flora Nep. Himal. J: 80, 1952-53.
Distribution: Himalayas.

Lepisorus kashyapit (Mehra) Mehra et Bir
in Res. Bull. Panjab Univ. (N.S.) 7/3: 23,
1963; Bir et Trikha in Bull. Bot. Surv.
India /7: 271, 1969. Polypodium kashyapii
Mehra Ferns of Mussoorie, Panjab Univ.
Bot. Pub. 7: 24, Fig. 5, 1939. Pleopeltis
kashyapii (Mehra) Alston et Bonner in
Candollea 15: 208, 1956.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Lepisorus kuchenensis (Wu) Ching in Bull.
Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. 4: 69, 1933; Mehra
et Bir in Res. Bull. Panjab Univ. (N.S.)
15: 168, 1964; Bir et Trikha in Bull. Bot.
Surv. India /7: 273, 1969. Polypodium
kuchenensis Wu in Wu et al. Polypod. Yao-
shan. 276, t. 129, 1932.

Distribution: Nepal, Sikkim, Darjeeling.

Lepisorus oligolepidus (Baker) Ching in Bull.
Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. 4: 80, 1933; Bir et

LIST OF INDIAN FERNS

Trikha in Amer. Fern. Journ. 64: 50, 1974.
Polypodium oligolepidum Baker in Gardn.
Chron. ns. 1/4: 494, 1880.
Distribution: Uttar Pradesh.

Lepisorus oosphaerus (C. Chr.) Ching in Bull.
Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. 4: 70, 1933; Bir et
Trikha in Amer. Fern Journ. 64: 58, 1974.
Polypodium oosphaerum C. Chr. Contr. U.S.
Nat. Herb. 26: 334, t. 29, 1931. Pleopeltis
oosphaera (C. Chr.) Panigr. et Patn. in Proc.
Nat. Acad. Sci. India B. 34: 482, 1964.
Distribution: Lushai Hills.

Lepisorus pseudonudus Ching in Bull. Fan.
Mem. Inst. Biol. 4: 83, 1933; Bir et Trikha
in Bull. Bot. Surv. India //: 268, 1969.
Pleopeltis pseudonuda (Ching) Panigr. &
Patn. in Curr. Sci. 34: 127, 1965.
Distribution: Assam, Khasi Hills,
and Mameng.

Lepisorus sordidus (C. Chr.) Ching in Bull.
Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. 4: 78, 1933; Bir et
Trikha in Amer. Fern Journ. 64: 58, 1974.
Polypodium sordidum C. Chr. U.S. Nat.
Herb. 26: 320, 1931. Pleopeltis sordida (C.
Chr.) Panigr. et Patn. in Curr. Sci. 34: 127,
1965.

Distribution: Eastern Himalaya.

Lepisorus subconfluence Ching in Bull. Fan.
Mem. Inst. Biol. 4: 83, 1933; Bir et Trikha
in Amer. Fern. Journ. 64: 60, 1974. Pleo-
peltis subconfluens (Ching) Panigr. et Patn.
in Curr. Sci. 34: 127, 1965.

Distribution: Eastern Himalaya.

Lepisorus sublinearis (Baker) Ching in Bull.
Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. 4: 78, 1933; Bir et
Trikha in Amer. Fern Journ. 64: 52, 1974.
Polypodium sublineare Baker ex Takeda in
Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinb. 8: 276, 1915.
Distribution: Assam, Manipur, Kohima.

Lepisorus suboligolepidus Ching in Bull. Fan.
Mem. Inst. Biol. 4: 77, 1933; Bir et Trikha
in Amer. Fern. Journ. 64: 52, 1974.
Distribution: Kashmir, Assam, Sikkim.

Tirap

Lepisorus thunbergianus (Kaulf.) Ching in Bull.
Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. 4: 88, 1933; Bir et
Shukla in Nova Hedw. 2/: 200, 1971. Pleo-
peltis thunbergiana Kaulf. Wesen d. Ferrnkt
13, 1837. Polypodium lineare Thunb. FI.
Jap. 335, 1784 (non Polypodium lineare
auct.)

Distribution: Huttoo Peak.

Lepisorus ussuriensis (Regel & Maack) Ching
in Bull. Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. 4: 91, 1933;
Bir & Trikha in Bull. Bot. Surv. India //:
268, 1969. Pleopeltis ussuriensis Regel et
Maack in Mem. Acad. Sci. Petersb. VII.
4: 40, 175, 1861. Polypodium lineare var.
ussuriense C. Chr. Index Fil. 572. 1906.
Distribution: Himalayas.

Lindsaea himalaica Kramer in Gard. Bull.
Singp. 26: 43, 1972. Lindsaea_ cultrata
(Willd.) Sw. var. assamica Hook. Sp. Fil.
IT: 204, 1846.
Distribution:
Manipur.

Lindsaea javanensis Blume, En. Pl. Jav. 219,
1972;Kramer in Gard. Bull. Sing. 26: 25,
1972. Lindsaea flabellulata Dryander var.
gigantea Hook. Sp. Fil. 7: 211, t. 63 c, 1846.
Distribution: Assam.

Lindsaea lucida Blume En. Pl. Jav. 216,
1828; Holttum, Fl. Mal. 2: 328, 1954; Kra-
mer in Blumea /5: 567, 1968 et Gard. Bull.
Sing. 26: 44, 1972.

Distribution: Assam, Andaman,
Tamil Nadu.

Lindsaea odorata Roxb. var. darjeelingensis
Sen et Sen in Amer. Fern Journ. 6/: 14,
1971.

Distribution: Darjeeling.

Lindsaea orbiculata (Lamk.) Mett. et Kuhn
var. commixta (Tagawa) Kramer Fl. Mal.
II, 1, 3: 207, 1971 et Gard. Bull. Sing. 26:
22, 1972. Lindsaea commixta Tagawa in
Acta. Phytotax. Geobot. 6: 37, f. 3 H-J,
1937.

Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,

Bengal,

455

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Distribution: Assam, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala.
Loxogramme grammitoides (Bak.) C. Chr.

Ind. Fil. Suppl. 2: 21, 1917; Tagawa in

Hara Fl. East. Himal. 494, 1966. Gymnc-

gramme grammitoides Bak. in Journ. Bot.

27: 178, 1889.

Distribution: Darjeeling.

Loxogramme salicifolia (Makino) Makino in
Bot. Mag. Tokyo /9: 138, 1905; Tagawa
in Hara in Fl. East. Himal. 495, 1966. Gym-
nogramme salicifolia Makino in Phan. Pter.
Jap. Icon. III /: t. 34, 1899.

Distribution: Himalayas & Assam.

Lunathyrium acutum Ching in Acta Phytotax.
Sin. 9: 73, 1964.

Distribution: Eastern India.

Lunathyrium sikkimense Ching in Acta Phy-
totax. Sin. 9: 72, 1964.

Distribution: Darjeeling.

Marsilea aegyptiaca Willd. Sp. Pl. 5: 540,
1810; Gupta, Marsilea, Bot. Mon. 26, 1962.
Distribution: Orissa, Rajasthan.

Marsilea brachycarpa A. Br. Montsber. Ak.

Berl. 1863: 420, 1864; Gupta, Marsilea, Bot.

Mon. 16, 1962.
Distribution: Bangalore, Kankanhalli.

Marsilea brachypus A. Br. Montsber. Ak.
Berl. 1863: 421, 1864, Gupta, Marsilea, Bot.
Mon. 18, 1962.
Distribution:
Sutlej.

Marsilea condensata Baker in Journ. Bot.
1886: 281, 1886; Gupta, Marsilea, Bot. Mon.
23-4902,

Distribution: Rajasthan.

Marsilea gracilenta A. Br. Montsber. Ak.
Berl. 1863: 421, 1864: Gupta, Marsilea,
Bot. Mon. 19, 1962.

Distribution: Concan, Kemnangudi.

Marsilea coromandelica Burm. f. Fl. Ind. t.
62. f. 3, 1768; Gupta, Marsilea, Bot. Mon.
20; 1962:

Nilgiris, Amritsar, Bank of

456

Distribution: Coromandel Coast; Tranque-
bar.

Marsilea maheshwarii Gopal in Amer. Fern
Journ. 58: 70, 1968.

Distribution: Pondicherry.

Marsilea major (Haines) Chowdhury, Res.
Living Pteridophytes, New Delhi, 49, 1971;
Pter. Fl. Upper Gang. Pl. 24, 1973. Marsilea
minuta Linn. var. major Haines, Botany of
Bihar and Orissa (Rep. Ed.) 3: 1272, 1961.
Distribution: Bihar.

Marsilea minuta Linn. Mant. 308, 1771; Gupta,
Marsilea, Bot. Mon. 23, 1962. Marsilea den-
tata Roxb. (nomen).

Distribution: Throughout India.

Marsilea minuta Linn. var. indica Gupta,
Marsilea, Bot. Mon. 25, 1962.
Distribution: Alwar, Bharatpur.

Marsilea poonensis Kolhatkar in Kew Bull.
LOST: 2938.00) Meal 957:

Distribution: Poona.

Marsilea quadrifolia Linn. Sp. Pl. 1099, 1753;
Gupta, Marsilea, Bot. Mon. 22, 1962.
Distribution: Kashmir.

Marsilea rajasthanensis Gupta, Marsilea, Bot.
Mon. 29, 1962.

Distribution: Rajasthan (Ajmere, Jaipur).

Marsilea rajasthanensis Gupta var. ballardii
(Gupta) Gupta, Marsilea, Bot. Mon. 30,
1962. Marsilea ballardii Gupta in Journ.
Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 289, 1955.
Distribution: Rajasthan (Ajmer, Udaipur,
Kota).

Meringium holochilum (v.d. Bosch.) Copel.
in Philip. Journ. Sc. 67: 42, 1938; Panigr.
in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 2: 311, 1960.
Didymoglossum holochilum v.d. Bosch. P1.
Jungh. 1: 561, 1856. Hymenophyllum holo-
chilum (v.d. Bosch.) C. Chr. Ind. Fil. 362,
1905.

Distribution: Eastern India.

Meringium penangianum (Matt. et C. Chr.

ex Christ.) Copel. in Philip. Journ. Sc. 67:

LIST OF INDIAN FERNS

41, 1938; Panigr. in Bull. Bot. Surv. India
2: 311, 1960. Hymenophyllum penangianum
Matt. et C. Chr. ex Christ in Journ. Linn.
Soc. 39: 214, 1919.

Distribution: Eastern India.

Microlepia haflangensis Nayar et Kaur in Bull.
Nat. Bot. Gard. 94: 8, 1964.

Distribution: Haflong, Assam.

Microlepia halibergii (d’ Almeida) C. Chr.
Ind. Suppl. III. 127, 1934. Davallia hallbergii
d’Almeida in Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 5: 19,
1926-27.

Distribution: Madura District.

Microlepia khasiyana Presl, Epim. 95, 1849; |

Mehra et Bir in Res. Bull. (N.S.) Panjab
Univ. 15 (Pt.-I-I[): 117, 1964. Davallia
Khasiyana (Presl) Hook. Spec. Fil. 1: 173,
t. 47A, 57A, 1856.

Distribution: Lebong (Darjeeling).

This is often treated as conspecific with
Microlepia strigosa (Thb.) Presl. But the two
are different.

Microlepia speluncae (Linn.) Moore var. pube-
scens (Hook.) Sledge in Kew Bull. 525. 1956;
Panigr. in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 3: 311,
1960.

Distribution: E. India.

Microlepia tedayensis Christ in Philip. Journ.
Sci. 3: 272, 1908; Into in Hara, Fl. East
Himal. 463, 1966.

Distribution: E. Himalaya.

Microlepia wilfordii Moore, Ind. 299. 1861.
Davallia wilfordii Baker, Syn. Fil. 98, 1867;
Hope in Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 13:
33, 1900. Davallia rhomboidea Hook. 2nd
Cent., t. 48, 1860 (non Wall.).
Distribution: Kashmir.

Monochosorum henryi Christ in Bull. Herb.
Boiss. 6: 869, 1898. Ito in Hara Fl. East.
Himal. 463, 1966.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Nephrodium pandum Hope in Journ. Bomb.
nat. Hist. Soc. /2 (3): 623, 1899.

Distribution: N. E. India, Sikkim.

Nephrodium biserrata (Sw.) Schott. Gen. Fil.
t. 3, 1834; Thothathri et al. Journ. Bomb.
nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 251, 1977. Aspidium bis-
erratum Sw. Schrad. Journ. Bot. 1800: 32,
1801.

Distribution: Great Nicobar Islands.

Nephrolepis delicatula (Decne.) Pic.-Serm. in
Webbia 23: 181, 1968; Pic.-Serm, Estratto
Dagli Annali Del Museo Civico Di Storia
Naturale Di Genova, Vol. LXXVII—30
Luglio 275, 1968. Nephrodium delicatulum
Decne. In Jacquem. Voy. Ind. Bot. 4: 178,
t. 179, 1844.

Distribution: Assam, Western and Southern
India.

Nephrolepis paucifrondosa d’ Almeida in
Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 5: 51, t. 1-4. 1926
Distribution: South India.

Nephrolepis undulata (Afz. ex Sw.) J. Smith
in Curtis Bot. Mag. 72: 35 bis. 1846; Pic.-
Serm. Estrato Dagli Annali Del Museo
Civico Di Storia Naturale Di Genova, Vol.
LXXVII-30 Luglio 273, 1968. Asplidium
undulaum Afz. ex Swartz. Schrad Journ.
Bot. 1800: 32, 1801.

Distribution: South India.

Onychium fragile Verma et Khullar in Nova
Hedw. 9: 85, 1965.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Onychium ipii Ching in Lingnan Sc. Journ.
15: 282, 1936; et Ic. Fil. Sinic. 4, t. 164,
1937; Mehra et Bir in Res. Bull. (N.S.)
Panjab Univ. 75 (Pt. I-II): 108, 1964.
Distribution: Chungthang (North Sikkim).

Ophioglossum gramineum Willd. var. majus
(v.a.v.R.) Wieff. in Blumea 12: 324, f. 2b,
photo 3, 1964, Panigr. et Dixit in Proc. Nat.
Inst. Sci. 35: 251, f. 42, 94-97, 1969. Ophio-
glossum inconspicum (Rac.) v.A.V.R. var.
majus v.A.v.R. in Bull. Dep. Agr. Ind.
Neerl. 21: 9, 1908. Ophioglossum grami-
neum Christ. Nova Guinea 13, 8: 164, 1909.

457

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Ophioglossum reticulatum Linn. forma dila-
tatum (Miq.) Wieff. in Blumea /2: 329 f.

Distribution: West Bengal, Tripura.
Ophioglossum nudicaule Linn. f. var. macror-

rhizum (Kunze) Clausen, Mem. Torr. Bot.
Club 19: 150, 1938; Panigr. et Dixit in
Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. 35: 254, 1969. Ophio-
glossum macrorrhizum Kunze in Die Farrn-
krauter 12°57; t2 29; ft 1840:
Distribution: Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, W.
Bengal, Upper Gangetic Plain.

Ophioglossum petiolatum Hook. Exot. Fl. 1,
t. 56, 1823; Panigr. et Dixit in Proc. Nat.
Inst; Scie 35: 4260/1969.

Distribution: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pra-
desh.

Ophioglossum polyphyllum A. Braun apud
Seubert, Fl. Azor. 17: 1844; Pichi-Serm. in
Webbia 9: 632, 1954; Panigr. et Dixit in
Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. 35: 255, 1969; Safui et
Ghosh in Bull. Bot. Surv. India /7: 160,
1975 (1978). Ophioglossum cuspidatum
Milde in Bot. Zeit 22: 107, 1864. Ophio-
glossum aitchisonii (Clarke) d’Almeida in
Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 3: 63, f. 12-13, 1922;
Clausen in Mem. Torr. Bot. Club 19: 138,
1938. Mahabale in Bull. Bot. Surv. India
4: 71, 1962. Ophioglossum lusitanicum C.W.
Hope (non Linn.) in Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist.
Soc. /5: 106, 1903. Ophioglossum regulare
(Schlecht) C. Chr. Index Fil. 472, 1906.
Ophioglossum capense Sw. sensu Chakra-
varty in Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 5: 5, 1951.
Distribution: Uttar Pradesh (N. W. Hima-
layas); Cherat, Madhya Pradesh; Bastar;
Sikkim.

Ophioglossum reticulatum Linn. forma com-
plicatum (Miq.) Wieff. in Blumea /2: 330,
f. la, 1964; Panigr. et Dixit in Proc. Nat.
Inst. Sci. India 35: 260, 1969. Ophioglossum
moluccanum f. complicatum Mig. Ann. Mus.
Bot. Lugd. Bat. 4: 290, 1868.

Distribution: Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Sikkim.

458

IC, 1964; Panigr. et Dixit in Proc. Nat. Inst.
Sci. 35: 259, f. 55, 84, 1969. Ophioglossum
moluccanum Schlecht. forma dilatatum Miq.
in Ann. Mus. Bot. Lugd. Bat. 4: 92, 1868.
Distribution: Uttar Pradesh—Mussorie.

Ophioglossum thermale Kumarov var. nippo-

nicum (Miyabe et Kudo) Nishida in Tagawa
in Journ. Jap. Bot. 33: 202, 1958. Ophio-
glossum nipponicum Miyabe et Kudo in
Tran. Sapporo Nat. Hist. Soc. 6: 122,
1916. Ophioglossum japonicum Prantl in
Ber. Deut. Bot. Ges. J: 353, 1883 (non
Thunb.); Mahabale in Bull. Bot. Surv. India
4: 71, 1962. Ophioglossum angustatum
Clausen in Mem. Torr. Bot. Club 79: 129,
1938.

Distribution: Clausen, Nishida and Maba-
bale state that this taxon is present in India.

Osmunda cinnamomea Linn. Sp. Pl. 2: 1066,

1753; Panigr. in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 2:
310, 1960; Panigr. et Dixit in Journ. Indian
Bot. Soc. 48: 99, 1969.

Distribution: Arunachal Pradesh, Kameng
Dist.

Osmunda japonica Thunb. in Nov. Act. Reg.

Soc. Sci. Upsal. 2: 209, 1780; Fl. Jap. 330,
1784; Panigr. et Dixit in Journ. Ind. Bot.
Soc. 48: 97, 1969; Ito in Hara Fl. East.
Himal. 455, 1966.
Distribution: Uttar Pradesh, Assam, Bhutan,
Darjeeling, Sikkim.

Osmunda claytoniana Linn. var. vestita (Wall.)

Milde, Honogr. Gen. Osmund. 102, 1868,
Ito in Hara FI. East. Himal. 455, 1966.
Osmunda monticola Wall. B. vestita Wall.
Cat. no. 52, 1828 (nomen.) Osmundastrum
claytonianum (Linn.) Tagawa var. vestitum
(Wall.) Tagawa in Journ. Jap. Bot. 17:
698, 1941.

Distribution: E. Himalaya.

LIST OF INDIAN FERNS

Phymatodes banerjiana Pal et Pal in Amer.
Fern. Journ. 53: 103-104, 1963; Bir et Devi
in Bull. Bot. Surv. India /0: 214, 1968.
Distribution: Under cultivation in Bose Re-
search Institute, Calcutta; Science College,
Calcutta University, and Indian Botanic
Garden, Sibpur, Howrah.

Pityrogramma austroamericana Domin in
Spisy Prirod. Fak. Karlovy Univ. 88: 7,
1928 et in Bull. Misc. Inf. Kew 1929: 221,
1929; Panigr. in Kew Bull. 30: 663, 1976.
Distribution: South India.

Pityrogramma calomelanos (Linn.) Link, in
Handb. Gewachse 3: 29, 1833; Panigr. in
Bull. Bot. Surv. India 2: 312, 1960; (excl.
Syn. et Ref. Bedd. 104) et in Kew Bull. 30:
660. 1976. Nair et Ghosh in Journ. Indian
Bot. Soc. 54: 104, 1975. Acrostichum calo-
melanos Linn. Sp. Pl. 2: 1072, 1753.
Distribution: Throughout India except the
drier parts.

Pityrogramma chrysophylla (Sw.) Link, Handb.
Gewachse 3: 19, 1833; Nair et Ghosh in
Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 54: 106, 1975;
Panigr. in Kew Bull. 30: 664, 1976. Acro-
stichum chrysophyllum Sw. in Schrad. Journ.
Bot. 1/800: 14, 1802.

Distribution: South India.

Pneumatopteris truncata (Poir.) Holtt. var.
loyalii Holtt. in Blumea 2/: 314, 1973.
Distribution: Darjeeling.

Polypodium amoenum Wall. var. xerophyti-
cum Mehra et Bir in Res. Bull. (N.S.)
Punjab Univ. /5: 166, 1964.

Distribution: Lachen Valley in Sikkim State,
E. Himalaya.

Polypodium late-repens Hope in Journ. Bomb.
nat. Hist. Soc. /2: 628, t. 14, 1899.
Distribution: Himalayas, Sikkim.

Polypodium manmiense Christ in Bull. Herb.
Boiss. 6: 870, 1898; Ching. IC. Fil. Sini-
carum 2, t. 94, 1934; Bir ez al. in New Bot.
7: 150, 1974.

Distribution: Eastern India, Himalayas.

Polypodium niponicum Mett. in Ann. Lugd.
Bat. 2: 222, 1866; Ching. IC. Fil. Sinicarum
2, t. 98, 1934; Bir et al. in New Bot. /:
148, 1974.

Distribution: Eastern India.

Polystichum duthiei (Hope) C. Chr. Ind. Fil.
72, 1905; 581, 1906. Aspidium duthiei Hope
in Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 532,
1899.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Polystichum garhwalicum Nair et Nag in
Journ. Jap Bot. 5/: 138, t. 1, 1976.
Distribution: Garhwal, Bashahr.

Polystichum heteropaleaceum Nair et Nag in
Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 153, 1977.
Distribution: Shillong.

Polystichum levingei Nair in Bull. Bot. Surv.
India 77: 192, 1969.

Distribution: Darjeeling.

Polystichum longipinnulum Nair in Amer.
Fern. Journ. 64: 15, 1974.

Distribution: Darjeeling, Khasia.

Polystichum neolobatum Nakai in Bot. Mag.
Tokyo 39: 118, 1925; Tagawa in Hara, FI.
East. Himal. 480, 1966.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Polystichum setiferum (Forsk.) Moore ex Woy-
nar Mitt. Naturw. Ver. Steierm. 49: 1811,
1913; Nair in Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 5/:
O35 1972.

Distribution: North and South India.

Polystichum setiferum var. crenatum Nair in
Amer. Fern. Journ. 64: 15, 1974.
Distribution: Punjab.

Polystichum stenophyllum Christ in Bull. Soc.
Bot. France 52: Mem. 1, 27, 1905; Tagawa
in Hara Fl. East. Himal. 481, 1966.
Distribution: Himalayas.

Polystichum tsus-simense (Hook.) Sm. Journ.
Hist. Fil. 219, 1875; Stewart in Bull. Torr.
Bot. Club 72: 412, 1945. Aspidium tsus-
simense Hook. Sp. Fil. 4: 16. Pl. 220. 1862.

459

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Aspidium luctuosum Kunze in Linnaea 10:
548, 1835-6; Hope in Journ. Bomb. nat.
Hist. Soc. 14: 474, 1902.
Distribution: Temperate Himalaya.
Pronephrium lakhimpurense (Rosenst.) Holtt.
in Blumea 20: 1972. Dryopteris lakhimpu-
rensis Rosenst. Meded. Rijkshorb. 3/: 7,
1917.

Distribution: N.E. India.
Pronephrium thwaitesii (Hook.) MHoltt. in
Blumea 20: 122, 1972. Meniscium thwai-

tesii Hook. Fil. Exot. sub t. 83, 1859.
Distribution: §. India.

Pseudophegopteris hirtirachis (C. Chr.) Holt-
tum in Blumea /7: 22, 1969. Dryopteris
hirtirachis C. Chr. in Leveille, Cat. PI.
Yunan 104, 1916. Thelypteris brunnea var.
hirtirachis Ching in Bull. Fan. Mem. Inst.
Biol. Bot 6: 271, 1916.

Distribution: Darjeeling, North East India.

Pseudophegopteris rectangularis (Zoll.) Holt-
tum in Blumea /7: 19, 1969. Polypodium
rectangulare Zoll. Syst. Verz. 37, 48, 1854.
Polypodium distans Don var. minor Clarke
in Trans. Linn. Soc. 2, Bot. 1: 545, t. 79,
f. 1, 1880.

Distribution: North East India, Sikkim.

Pteridium capense (Thunb.) Krasser var. den-
sum (Wall.) in Bull. Nat. Sci. Mus. No. 27:
5, 1949; Kitamura, Fauna Fl. Nep. Himal.
1: 78, 1952-53. Pteris densa Wall. Cat. 99,
1828.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Pteridrys syrmatica (Willd.) C. Chr. et Ching
in Bull..Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. Bot. 5: 131,
t. 11, 17, 1934; Sledge in Kew Bull. 27:
424, 1972. Aspidium syrmaticum Willd. Sp.
Pl. 52.2375. 1810:

Distribution: §. India.

Pteris almeidiana Bole et Almeida in Journ.
Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 320, 1977.
Distribution: Maharashtra.

460

Pteris confusa Walker in Evolution /2: 88,
f. 4, top middle, 1958 (nomen et fig.) et in
Kew Bull. 7/4: 329, fig. 5 a, t. 5, f. B. J.,
1960; Nair et Ghosh in Journ. Bomb. nat.
Hist. Soc. 73: 441, 1976 (1977).
Distribution: Kerala.

Pteris furunculata N. C. Nair et S. R. Ghosh
in Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 55: 38, 1976.
Distribution: Kerala.

Pteris gongalensis Walker in Kew Bull. /4.
328, f. 4, 4 a, t. 5, f. A.G. 1960; Nair et
Ghosh in Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. /3:
441, 1976 (1977).

Distribution: Kerala.

Pieris heteromorpha Fée, Gen. Fil. 127, 1852;
Hook. Sp. Fil. 2: 166, t. 127 B, 1858; Nair
et Ghosh in Indian For. /04: 374-376, 1978.
Distribution: Orissa.

Pteris linearis Poir. Enc. 5: 723, 1804; Mehra
et Bir in Res. Bull. (N.S.) Panjab Univ.
15 (Pt. I-lT): 114, 1964. Pteris normalis
Don, Prod. Fl. Nepal 15, 1825. Pteris nemo-
ralis Willd. Enum. 1073, 1809, Alston et
Bonner in Candollea 75: 202, 1956.
Distribution: Darjeeling.

Pieris multiaurita Agardh, Rec. Sp. Gen. Pte-
ridis 12, 1839; Walker in Kew Bull. /4:
323, 1960; Nair et Ghosh in Journ. Bomb.
nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 440, 1976 (1977). .
Distribution: Nilgiris; Kallar to Ponmudi
(Trivandrum Dist.); Kiripara and Kodayar
(Kanyakumari Dist.); Kulathupuzha (Qui-
lon Dist.)

Pteris nemoralis Willd. Enum. 1073, 1809 et
Sp. Pl. 386, 1810; Alston et Bonner in Can-
dollea 75: 202, 1956; Nair et R. K. Ghosh
in Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 54: 48, 1975.
Distribution: Orissa, Kerala.

Pieris nepalensis H. Ito in Hara FI.
Himal. 466, 1966.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Pteris praetermissa Walker in Kew Bull. /4:

327, f. 3. 3a, t. f, f. 1960; Nair et Ghosh

East.

LIST OF INDIAN FERNS

In Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 442,
LOG: CEOT7 ).
Distribution: Kerala.

Pteris rigida Sod. Sert. Fl. Ecuad. UH, 15,
1908 (non Swartz, 1806); Mehra et Bir in
Res. Bull. (N.S.) Panjab Univ. /5: (Pt.
[-IL): 114, 1964.

Distribution: Lebong (Darjeeling).

Pteris roseo-lilacina Hieron in Hedw. 55: 350,
1914; Mehra et Bir in Res. Bull. (NS.)
Punjab Univ. /5: 55, 1964; Nair et Ghosh
in Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 424,
LOTT:

Distribution: Darjeeling, Ponmudi near Tri-
vandrum.

Pteris setuloso-costulata Hayata, Icon. FI.
Formos. 4: 241, f. 168, 1914; Ito in Hara
Fl. East Himal. 467, 1966.

Distribution: E. Himalaya (Nepal, Sikkim).

Pteris tremula R. Br. Prodr. Fl. N. Holl. 154,
1810; Nair et Ghosh in Journ. Bomb. nat.
Hist. Soc. 73: 240, 1977.

Distribution: Shevaroy Hills.

Pyrrosia assimilis (Bak.) Ching in Bull. Chin.
Bot. Soc. 1: 49, 1935. Polypodium assi-
milis Baker in Journ. Bot. 7875: 201, 1875.
Distribution: Himalayas.

Pyrrosia ceylanica (Gies.) Sledge in Bull. Brit.
Mus. Nat. Hist. 2: 134, 1960. Niphobolus
ceylanicus Gies. Farngatt. Niphobolus 216,
1901.

Distribution: Courg (Coorg).

Pyrrosia nayariana Ching et Chandra in Amer.
Fern. Journ. 54: 62, 1964.

Distribution: Manipur.

Pyrrosia pekimensis (C. Chr.) Ching in Bull.
Chine Bot.; Soc. 7: 51, 1935; Nishida in
Journ. Coll. Arts Sci. Chiba Univ. 4: 586,
1966. Cyclophorus pekinensis C. Chr. Fil.
200, 1905. Polypodium davidii Baker, Ann.
Bot. 5: 472, 1891.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Pyrrosia varia (Kaulf.) Farwell, Amer. Midl.
Naturalist 7/2: 302, 1931; Nishida in Journ.
Coll. Arts. Ci. Chiba Univ. 4(4): 580, 1966.
Niphobolus varius Kaulfuss Enum. Fil. 125,
1824.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Salvinia auriculata Aubl. Hist. Pl. Guian 2:
969, t. 367, 1775; Kammathy in Sci. & Cult.
34717396, 1968:

Distribution: Kerala.

Saivinia cucullata Roxb. [Wall. List. n. 399,
1828] ex Borry. Bel. Voy. Bot 2: 6, 1833,
Roxb. in Calc. Journ. 4: 470, 1844; Pani-
grahi in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 2: 1960.
Distribution: E. India.

Salvinia molesta Mitchell in Br. Fern. Gaz.
10: 251, 1973; Cook et Gut PANS: /7:
438, 1977.
Distribution: Kerala. :

Salvinia natans (Linn.) All. Fl. Pedem. 2:
289, 1785; Ito in Hara FI. East. Himal. 500,
1966. Marsilea natans Linn. Sp. ed. 1, 2:
10995) 1753:

Distribution: Widely distributed in the warm
regions of Europe to S.E. Asia.

Schizolegnia indica Bole et Almeida in Journ.
Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 325, 1977.
Distribution: North Canara.

Schizolegnia savantvadiensis Bole et Almeida
in Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 325,.
1977.
Distribution:
harashtra.

Sphenomeris chinensis (Linn.) Maxon var.
divaricata (Christ) Kramer in Blumea 15:
672,, 1968 et Gard. Bull. Sing. 26: 5, 1972.
Odontosoria chinensis (Linn.) J. Sm. var.
divaricata Christ in Journ. de Bot. Ser. 2:
23, 1909.

Distribution: Assam, Sikkim.

Sphaerostephanos subtrumcatus (Bory) Holt-
tum in Kew Bull. 26: 80, 1972. Polypodium
subtruncatum Bory in Bel. Voy. Ind. Or.

Charatha, Savantwadi, Ma-

461

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Bot. 2: 32, 1833. Mesochlaena polycarpa
sensu Blatter et d’ Almeida Ferns Bombay
41, a, b. 1922 non (BI.) Bedd.
Distribution: South India, Bengal.

Stenogramma asplenoides J. Sm. ex Ching in
Sinensia 7: 94, t. 2, 1936.

Distribution: Khasia, Assam.

Stenogramma leptogrammoides I[watsuki in
Acta Phytotax. Geobot. 79: 119, 1963.
Distribution: Sikkim.

Tapeinidium pinnatum (Cav.) C. Chr. Index
Fil. 631, 1906; Kramer in Blumea /5: 553,
1967 et Gard. Bull. Sing. 26: 8, 1972. Daval-
lia pinnata Cavanilles, Descr. 277, 1802
(non Mett. ex Kuhn, 1869) Davallia serrata
Roxb. ex Griff. in Calc. Journ. 4: 514, 1844

(non Willd. 1810).

Distribution: Kerala.

Thelypteris multilineata (Wall. ex Hook.)
Morton var. bhutanica Nair in Bull. Bot.
Surv. India //7: 193, 1969.

Distribution: Bhutan.

Trichomanes latealatum (v.d. B.) Christ, Verh.
Nat. Ges. Basel. //: 424, 1896; Ghatak in
Bull. bot. Surv. India 6: 93, 1964. Didymo-
glossum latealatum v.d.B. Ned. Kr. Arch-
5: ABS, S63.

Distribution: Shevaroy Hills (Tamil Nadu).

Trichomanes motleyi Bosch. Ned. Kruidk.
Arch. 5: 145, 1961; Thothathri in Journ.
Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 251, 1977.
Distribution: Great Nicobar Islands.

Vandenboschia schmidiana (Zenk. ex Taschn.)
Copel. in Philip. Journ. Sc. 67: 53, 1938.
Trichomanes schmidiana Zenk. ex Tasch.
Dissert. 34: t. 1, f. 1, 1843.

Distribution: Nilgiris.

Vittaria doniana Mett. in Hieron. in Hedw.
57: 204, 1915; Mehra et Bir in Res. Bull.
(N.S.) Punjab Univ. 15 (Pt. I-IT): 23, 1964.
Distribution: North Sikkim.

Vittaria ensiformis Sw. Gest. Nat. Fr. Berl.
Neu. Schr. 2: 134, t. 7, 1799; Thothathri ef al.

462

in Journ. Bomb. nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 251,
OMe
Distribution: Great Nicobar Islands.

Vitiaria ensiformis Sw. var. latifolia Holt.
Panigr. in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 2: 314,
1960.

Distribution: Eastern India.

Vittaria forrestiana Ching in Sinensia /: 191,
f. 5, 1931; Ito in Hara Fl. East. Himal. 499,
1966.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Vittaria medisora Hayata, Icon. Pl. Formos.
5: 346, 1915; Ito in Pteridophyta, Univ.
Tokyo 500, 1966.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Vittaria himalayensis Ching in Sinensia /: 190,
f. 5 B, 1931; Bir et Mehra in Res. Bull.
(N.S.) Punjab Univ. 15 (pt. I-IT): 23, 1964.
Distribution: Himalayas.

Vittaria taeniophylla Copel. in Philip. Joura.
Sci. 1: Suppl. Il, 157, 1906; Ito in Hara
FI. East Himal. 500, 1966.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Vittaria ophiopogonoides Ching in Sinensia,
1: 186, fig. 5 A, 1931; Mehra et Bir in Res.
Bull. (N.S.) Punjab Univ. 15 (Pt. I-ID 24,
1964.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Woodsia cycloloba Hand.-Mzt. Symb. Sin. 6:
19, 1929; Ito in Hara Fl. East. Himal. 486,
1966.

Distribution: Himalayas.

Woodwardia unigemmata (Makino) Nakai in
Bot. Mag.’ Tokyo: 39: 103, 1925)" Ito” im
Makino in Journ. Jap. Bot. 2: 7, 1918.
Distribution: Himalayas.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to Sreemathy Deepali
Hazra for her assistance and Sreemathy C. K.
Vijayam for typing the manuscript.

REDEFINITION OF RHESUS MACAQUE—BONNET
MACAQUE BOUNDARY IN PENINSULAR INDIA
(PRIMATES : MACACA MULATTA, M. RADIATA)’

JACK FOODEN?,

ANIL MAHABAL?

AND SUBHENDU SEKHAR SAHA*

(With a text-figure)

The rhesus-bonnet boundary is defined by a line joining the northern end of the
Western Ghats. the Manjra Plateau and the northern end of the Velikonda Range,
Eastern Ghats, not by the Tapti and Godavari Rivers as previously supposed. Mixed-
species troops and an isolated bonnet enclave occur near the southeastern end of

this boundary.
INTRODUCTION

The short-tailed rhesus macaque (Macaca
mulatta Zimmermann, 1780) and the long-
tailed bonnet macaque (M. radiata E. Geof-
froy, 1812) are generally similar in ecological
requirements and habits, and, as first noted
by Jerdon (1867, p. 12), these two species
replace one another geographically; the prin-
ciple of competitive exclusion apparently ap-
plies to the distribution of these two macaques,
which are members of different species groups
and therefore are not particularly closely re-
lated within their genus (Fooden 1980, p. 1).
The geographic range of M. mulatta is broad,
extending from easternmost Afghanistan
through Pakistan, northern India, Nepal and
the northern part of the Indochinese Penin-
sula to southeastern China, whereas the range
of M. radiata is restricted to peninsular India
(Fooden 1980, fig. 1-3). The boundary be-
tween these two specific ranges that is routinely
given in standard primatological references is
the Tapti River in the west and the Godavari

1 Accepted August 1980.

2 Field Museum of Natural History and Chicago
State University, Chicago.

3 Zoological Survey of India, Pune.

4Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

River in the east (Pocock 1939, pp. 38, 45;
Ellerman and Morrison-Scott 1951, pp. 195,
197; Fiedler 1956, p. 173; Napier and Napier
1967, p: 403; ‘Prater 1971, p. 35; Hill 1974.
pp. 564, 705; Roonwal and Mohnot 1977,
pp. 98, 192). This placement of the interspeci-
fic boundary is derived, without supplementary
evidence, from the range limit extrapolations
of Blyth (1863, p. 9) and Blanford (1888, pp.
14, 23), whose pioneering studies were based
on the relatively few, and often imprecise, loca-
lity records then available. However, subse-
quently published information, ignored in cur-
rent standard references, reveals that the range
of M. mulatta extends south of both the Tapti
River (Pocock 1939, p. 46; British Museum
Spec. Nos. 31.1.11.1-3, Dangs) and the Goda-
vari River (Rae in Southwick et al. 1961,
p. 538; Spillett 1968, p. 8; Krishnan 1972,
p. 541). In this paper we report on a 5-month
survey, conducted mainly in the critical area
south of the Tapti and Godavari Rivers, that
we recently undertook in order to determine
the actual interspecific boundary as precisely
as possible.

METHODS
Our survey began on 25 December 1979
and ended on 18 May 1980. During this period

463

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

we travelled 15,900 km. by jeep and auto
back and forth across the interspecific frontier
zone (Fig. 1). In order to locate monkey
populations we consulted with divisional forest
officers, range forest officers, local forest
guards, villagers, farmers and other knowledge-
able local people. All 72 original locality re-
cords reported here (Table 1, italicized locality

m2 73 14 15 16 1]

a oon!

144_0 100 .
73 74 7 16 1]

Fig. 1.

numbers) are based on direct observation and
identification of monkeys in the field by at
least one of us. Documentary photographs of
the monkeys in situ were taken at all but 4
of these localities (Table 1, Loc. Nos. 9, 3/,
53, 76). For each sighting we recorded the
date, time, habitat, species, number of indivi-
duals observed, and age-sex composition of

18 19

© mulatta troop
®@ radiata troop

@ mixed troop |,,
“~\.- survey route

78 19 0 1 2

Map showing distribution of marginal localities of Macaca mulatta and

M. radiata in interspecific boundary area; for documentation, see Table 1. Double

circles in side-by-side contact indicate that two or more macaque troops have been

observed at the same locality. (Illustration by Mr. Manoj Kumar Sengupta, Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta).

464

RHESUS MACAQUE-BONNET MACAQUE BOUNDARY

the troop where possible. Altitude was esti-
mated by use of a pocket altimeter or from
physiographic maps. Geographic coordinates
were estimated to the nearest minute from
Survey of India maps at a scale of 1: 1,000,000.
Four troops (3 M. mulatta, 1 M. radiata) that
reportedly are the result of recent human in-
troduction have been excluded from our data
pool (see Table 1, footnote).

RESULTS

Observations made during the course of our
survey appear adequate to permit redefinition
of the M. mulatta—M. radiata boundary
(Fig. 1). Our northernmost M. radiata loca-
lity (Table 1, Loc. No. 53) is at 20°47’N
Lat. near the Arabian Sea, and our southern-
most M. mulatta locality (Loc. No. 55) is at
15°46’N Lat. near the Bay of Bengal. A dia-
gonal line connecting these two localities serves
reasonably well to delimit the boundary be-
tween the two species, except for an isolated
M. radiata enclave to be discussed later. Phy-
siographically, this diagonal line extends from
the northern end of the Western Ghats to the
Manjra Plateau to the northern end of the
Velikonda Range of the Eastern Ghats. With
the interspecific boundary fixed along this line,
instead of along the Tapti and Godavari
Rivers, the range of M. radiata is approxi-
mately 20 per cent smaller than previously
supposed. |

The northwestern part of the M. mulatta
—M. radiata boundary, near the Gujarat—
Maharashtra border, is clearly defined, with
marginal localities of the two species separated
by only 20-30 km (Fig. 1). The west-central
part of the interspecific boundary, in central
Maharashtra and northeastern Karnataka, is
poorly defined because macaques are now
absent in most of this area, which was inten-
sively surveyed by us. (Unlike macaques,

langurs, Presbytis entellus, are abundant in
this area). The five isolated protected M.
radiata localities that we discovered along the
southern edge of this area (Table 1, Loc. Nos.
65-69) suggest that macaques formerly were
more widely distributed here but that they
have been eliminated as a result of persecu-
tion and deforestation by humans. A possible
indication of the former presence of M. mu-
latta in this boundary area where macaques
are now absent is provided by the unmistak-
able depiction of a rhesus macaque in the
King Sibi fresco, above the king’s left shoulder,
in Ajanta Cave No. 1 (20°33’N, 75°42’E).
The southeastern part of the interspecific
boundary, in central Andhra Pradesh, is again
well defined, with marginal records of the two
species separated by only 10-60 km. In this
southeastern area the range of M. mulatta
extends not only south of the Godavari River
but also south of the Krishna River. |

Near the southeastern end of the interspeci-
fic boundary we encountered two mixed-
species troops. At Darsi (Table 1, Loc. No.
50), which is our southernmost M. mulatta
locality, we observed two M. mulatta troops
and one mixed group composed of 3 M.
radiata adult males and 1 M. mulatta sub-
adult female; these 4 monkeys appear-
ed to be playing together and were about
50 m from the nearest M. mulatta troop. At
Kondra Mutla (Loc. No. 52), 38 km NNE
of Darsi, we observed a troop that included
22+ M. mulatta individuals and 1 M. radiata
young adult male; local people inform-
ed us that 2 more M. radiata individuals,
unseen by us, also are associated with this
troop. Another mixed troop, consisting of 18
M. mulatta members and 1 M. radiata adult
male, was observed in 1972 at Vijayawada
(Loc. No. 51), 127 km NE of Darsi, by
Koyama and Shekar (1981, p. 248). There
is no evidence in this area of successful hy-

465

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

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<—

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

bridization between M. mulatta and M. radiata,
and, considering the strong differences between
these species in male and female reproductive
anatomy (Fooden 1980, p. 2), such hybridiza-
tion would not be expected.

In the Vijayawada Hills area we observed
three M. radiata troops that apparently are
part of an enclave isolated within the range
of M. mulatta. (Fig. 1). At a temple in Vijaya-
wada (Table 1, Loc. No. 5/) we saw a troop
of 35+ M. radiata individuals. At Kondapalle
(Loc. No. 40), 15 km NW of Vijayawada,
we saw one troop of 22 M. radiata individuals
and one troop of 20 M. mulatta individuals;
during the movement of these two troops they
remained 10-50 m apart but there was no
overt social interaction between them. At
Mailavaram (Loc... No. 7/), 25 km N of
Vijayawada, we saw 3 M. radiata adult females
(1 pregnant) that apparently were part of a
larger troop; local people informed us that a
large M. mulatta troop also inhabits the out-
skirts of this village, but we were unable to
locate it in the time available.

INTERPRETATION

The distribution of M. mulatta and M.

radiata revealed by our survey appears to. be

a natural one, without incongruities that would
be expected if human introductions had play-
ed a major role (Fig. 1). It is not surprising
that the Tapti, Godavari and Krishna Rivers
are not boundaries between the ranges of
these species; both species are known to be
good swimmers (Blanford 1888, p. 14; Stonor
1944, p. 591; Krishnan 1972, pp. 539, 541),
and M. mulatta occurs on both sides of the
Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers, which are
longer and broader than the Tapti, Godavari
and Krishna Rivers.

Evidence that the geographic relationship
between these two species is not static is pro-

472

vided by observations at the southeastern end —

of the interspecific boundary. Mixed-species —

troops observed in this area suggest that young —

M. radiata males, which normally leave their
natal troop before attaining sexual maturity
(Fooden 1981), may occasionally join a near-
by M. mulatta troop instead of joining a
troop of their own species. The isolated M.
radiata enclave in the Vijayawada Hills area
suggests that M. mulatta has invaded territory
formerly occupied by M. radiata; this inter-
pretation assumes that the continuously distri-
buted species (M. mulatta) has expanded its
range and that the discontinuously distributed —
species (M. radiata) has lost ground. The
timing of this inferred advance by M. mulat- -
ia and its encirclement of the marooned M. .
radiata population is unknown; presumably
it occurred much more than 30-50 years ago,
because local informants say that M4. mulatta
has been well established around Vinukonda
(Table 1, Loc. No. 49), near the southern
tip of the range of this species, as far back
as they can remember. ,

Despite minor oscillations dione the inter- —
specific boundary, the long-term persistence
of M. mulatta in its northern range and M.

radiata in its southern range presumably indi-

cates that each species possesses a competitive
advantage in its respective area, an advantage
based on superior adaptation to some critical
factor or factors in the environment. We have
not been able specifically to identify these

critical environmental factors. Other pairs of

organisms exhibit a similar pattern of latitu-—
dinal replacement in the same part of India
—for example, the Indian red jungle fowl

-(Gallus g. murghi) and grey jungle fowl (G.

g. sonnerati) and sal (Shorea spp.) and teak
(Tectona grandis) (Ali and Ripley 1969,
p. 104; Das Gupta 1976, plates 4, 5, 8, 11);
presumably, similar factors have operated to
produce and maintain these similar distribution

RHESUS MACAQUE-BONNET MACAQUE BOUNDARY

patterns. Climate, which obviously is related to
latitude, probably is one important factor. We
note that M. mulatta is replaced by another
long-tailed macaque (M. fascicuiaris) in the
Indochinese: Peninsula (Fooden 1971, p. 28)
at approximately the same latitude at which
it is replaced by M. radiata in the Indian
Peninsula.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Me “Shahid Ali and Mr. Naresh Chaturvedi,
both of the Bombay Natural History Society,
participated during the first two weeks of this
survey and made an important contribution to
its success; Elizabeth Fooden was an unofh-
cial participant in the survey from beginning
to end. We thank the following institutions and
individuals for invaluable support and assist-
ance; Bombay Natural History Society, J. C.
Daniel (Curator); Forest Department of
Andhra Pradesh, A. K. Mathur (Additional

Chief Conservator), P. Kumar (Conservator
Wild Life); Forest Department of Gujarat,
M. A. Rashid (Additional Chief Conservator);
Forest Department of Karnataka, H. Muni-
ram (Under Secretary): Forest Department
of Maharashtra, V. V. Khot (Deputy Secre-
tary); Zoological Survey of India, Dr. T. N.
Ananthakrishnan (Director), Dr. B. K. Tika-
der (Joint Director), Dr. K. K. Tiwari (Joint
Director). We also thank collectively the in-
numerable other persons who helped us in the
field in many ways. Dr. V. C. Agrawal, Zoolo-
gical Survey of India, Calcutta, critically read
and commented on the manuscript. The parti-
cipation of one of us (J.F.) in this project was
made possible by a grant from the Indo-U‘S.
Subcommission on Education and Culture
under the Indo-American Fellowship Pro-
gram; this program is administered in India
by the American Institute of Indian Studies,
P. R. Mehendiratta, Director.

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Vol. 2. Ox-

Axl, S. AND Ripley, S. D. (1969):
of the Birds of India and Pakistan...,
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BLANForD, W. T. (1888): The Fauna of British
India, including Ceylon and Burma. Mammalia (In-
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don: Taylor and Francis.

BLyTH, E. (1863): Catalogue of the Mammalia
in the Museum of the Asiatic Society. Calcutta:
Savielle and Cranenburgh.

Das Gupta, S. P., ed. (1976): Atlas of Forest
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ELLERMAN, J. R. AND MorrISON-ScoTT, T. C. S.
(1951): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mam-
mals, 1758 to 1946. London: British Museum.

FIEDLER, W. (1956): Ubersicht iiber das System
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H., Schultz, A. H. and Starck, D., pp. 1-266. Basel:
Karger.

FoopEeNn, J. (1971): Report on primates collected
in western Thailand January-April 1967. Fieldiana:
Zool. 59 (1): 1-62.

(1980): Classification and distribu-
tion of living macaques (Macaca Lacepede, 1799).
In The Macaques: Studies in Ecology, Behavior
and Evolution, ed. by Lindburg, D. G., pp. 1-9.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

(1981): Taxonomy and evolution
of the sinica group of macaques: 2. Species and
subspecies accounts of the Indian bonnet macaque.

Macaca radiata. Fieldiana: Zool., n.s., No. 9: 1-52.
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Cercocebus, Macaca, Cynopithecus. New York:
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Jay, P. (1965): The common langur of North
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JERDON, T. C. (1867): The Mammals of India.
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KoyAMA, N. (1973): Dominance, grooming, and
clasped-sleeping relationships among bonnet mon-
key in India. Primates 14: 225-244.

AND SHEKAR, P. B. (1981): Geo-

473

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

graphic distribution of the rhesus and the bonnet
monkeys in west-central India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 78(2): 240-255.

KRISHNAN, M. (1972): An ecological survey of
the larger mammals of peninsular India. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (3): 503-555.

McCann, C. (1933): Notes on some _ Indian
macaques. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36 (4): 796-
810.

NAPIER, J. R. AND NAPIER, P. H. (1967): A Hand-
book of Living Primates. London: Academic Press.

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and Francis.

PRATER, S. H. (1971): The Book of Indian Ani-
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ROONWAL, M. L. AND Mounor, S. M. (1977):
Primates of South Asia: Sociology and Behaviour.
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SERRAO, J. S. AND AMLADI, S. R. (1979): Of
macaques—bonnet and rhesus. Hornbill, No. 12:29-
32.

SOUTHWICK, C. H., B&G, M. A. AND SIDDIQI,
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SPILLETT, J. J. (1968): A report on wild life
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Cochin. ibid. 44 (4): 588-592.

SUGIYAMA, Y. (1972): Characteristics of the social
life of bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata). Pri-
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WROUGHTON, R. C. (1912): Bombay Natural
History Society’s Mammal Survey of India. Report
No. 5. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 21 (4): 1170-
1195.

THE VEGETATION OF NAGZIRA WILDLIFE
SANCTUARY AND ITS ENVIRONS
(MAHARASHTRA STATE)’

S. K. MALHOTRA & K. MADHUSUDAN RAO?

The paper gives an account of the vegetation of Nagzira wildlife sanctuary and its
environs in Maharashtra State. Location, geology and climate is briefly discussed. 174
species comprising of about 47 families and 142 genera are listed (giving upto-date

nomenclature and uses and local names).

INTRODUCTION

Nagzira wildlife sanctuary lies in Tirora
range of Bhandara forest division in Bhandara
district. The forests of Nagzira are well pre-
served and there are two perennial water re-
servoirs, one at Nagzira and the other at
Thadezari. These two water reservoirs assure
perennial water supply to wildlife in the area.
Thousands of visitors visit this area every
year. But so far no published account about
the vegetation of the area is known. A passing
reference to a very few plants from Bhandara
district is made by Haines (1916)*. In the
present paper the vegetation of Nagzira wild-
life sanctuary and its environs is briefly dis-
cussed. A list of 174 species comprising of
about 47 families and 142 genera is given
(with upto-date nomenclature and uses local
names if any).

PHYSICAL FEATURES

Situation and area:
The Nagzira wildlife sanctuary lies in
Tirora range of Bhandara Forest Division in

1 Accepted August 1979.

2 Botanical Survey of India, Pune.

3 Haines, H. H. (1916): Descriptive list of trees,
shrubs and economic herbs of The Southern Circle,
Central Provinces, Allahabad.

Bhandara district. The area is approachable
by the Sakoli-Nagzira forest road branching
off from the Great Eastern Highway at Sakoli
about 100 kms from Nagpur and the Murdoli-
Nagzira forest road about 25 kms from Gon-
dia. The forests of the area extend over 131.75
sq. km.

Climate :

The climate of the area is quite pleasant
during the greater part of the year. Only a
little span of summer is very hot. The tempe-
rature varies between 6-5°C during January
to 45°C during May. The average annual rain-
fall varies between 1,100 mm and 1,500 mm.

Vegetation :

The vegetation of the area is of mixed de-
ciduous type. Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb.) ex
DC. Bedd.; Bauhinia racemosa Lamk., Bride-
lia retusa (L.) Spreng; Butea monosperma
(Lamk.) Taub; Kydia calycina Roxb.; Mallo-
tus philippensis (Lamk.) Mluell.-Arg.; Ster-
culia urens Roxb. form the top canopy in the
forests.

The second layer of the forests is comprised
of a mixture of a number of small trees and
shrubs like Clerodendrum serratum (L.)
Moon; Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.; Garde-
nia latifolia Ait.; Holarrhena antidysenterica
(Roth) A. DC.; Lagerstroemia parviflora
Roxb. etc. The area is usually comprised of

475

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

the lianas and climbers like Acacia pennata
(L.) Willd.; Aspidopteris cordata (Heyne) A.
Juss.; Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels; Dioscorea
bulbifera L.; D. pentaphylla L.; Hemidesmus
indicus (L.) R. Br.; Ichnocarpus frutescens
(L.) R. Br.; Smilax zeylanica L. etc.

The ground flora is quite rich after the mon-
soon. The herbs, grasses, and a few under-
shrubs like Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet;
Achyranthes aspera L.; Alternanthera sessilis
(L.) R. Br. ex DC.; Alysicarpus vaginalis
(L.) DC.; Amaranthus spinosus 1.; Amman-
nia baccifera .; Andrographis paniculata
(Burm.) Wall. ex Nees, Buchnera hispida
Buch.-Ham.; Canscora diffusa R. Br.; Cassia
absus L.; Commelina benghalensis L.; Cor-
chorus aestuans L.; Crotalaria hirta Willd.:
C:linifolia othe -Cyanons cristata “(&.)°D:
Don; Cyperus iria L.; Dactyloctenitum aegyp-
tium (L.) P. Beauv.; Dichanthium annulatum
(Forsk.) Stapf; Dipteracanthus prosiratus
(Poir.) Nees, Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.; Ele-
phantopus scaber .; Euphorbia hirta L.; E.
prostrata L.; Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.
Beauv.; Hibiscus lampas Cav.; Hybanthus en-
neaspermus (L.) F. Muell.; Melochia corcho-
rifolia L.; Merremia emarginata (Burm. f.)
Hall. f.; Peristrophe bicalyculata (Retz.) Nees;
Plumbago zeylanica L.; Sida acuta Burm. f.;
Scoparia dulcis L.; Triumfetta rhomboidea
Jacq.; Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less etc. are
frequently met with.

PLANTS RECORDED FROM SPECIAL HABITATS
1. The trees and shrubs recorded from the
thick forest areas:

Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb.) ex DC. Bedd.;
Acacia chundra (Roxb.) Willd.; Bauhinia
racemosa Lamk.; Bridelia retusa (L.) Spreng;
Buchanania lanzan Spreng; Cassia fistula L.;
Cleistanthus collinus Benth.; Diospyros mela-
noxylon Roxb.; Emblica_ officinalis Gaertn.;

476

Eriolaena hookeriana Wt. & Arn.; Grewia
tiliaefolia Vahl.; Gardenia latifolia Ait.; Heli-
cteres isora L.; Holarrhena antidysenterica

(Roth) A. DC.; Kydia calycina Roxb.; Lager-

stroemia parviflora Roxb.; Mallotus philip-

pensis (Lamk.) Muell.-Arg.; Mitragyna parvi-
folia (Roxb.) Korth; Semecarpus anacardium

L. £.; Sterculia urens Roxb.; Stereospermum

suaveolens (Roxb.) DC.; Tectona grandis L.;

Terminalia tomentosa Wt. & Arn.; Woodfor-

dia fruticosa (L.) Kurz.: Xeromphis uliginosa

(Retz.) Mahesh. etc.

2. Plant species recorded as undergrowth of
the forests along the roads, paths and
wastelands:

Achyranthes aspera .; Alysicarpus vagi-
nalis (L.) DC.; Amaranthus spinosus L.; Cas-
sia absus L.; Corchorus aestuans \.; Crota-
laria hirta Willd.; C. linifolia L. f£.; Cyperus
tenuispica Steud.; Datura innoxia Mill.; Des-
modium triflorum (L.) DC.; Elephantopus
scaber .; Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees;
Eriocaulon dianae Fyson.; Heliotropium ovali-
folium Forsk.; Hemigraphis latebrosa (Roth)
Nees, Heteropogon contortus (L.) P. Beauv.;
Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell.; Leo-
notis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br.; Leucas biflora
R. Br., Melochia corchorifolia L.; Rhyncho-
sia minima DC.; Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees,
Sida acuta Burm. f., Sida cordata (Burm. f.)
Borss.; Tridax procumbens L.; Triumfetta
rhomboidea Lamk.; T. rotundifolia Lamk.;
Uraria picta (Jacq.) Desv. ex DC.; Urena
lobata .; Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less.; Vicoa
indica (Willd.) DC. etc.

3. Plant species recorded along the degraded
forests and scrub jungle:

Abrus precatorius L.; Abutilon indicum
(L.) Sweet; Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br.
ex DC.; Andrographis paniculata (Burm.)
Wall. ex DC.; Buchnera hispida Buch.—Ham.;
Canavalia ensiformis DC.; Clerodendrum ser-
ratum (L.) Moon: Cocculus hirsutus (L.)

VEGETATION OF NAGZIRA SANCTUARY

Diels; Coldenia procumbens L.; Corchorus
aestuans L.; Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC.;
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.; Eragrostis tenella
(L.) P. Beauv.; Grewia hirsuta Vahl, Hibiscus
lampas Cav.; Helicteres isora L.; Paspalum
scrobiculatum L.; Phyllanthus urinaria L.;
Plumbago zeylanica L.; Rhynchosia minima
DC.; Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borss; Urena
lobata L. etc.

4. Plant species recorded from water courses,

ponds & marshy places:

Ammannia baccifera L.; A. multiflora Roxb.;
Commelina benghalensis L.; Cyanotis cristata
(L.) D. Don, Cyperus iria L.; Dactyloctenium
aegyptium (L.) P. Beauv.; Echinochloa colo-
num (L.) Link., Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.;
Hygrophila auriculata (Sch.) Heine, [pomoea
aquatica Forsk.; Limnophila indica (L.)
Druce, Ludwigia octovalis (Jacq.) Raven;
Melochia corchorifolia L.; Merremia emargi-
nata (Burm. f.) Hall. f.; Polygonum barbatum
L. var. gracile (Dans.) Steward; P. glabrum
Willd.; P. plebeium R. Br.; Utricularia stellaris
Es .etc:

ENU MERATION

In the following enumeration of the plant
species, the nomenclature has been brought
up to date. Only the original reference has
been cited. Local names if any follow the
citation in inverted commas. Brief notes along
with uses if any are provided following the
collection (field) numbers, which are of S.
K. Malhotra, senior author and are deposited

in the herbarium of the Botanical Survey of —

India, Poona. (BS/).
MENISPERMACEAE
Cissampelos pariera L. Sp. Pl. 1031, 1753 var.

hirsuta (DC.) Forman in Kew Bull. 22:
356. 1968. ‘Paharval’. A climbing shrub.

Decoction of the roots and leaves used as an
antiseptic. 151131.

Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels. in Engl. Pflan-
zenr. 46: 236. 1910. ‘Vasauvel’. A straggling
herb, frequent in the forests. Roots are used
as a laxative. 145102.

VIOLACEAE

Hybanthus enneaspermus (L.) F. Muell.
Fragm. Phyt. Austr. 10: 81. 1876. ‘Rattan-
purus’. Frequent weed in moist habitats.
Plant is used as a tonic. 144847.

MALVACEAE

Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Hort. Brit. 54.
1826. Herb or undershrub. Flowers yellow.
Decoction of the leaves is taken to cure
bronchitis. 151063.

Gossypium barbadense L. Sp. Pl. 693. 1753;
‘Kapus’. Shrub. Flowers pale white. Oil
obtained from the seeds is edible. 145082.

Hibiscus lampas Cav. Diss. 3: 154. t. 56, f.

2. 1787. ‘Ran-bhendi’. Shrub, frequent in
the forests. Stem fibre is used for ropes.
144615, 144691.

H. rosa-sinensis L. Sp. Pl. 694. 1753; Shrub,
occurring frequently. Flowers are considered
useful for making dyes. 145128.

Kydia calycina Roxb. Pl. Cor. 3: 12. t. 215.
1811. ‘“Potremarra’. Frequent tree. Flowers
light pink. Wood is used as a timber. 151107.

Sida acuta Burman, FI. Ind. 147. 1968. Com-
mon herb. Decoction of the roots is used
in mild cases of debility. 151096, 151175.

S. cordata (Burm. f.) Borss. Blumea 14: 182.
1966. Herb, common in open forests. Leaves
are used as vegetable. 145149, 151133.

Urena Iobata L. Sp. Pl. 692. 1753. Frequent
herb. Flowers light pink. Stem fibre is used
for ropes. 144637, 145094, 145151.

477

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

STERCULIACEAE

Eriolaena hookeriana W. & A. Prodr, 1 : 70,
1834. ‘Kungai’. Tree, frequent in dense
forests. Wood is used as a timber. 144642,
145132, 151130.

Helicteres isora L. Sp. Pl. 963, 1753. ‘Murad-
phalli’. Shrub, frequent in dense forests.
Pods are fried, mixed with milk and given
to children to kill intestinal germs. 145156,
151159.

Meiochia corchorifclia L. Sp. Pl. 675, 1753.
Common herb. Flowers light yellow. Leaves
are used as a pot herb. 151099.

Sterculia urens Roxb. Pl. Cor. 1: 25, t. 24.
1795.‘Kurlu, Karu’. Tree, frequent in dense
forests. Bark yields a fibre which is used
for making ropes. 151166.

TILIACEAE

Corchorus aestuans L. Syst. 1079. 1759. (non
Forsk.). Herb, common in the waste lands.
Seeds are used in stomach ache. 151123.

Grewia hirsuta Vahl Symb. 1: 34. 1790.
‘Jiblikichetu’. Shrub, frequent in the forests.
Bark is used to check dysentery. 144663.

G. tiliaefolia Vahl, Symb. 1: 35. 1790. ‘Dha-
man’. A small erect tree, frequent in the
dense forests. Fruits are edible. 144666.

Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. Enum. PI. Carib.
22. 1760. ‘Anduli’. Herb or undershrub,
common in the open forests. Bark is used
to check diarrhoea. 145077.

T. rotundifolia Lamk. Encycl. 3: 421. 1792.
‘Mendurli’. Herb or undershrub, common
in the open forests. The plant is used as a
demulcent. 145148, 151121.

MALPIGHIACEAE

Aspidopteris cordata (Wall.) A. Juss. Ann.
Sci. Nat. Bot. ser. 2, 13: 267. 1840. Scandent
shrub, frequent in the dense forests. 144661.

478

OXALIDACEAE

Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC., Prodr. 1:
690. 1824. Herb. Flowers yellow. Common
in the waste lands. 144635, 151134.

RUTACEAE

Aegie marmelos (L.) Corr. Trans. Linn. Soc.
London 52 223: 1800. ‘Bel nee, irequent
in the open forests. Fruits are used in the
treatment of diarrhoea. 151150.

RHAMNACEAE

Ventilago denticulata Willd. Ges. Naturf. Fr.
Neue Schr. 3: 417. 1801. A large woody
climber, frequent in dense forests. 145142,
151092. )

Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. Encycl. 3: 319.
1789. ‘Ber’. A large shrub, frequent in open
forests. Fruits are edible. Leaves are used
as fodder. 151171.

Z. cenoplia Mill. Gard. Dict. ed. 8, n. 3, 1768.
‘Yeruni, Ironi’. A large straggling shrub.
frequent in open forests. Fruits are edible
and the bark is used as a tan. 151170.

VITACEAE

Ampelocissus tomentosa (Roth.) Planch. J.
Vigne. Am. 374. 1883. A woody climber,
frequent in dense forests. 151144, 151158.

LEEACEAE

Leea edgeworthii Sant. in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind.
16(1): 54. 1953. Undershrub, frequent in
open and dense forests. Fruits are edible.
144789.

ANACARDIACEAE

Buchanania lanzan Spreng. J. Bot. (Schrader)
2: 234. 1800. ‘Charoli’. Tree, frequent in
the dense forests. Fruits and seeds are edible.

VEGETATION OF NAGZIRA SANCTUARY

Seeds purify the blood and is considered
a brain tonic. 145068.

Semecarpus anacardium L. f. Suppl. 182. 1781.
‘Biba’. Tree, frequent in the dense forests.
Seed oil is used as a protection against white
ants. 144610.

FABACEAE

Abrus precatorius L. Syst. Nat. ed. 12, 472.
1767. ‘Ganja’. Perennial climber, frequent
in dense forests. Leaves along with warm
mustard oil is used to relieve pain due to
swelling etc. 144632, 145100.

Aiysicarpus bupleurifelius (L.) DC. Prodr. 2:
353. 1825. A slender perennial herb, frequent
in the forests. 144649, 144701.

A. vaginalis (L.) DC. Prodr. 2: 353. 1825.
A suberect much branched herb, common
along the edges of forests. Roots are used

to check cough. 151070.

Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. in Engl.
& Prantl, Pflanzenfam 3(3): 366. 1894.
‘Palas’. Tree, occurring frequently in the
open forests. Flowers are applied as poultice
to heal swellings etc. 145088.

Canavalia ensiformis DC. Prodr. 2: 404. 1825.
‘Cavara’. Climbing herb, frequent along the
open forests. Pods are used as vegetable.
145099, 151088.

Crotalaria hirta Willd., Ges. Naturf. Freude
Berlin Neue Schriften 4: 217. 1803. Herb,
frequent in the open forests. 151191.

C. linifolia L. f. Supp!. 322. 1718. Suffruticose
herb, frequent in the forests. 144678.

Desmodium heterocarpon (L.) DC. Prodr. 2:
337. 1825, Hesbotirequent in’ the scrub
forests. 144625, 144643.

D. triflorum (L.) DC. Prodr. 2: 334. 1825.
Herb, frequent in the open grasslands.
Plant is used as a fodder. 144645, 145105.

Flemingia strobilifera (L.) Aiton, Hort. Kew
ed. 2, 4: 350. 1812. Undershrub, frequent

in the scrub forests. 144675, 145073, 145163.

Indigofera cassioides Rottl. ex DC. Prodr. 2:
225. 1825. Herb, frequent in the open grass-
lands. 145063, 151145.

Pseudarthria viscida (L.) Wt. & Arn. Prodr.
209. 1834. Herb, frequent in the scrub
forests. Plant is used to check piles. 144621,
144662.

Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. Prodr. 2: 385.
1825. Herb, frequent in the open grasslands.
Leaves are used as a stimulent. 151066.

Teramnus labialis (L.) Spreng. Syst. 3: 235.
1926. Twining herb, common in the scrub
and dense forests. Plant is used as a fodder.
144606, 151101, 151149.

Uraria lagopodioides (L.) Desy. ex DC. Prodr.
2: 324. 1825. Herb, rare along the edges
of forests. 144647, 151136.

U. picta (Jacq.) Desv. ex DC. Journ. Bot. 1:
123. 1813. Herb, frequent in the dense and
scrub forests. Fruits are used as an anti-
septic. 144648.

CAESALPINIACEAE

Bauhinia purpurea L. Sp. Pl. 375. 1753.
‘Kanchana’. Tree, frequent along habitations.
Leaves are used as fodder. 151102.

B. racemosa Lamk., Encycl. 1: 390. 1785.
Tree, frequent in the dense forests. Fruits
are edible. 144612.

Cassia absus L. Sp. Pl. 376. 1753. Herb, fre-
quent along the open grass lands. Leaves are
used against skin diseases. 144628.

C. fistula L. Sp. Pl. 377. 1753. ‘Bahava’. Tree,
frequent in the dense and scrub forests.
Wood is used as a timber. 144682, 140581,
151147.

Pilicstigma malabaricum (Roxb.) Benth. Miq.
Pl. Jungh. 261. 1852. Tree, frequent in dense
forests. Bark is used for making ropes.
144633, 145065, 145138.

479

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

MIMOSACEAE

Acacia chundra (Roitl.) Willd. Sp. Pi. 4: 1078.
1806. ‘Khair’. Tree, frequent in dense and
scrub forests. Wood is used as_ timber.
144611.

A. nilotica (L.) Del. subsp. indica (Benth.)
Brenan, Kew Bull. 12: 84. 1957. ‘Babhul’.
Tree, frequent along the edges of forest
roads. Decoction of the leaves is used for
sore throat. 145103.

A. pennata (L.) Willd. Sp. Pl. 4: 1090. 1806.
Scandent shrub, frequent in dense forests.
Leaves are used to check bleeding. 151139.

Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. London
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 3: 199. 1844.
Tree, frequent along the scrub forests. Seeds
are edible. 145058.

COMBRETACEAE

Anogeissus latifolia (DC.) Wall. ex Bedd. FI.
Sylv. t. 15. 1869. ‘Dhavada’. Tree, frequent
in dense forests. Leaves are used for tanning.
Wood is used for making tools etc. 144673,
145134, 151127.

Terminalia tomentosa Wt. & Arn. Prodr. 314.
1834. Tree, frequent in dense forests. Fruits
are used for dyeing and tanning. 144688,
151128.

LYTHRACEAE

Ammannia baccifera L. Sp. Pl. (ed. 2) 175.
1762. ‘Bharayiambhul’. Herb, common along
moist habitats. Plant is used to check rheu-
matic pains. 144704, 145093.

A. multiflora Roxb. Fl. Ind. 1: 447. 1820.
Herb, common in moist habitats. 144651.

Lagerstroemia parvifiora Roxb. Pl. Cor. 1: 47,
t. 66. 1795. ‘Lendia’. Tree, frequent along
dense forests. The wood is used for furniture
etc. 144680, 151153.

480

Woodiordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz. in JASB. 40:
56. 1871. Shrub, frequent in dense and scrub
forests. Bark and leaves are used for tan-
ning. 151145.

ONAGRACEAE

Ludwigia octovalis (Jacq.) Raven subsp.
sessilifiora (Mich.) Raven Kew Bull. 15:
476, 1962. Herb, frequent on swampy soils.
145052.

CUCURBITACEAE

Lufia acutangula (L.) Roxb. var. amara (Roxb.)
C.B.Cl. in Fl. Brit. India 2: 615. 1879.
‘Kadudodka’. An extensive climber. Fruits
are used as vegetable. 144605.

RUBIACEAE

Gardenia latifolia Ait. Hort. Kew 1: 294.
1789. Tree, frequent in the dense and scrub
forests. Wood is used for making toys.
145130, 151164.

Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. Prodr. 4: 569.
1830. Herb, frequent in moist habitats.
144690.

Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth, Obs.
Naucl. Ind. 19, 1839. ‘Kadam’. Tree, fre-
quent in dense forests. Wood is used for
agricultural implements. 144670, 145107.

Xeromphis uliginosa (Thunb.) Keay, Bull.
Jard. Bot. Etal 28: 37. 1958. ‘Karingud’.
Tree, frequent in scrub forests. Bark is used
in diarrhoea. 144634.

ASTERACEAE

Blumea belangeriana DC. Prodr. 5: 444. 1836.
Herb, frequent in moist habitats. 155146.

Eckipta prostrata (L.) Linn. Mant. Alt. 286,
1771. ‘Bhangra’. A common weed with white
flowers. 145161.

VEGETATION OF NAGZIRA SANCTUARY

Elephantopus scaber L. Sp. Pl. 814. 1753.
Herb, frequent in dense forests. 144638,
145147.

Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. ex Wight, Contrib.
Bot. Ind. 24, 1834. Herb, common along
the moist habitats. Decoction of roots is
used in bowel complaints. 145120, 151079.

Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. in Lam.,
Encycl. Suppl. 2: 825. 1811. Herb, frequent
along the moist habitats. Leaves are used to
check stomach ache. 155141.

Sphaeranthus indicus L. Sp. Pl. 1314. 1753.
‘Gorakhammundi’. Herb, common winter
weed in the fields after harvesting. Decoc-
tion of the plant is used to check cough.
145083.

Tridax procumbens L. Sp. Pl. 900. 1753.
‘Ekdandi’. Herb, common along the rocky
habitats. Juice of the leaves is used for
wounds etc. 145106, 151113.

Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. Linnaea 4: 291.
1829. ‘Osari’. Herb, common weed of the
wastelands. 145071.

Vicoa indica (Willd.) DC. in Wight, Contrib.
10, 1834. Herb, flowers yellow. Common
in moist habitats. 145062, 151082, 151111.

LOBELIACEAE

Lobelia alsinoides Lamk. Encycl. 3: 588.
1792. Herb, frequent in moist rocky habitats.
145154.

PLU MBAGINACEAE

Plumbago zeylanica L. Sp. Pl. 151. 1753.
‘Chitramula’. Herb, frequent in the waste-
lands. Paste of the root with salt and water
is applied for skin diseases. 145084.

EBENACEAE

Diospyros melanoxyion Roxb. Cor. Pl. 1: 236.
t. 46. 1795. ‘Tendu’. Tree, frequent in the
forests. Leaves are used for wrapping
‘biddis’. 151169.

OLEACEAE

NNyctanthes arbor-tristis L. Sp. Pl. 6. 1753.
‘Parijat’. Tree, frequent in dense forests.
Flowers are used for making an orange
coloured dye. 151151.

APOCY NACEAE

Heolarrhena antidysenterica (Roxb.) A. DC. in
DC.; Prodr. 8: 413. 1844. ‘Kuda’. Shrub,
common in the dense forests. Leaves are
used as a tonic. 149564.

Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R. Br. In Aiton,
Hort. Kew ed. 2, 2: 69. 1811. ‘Kantabharv’.
Climbing shrub, frequent along dense forests.
Stems are used for making ropes. 144436.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Calotropis gigantea (L.) R. Br. in Aiton, Hort.
Kewrved. 2.2: 78. 181 b. Madar: Shrub or
undershrub, frequent in wastelands. Floss,
obtained from the seeds is used as a stuf-
fing. 145096.

Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. in Aiton,
lore Kewred? 22°2:- 75. 1811. Twinings
shrub, frequent in dense forests. Roots are
used as demulcent. 144669.

Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov. Result. Sc.
Miss. Sefan Paoli Soman. Ital. 1: 115. 1916.
‘Utarni’. Twining shrub, frequent in scrub
forests. Juice of the leaves is applied in
rheumatism. 151091.

GENTIANACEAE

Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R. Br.; Prodr. 451.
in obs. 1810. Herb, frequent in moist habi-
tats. Plant is used as a laxative. 151077,
151120.

Exacum pumilum Griesb. in DC. Prodr. 9:
46. 1845. Herb, frequent in moist habitats.
144616.

431

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

BORAGINACEAE

Coldenia procumbens L. Sp. Pl. 125. 1753.
A frequent weed occurring in moist habi-
tats. Fresh leaves are used against rheumatic
swellings. 145165.

Heliotropium ovalifolium Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.
—Arab. 38: 1775. Frequent weed along the
edges of forests. 145157.

Trichodesma zeylanicum (N. Burman) R. Br.
Prodr. 496. 1810. Frequent weed along the
edges of forests. Paste of the leaves is ap-
plied to swellings. 151285.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. Fl. Aegyp.—Arab.
44. 1775. ‘Nalichibhaji’. Ground trailing or
floating herb. Leaves are eaten as vege-
table. 151058, 151297.

Jacquemontia paniculata (Burm. f.) Hall. f.
Bot. Jahrb. 16: 541. 1893. A slender twin-
ing herb. 145092.

Merremia emarginata (Burm. f.) Hall. f. Bot.
Jahrb. 16: 552. 1893. A prostrate creeping
herb, frequent in moist habitats. 144645,
145187.

SOLANACEAE

Datura imnoxia Mili. Gard. Dict. n. 5. 1768.
Herb, frequent in wastelands. Leaves are
used to cure asthma. 151093.

Solanum surrattense Burm. f. Fl. Ind. 57,
1768. (excl. syn. Fl. Brit. India 4: 236. Pluk.
et Raj.). A prickly diffuse, herb, common
in wastelands. Leaves are used for rheumat-
ism. 145032.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Buchnera hispida Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don.
Prodr. Fl. Nepal 91. 1825. Herb, frequent
in moist habitats. 151154.

482

Dopatrium junceum (Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. .ex
Benth. Scroph. Ind. 31. 1835. Herb, frequent
in moist habitats. 144697.

Limnophila indica (L.) Druce, Bot. Exach.
Club Soc. Brit. Isles 3: 420. 1914. Herb,
common in moist habitats. Herb considered
to be an antiseptic. 144705.

Lindernia parviflora (Roxb.) Haines, Bot.
Bihar & Orissa 635 (665). 1922. Herb, fre-
quent in moist habitats. 151076.

Scoparia dulcis L. Sp. Pl. 116, 1753. Frequent
weed in wastelands. 144671.

LENTIBULARIACEAE

Utricularia steliaris L. f. Suppl. 86. 1781.
Herb, flowers yellow. Common in stagnant
waters. 144703.

BIGNONIACEAE

Millingtonia hortensis L. f. Suppl. 291. 1781.
An avenue tree. 151168.

Stereospermum suaveolens (Roxb.) DC. Prodr.
9: 211. 1845. ‘Padal’. Tree, frequent along
the dense forests. Wood is used as timber.
151156.

ACANTHACEAE

Andrographis paniculata (Burm.) Wall. ex
Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar. 3: 116. 1832.
‘Dev Kirayath’. Herb, frequent in moist
habitats. Green leaves are used as _ tonic.
144631, 151100, 151167.

Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) Heyne ex Roth,
Nov. Pl. Sp. 320. 1821. Herb, frequent in
scrub forests. 145075.

Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir) Nees in Wall.,
Pl. As. Rar. 3: 81. 1832. Herb, frequent
in moist habitats. Leaves are considered
useful as a remedy for ear disease. 144657.

Hemigraphis latebrosa (Roth) Nees in DC.
Prodr. 11: 723. 1847. Herb, frequent in

VEGETATION OF NAGZIRA SANCTUARY

dense forests. 145080, 145144, 151097,
S22!

Hygrophila auriculata (Sch.) Heine. in Kew
Bull. 16: 172, 1962. A stout herb, frequent
in wet places. 145091.

Justicia betonica L. Sp. Pl. 15, 1753; Clarke
in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 4: 525. 1885. A
diffusely branched undershrub. 144622.

Peristrophe bicalyculata (Retz.) Nees in Wail.
PI. As. Rar. 3: 113. 1832. Herb, frequent
in dense forests. Plant is used as an antidote
for insect bite. 145086, 151089.

Rungia pecittinata (L.) Nees in DC., Prodr.
11: 469. 1847. Herb, common in the forests.
145067, 151098.

R. repens (L.) Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar.
3: 110. 1832. ‘Ghati piltapapda’. Herb, com-
mon in the forests. Plant is used to cure

cough etc. 145121.
VERBENACEAE

Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon, Cat. 46.
No. \382. 11824: Spreng. Syst. 2: 758. 1825.
‘Bharang’. Shrub, frequent along the edges
of forests. Leaves are used as vegetable.
144629.

Lantana camara L. var. aculeata (L.) Mal-
denke in Torreya 34: 9. 1934. Shrub, fre-
quent in wastelands. Decoction of the plant
is used in rheumatism. 151080.

Tectona grandis L. f. Suppl. 151, 1781.
‘Sagwak’. Tree, common in the forests. The
wood is a good timber and is used for con-
struction and 1s useful for making furniture
etc. 145089.

LAMIACEAE

Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br. Prodr. 504.
1810. Herb, frequent in the scrub forest
and wastelands. Decoction of the leaves is
used as tonic. 145085, 151086.

Leucas biflora R. Br. Prodr. 504. 1810. Herb.
Flowers white. Frequent in the forests.
144664.

Pogostemon plectranthoides Desf., Ann. Mus-
Natl. Hist. Nat. 2: 156. t. 6, 1808. Under-
shrub, frequent along the edges of forests.
The plant is used as an insecticide. 145072,
151157.

AMARANTHACEAE

Achyranthes aspera L. Sp. Pl. 204, 1753.
‘Aghada’. Herb, frequent in scrub forests
and wastelands. The plant ash is used ex-
ternally for ulcers. Leaves are also used
as pot herb. 151151.

A. bidentata Blume, Bijdr. 545. 1826. Herb,
frequent in scrub forests and wastelands.
144630.

Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC. Cat. Hort.
Monsp. 77. 1813. Frequent weed in moist
places. Plant is used in rheumatism. 144685.

Amaranthus spinosus L. Sp. Pl. 991, 1753.
‘Kante Math’. Common weed of wastelands.
Plant is used as vegetable and also as fod-
der. 145097.

A. viridis L. Sp. Pl. ed. 2, 1405. 1763. Herb,
common in moist places. Plant is used as
fodder. 144604.

POLYGONACEAE

Polygonum barbatum L. var. gracile (Dans.)
Steward, East As. In Contrib. Grey Herb.
88: 55. 1930. Herb, frequent in moist places.
144922.

P. glabrum Willd. Sp. Pl. 2: 447, 1799. Herb,
frequent in moist places. 151115.

P. plebetum R. Br. Prodr. 420. 1810. Herb,
commen weed of wastelands. 141558.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Bridelia retusa (L.) Spreng. Syst. veg. 3: 48.
1826. ‘Kassie’. Fruits are edible. Leaves are
used as fodder. 151129.

483

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Cleistanthus collinus Benth. in Gen. Pl. III.
268. 1880. ‘Garari’. Tree, frequent in the
dense forests. Bark, leaves and fruits are
used for tanning. 144708.

Chrozophora rottleri (Geis) Juss. ex Spreng.
Syst. 3: 850. 1826. Densely hispid herb
frequent in wastelands. 145138.

Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Fruct. 2: 122. 1791.
‘Avala’. Tree, frequent in the dense forests.
Fruits are edible. Unripe fruits act as a
laxative. 151135.

Euphorbia hirta L. Sp. Pl. 454. 1753. Com-
mon weed of wastelands. Decoction of the
plant is used in asthma. 151114.

E. parviflora L. Syst. (ed. 10) 2: 1047. 1759.
Frequent weed of wastelands. 145172.

EK. prostrata Ait. Hort. Kew 2: 139. 1789.
Frequent weed of wastelands. 145116.

Kirganelia reticulata (Poir.) Baill. Etud. Gen.
Euph. 614. 1874. Undershrub, frequent in
scrub forests. Roots are used for making
red dye. 145101.

Mallotus philippensis (Lamk.) Muell. Arg. in
Linnaea 34: 196. 1865. ‘Raini’. Tree, frequ-
ent in dense forests. The powdered fruit is
used as a purgative. 145150.

Phyllanthus urinaria L. Sp. Pl. 982. 1753.
Herb, frequent along the edges of forests.
144617.

Ricinus communis L. Sp. Pl. 1007. 1753.
Shrub, frequent along the edges of forests.
The seed cake is used as fertilizer. 145095.

MORACEAE

Ficus hispida L. f. Suppl. 442. 1781. Tree,
frequent in the scrub forests. Fruits are
edible. 145055.

ORCHIDACEAE

Habenaria plantaginea Lindl. Gen. & Sp.
Orch. 323, 1835. Herb, frequent in the
forests. 144623, 144627.

434

Vanda tessallata (Roxb.) Hook. ex G. Don
in Loud., Hort. Brit. 372. 1830. Epiphytic
herb, frequent. Roots are used in rheumat-
ism. 145137.

Z,.INGIBERACEAE

Curcuma pseudomontana Grah. Cat. Pl. Bomb.
210. 1839. Herb, frequent on moist habitats.
144672.

Zingiber macrostachyum Dalzell, J. Hook.
Bot. Kew Gard. Misc. 4: 342. 1852. Herb,
frequent in moist habitats. 144699.

DIOSCOREACEAE

Dioscorea bulbifera L. Sp. Pl. 1033, 1753.
Climber, frequent in scrub and dense forests.
Roots are used as vegetable. 144646, 151067.

D. pentaphylla L. Sp. Pi. 1032, 1753. Climber,
frequent in the dense and scrub forests.
Roots are edible. 144640, 144700.

LILIACEAE

Iphigenia indica (L.) A. Gray in Kunth, Enum.
4: 213. 1843. Herb, frequent in the dense

forests. 144624.
SMILACACEAE
Smilax zeylanica L. Sp. Pl. 1029. 1753.

‘Jangli Ael’. Scandent. Young branches and
leaves are used as vegetable. 144654, 151160.

COMMELINACEAE

Amischophacelus axillaris (L.) Rolla Rao et
Kammathy, J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 59: 306. 1966.
Herb, frequent in the moist habitats. 144702.

Commelina benghalensis L. Sp. Pl. 41. 1753.
Herb, frequent in moist habitats. Plant is
used as a laxative. 144740.

Cyanotis cristata (L.) D. Don, Prodr. Fl. Nep.
46. 1825. Herb. frequent in moist habitats.
144636.

VEGETATION OF NAGZIRA SANCTUARY

ERIOCAULACEAE

Eriocaulon dianae Fyson. J. Indian Bot. 2:
259, t. 11. 1921. Herb, frequent in moist
grasslands. 144652.

CYPERACEAE

Cyperus flavidus Retz. Obs. Fasc. 5: 13. 1789.
Herb, frequent in moist habitats. 145061.
C. iria L. Sp. Pl. 45. 1753. Herb, frequent in
moist habitats. The culms are used for

making mats. 144618.

C. tenuispica Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. 2: 11.
1855. Herb. frequent in moist habitats.
145179.

Fimbristylis bis-umbellata (Forskal) Bub. Do-
dec. 30, 1850. Herb, frequent in moist
habitats. 144650.

F. dichotoma (L.) Vahl, Enum. Pl. 2: 287.
1805. Herb. frequent in moist habitats.
144644, 144676.

F. miliacea (L.) Vahl, Enum. Pl. 2 : 287. 1805.
Herb, frequent in moist habitats. 151060.

F. schoenoides (Retz.) Vahl, Enum. Pl. 2:
286. 1805. Herb, frequent in moist habitats.
144693.

Kyllinga triceps Rottb. Descr. & Icon. 14, t.
Ati .6) (excl, cit; Rheed)), 1/73. Herb, fre-
quent in moist habitats. 144681.

POACEAE

Aristida adscensionis L. Sp. Pl. 82. 1753.
Herb, frequent in moist habitats. Plant is
used as an antiseptic. 145145. |

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) P. Beauv.
Ess. Agrost. 15: 1812. Herb, common in
open grasslands. Plant is used as fodder.
145000.

Dichanthium annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf in
Prain, Fl. Trop. Africa 9: 178. 1917. Herb,
common in open grasslands. Plant is used
as fodder. 145164.

Echinochloa colonum (L.) Link. Hort. Berol.
2: 209. 1833. Herb, frequent in moist habi-
tats. Seeds are eaten. Plant is also used as
fodder. 144686, 144698.

Elytrophorus spicatus (Willd.) A. Camus in
Lecomte, Fl. Gen. Indo-Chine 7: 547. 1923.
Herb, frequent in moist habitats. 155184.

Eragrostis gangetica (Roxb.) Steud. Syn. PI.
Glum. 1: 266. 1854. Herb, frequent in moist
habitats. 145060.

E. poaeoides P. Beauv. Agrost. 162. 1812.
Herb, frequent in moist habitats. 145061.

E. tenella (L.) P. Beauv. ex Roem. et Schult.
Syst. veg. 2: 576. 1817. Herb, frequent in
open grasslands. 145009.

E. unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Syn. PI.
Glum.: 264. 1854. Herb, common in open
grasslands. 144358.

Hackelochioa granularis (L.) O. Ktze. Rev.
Gen. Pl. 976. 1891. Herb, frequent in moist
habitats. 145087.

Heteropogon contortus (L.) P. Beauv. ex
Roem. & Schultes Syst. Veg. 2: 836. 1817.
Herb, common in open grasslands. 145069.

Iseilema laxum Hack. in DC. Mon. Phan. 6:
682. 1889. Herb, frequent in moist habitats.
Plant is used as fodder. 145139.

Panicum mnotatum Retz. Obs. Bot. 4: 18. 1786.
Herb, frequent in moist habitats. 145079.

Paspalum scrobiculatum L. Mant. 29. 1767.
Herb, frequent in moist habitats. Plant is
used as an insecticide. 145016.

Pseudanthistiria hetereclita (Roxb.) Hook. f.
Fl. Brit. India 7: 219. 1897. Herb, frequent
in moist habitats. Plant is used for thatch-
ing. 144684.

Themeda quadrivalvis (L.) O. Kuntz Rev.
Gen. Pl. 2: 794. 1891. Tall grass, frequent

485

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

in moist habitats. Grass is eaten by deer. ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

peed: We are thankful to Dr. M. P. Nayar, De-
Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash in Small. Fl. puty Director, Botanical Survey of India,

Southeast U.S. 67. 1903. ‘Vala’. Tall grass, Western Circle, Poona for encouragement and

frequent in the open grasslands. Plant is suggestions and also to the Director, Botanical

used for making curtains etc. 145039. Survey of India, Howrah-3 for the facilities.

486

BEHAVIOUR OF LISSEMYS PUNCTATA (REPTILIA,
TESTUDINATA, TRIONYCHIDAE) IN A DRYING LAKE
IN RAJASTHAN, INDIA’

WALTER AUFFENBERG?
(With two text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

Recent studies have shown that many fresh-
water turtles regularly leave the water for
extended periods of time. Gibbons (1970) has
suggested that the terrestrial activity of nor-
mally aquatic turtle species is an important
aspect of their population dynamics. Some of
these movements are associated with a num-
ber of different factors, such as ontogenetic
stages (Gibbons and Coker 1977) and breeding
(Gibbons 1969, Gibbons and Greene 1978),
but most commonly with seasonal temperature
changes (all of the above, plus Bennett, Gib-
bons, and Franson 1970, Bennett 1972, and
Wygoda 1979). Though the aquatic faunas of
shallow lakes and ponds are frequently faced
with extremely lowered water tables, only the
studies by Bennett (1972) and Wygoda (1979)
have specifically addressed the question of the
association of turtle movement with drought
conditions. Both studies were concerned only
with members of the family Kinosternidae—
a group well known to leave pools and rivers
during drought, particularly in xeric habitats.
There are casual references to the same habit
in Australian pleurodires (Worrell 1963), and
I have seen pelusines do the same in East
Africa. This study is, to my knowledge, the
first published account that shows this beha-

1 Accepted June 1980.
2The Florida State Museum, Museum Road.
University of Florida, Gainesville 32611, U.S.A.

viour in a member of the family Trionychidae.

The turtle here reported to have these habits
is Lissemys punctata punctata, the Indian flap-
shell. Normally plentiful in shallow lakes and
marshes, this widespread turtle is often found
in situations that are dry several months of
each year and is frequently seen walking about
on land. Minton (1966) found one digging out
of the soil and presumed that individuals of
this species often burrow to escape desiccation.
Deraniyagala (1939) reported that they ap-
parently come out of the water to feed on the
shore at night. Beyond this, no other observa-
tions on the terrestrial activity of trionychids
have been published. This study makes it clear
that Lissemys punctata is very well adapted,
both morphologically and behaviourally to
drought conditions. These adaptations are un-
doubtedly the reason for its wide distribution
in even the more arid parts of India and
Pakistan. The observations suggest that much
more remains to be learned concerning the
physiology of this species, particularly in res-
pect to water loss.

The Study Area: The study was conducted
in the Keoladeo Ghana Sanctuary, near Bharat-
pur, Rajasthan, India, during October and
November, 1979. Normally this large basin
(2835 hectares) is nearly filled with a shallow
Jake during the summer monsoon, usually
being reduced to about 700 hectares during the
winter months. However, there was very little
rain during the summer of 1979, and _ this
monsoon failure resulted in the lake being re-

487

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

duced to about 124 hectares during this study,
with the water depth continuously reducing
by as much as 2 cm per day. The result was
the almost complete disappearance of water—
a phenomenom that had not occurred in the
sanctuary since 1941.

The entire basin is divided into nine im-
poundment areas, the water levels of which
are regulated in normal seasons by flood gates
and water shunted into the system via the
Ghana Canal from the nearby dam forming
the Ajan Bund.

Methods: On each of 46 nearly consecutive
days I went to different parts of the sanctuary
for purposes related to another project. While
doing so, I necessarily made long circuits
around the receding water edge, over the dried
lake bottom, and along the raised causeways
forming the impoundment boundaries. All
Lissemys punctata seen, whether dead or alive,
in or out of the water, were collected at that
time, measured (straight midline carapace and
plastral lengths) to the nearest millimeter,
weighed to the nearest tenth of a gram, and
sexed on the basis of proportionate tail length
(tail of male longest). Each turtle was then
marked by lightly notching the soft edge of
the carapace with a pocket knife and released
in the same spot immediately thereafter.

Twelve hauls were made with a 2 m minnow
seine in three large ponds that still had a water
depth greater than 50 cm. Two workers were
also hired to wade and with their hands feel
the entire bottom mud of eight large shallow
ponds. These two techniques yieded 20 Lis-
semys punctata and provided data on the num-
ber and size of turtles still remaining in the
drying ponds. A total of 104 individuals were
found on the land surface, either walking
about or killed by predators. Thus the study
is based on 124 Lissemys Eerie ieare the
Keoladeo Ghana lake.

In addition to Lissemys punctata, the lake

488

basin also contained at least one adult of
Trionyx gangeticus and three adults of
Kachuga tectum. These species are not in- —
cluded in the analyses and discussions below.
Water depth and temperature were record-
ed each day at three different stations on the
dwindling lake, and temperatures on the bot-
tom were recorded at or near the place the
turtle was found whenever convenient. Air
shade temperatures at an elevation of 10 cm
above the ground surface were taken every day
at the same location near the Forest Lodge
Hotel (within the sanctuary) at 1300 hours.
The time when each turtle was found was re-
corded; its direction of travel was determined
with a compass and, along with its position,
plotted on a large map of the shoreline.
Abbreviations: N=number, OR = overall
range, SD=standard deviation, PL = plastral
length, X=arithmatic mean, P= probability,
df=degrees of freedom, and wt = weight.

RESULTS

Population Characteristics: Of 124 Lissemys
punctata processed, 104 were found on land
and 20 in shallow water.

Males comprise almost exactly 50% of the
sample taken from the water (N= 20), so that
the sex ratio is probably 1:1. However, of
those turtles found on land the males comprise
only 39.5%, the sex ratio of these moving
turtles being heavily skewed in favour of the
females (1:1.5). The reason for this remains
unknown, for none of the females had any
shelled eggs (as determined by palpation).

Males are smaller than females (oo PL
OR = 17.2-21.1 cm, X=19.0 cm, SD==+ 1.3
cm, N=41; 9 @ PL OR=12.7-27.1 cm, X=
22.3 cm, SD==+ 4.5 cm, N=65; t test=2.81,
df=102, P=0.005). and, not unexpected,
lighter weight (¢ ¢. wt OR 1.0-2.1 kg, X=
1.5 kg, SD==+ 0.34 kg, N=39; 9 9 PL OR=

BEHAVIOUR OF LISSEMYS PUNCTATA

0.6-3.2 kg, X=2.2 kg, SD + 0.88 kg, N=61).
For all the individuals examined (N= 124)
the PL OR = 12.5-27.1 cm, X =20.2 cm, SD=
+ 3.14 cm.

Predation and Size: Eggs are laid in late
summer in India (fall in Burma, Smith 1931).
Thus, very young turtles were expected in the
sanctuary in October-November, at least in
the remaining pools. However, none was found;
presumably because they had ail been eaten
by predators, of which various waterfowl
species are probably most important. The low
water table undoubtedly led to a predation
level significantly higher than normal, parti-
cularly in the smaller turtle size classes. The
same result was found in a study of the water
snake Xenochrophis piscator conducted at the
same time and place (Auffenberg, in press).

While individuals representing several large
size classes were frequently found wandering

Fig. 1.

over dry land, it was the smallest classes that
were most commonly preyed upon (PL OR
preyed individuals 8.9-12.8 cm, X=11.3 cm,
SD + 1.66 cm, N=21; t test between these
and ali uneaten ones found on land [N =31]=
2.84, df= 100, P=0.01).

As far as could be determined, these smaller
turtles were attacked and killed by one or more
white vultures (Neophron percnopterus gingi-
nianus). In addition to this vulture species, the
king vulture (Torgos calvus) and white-backed
vulture (Gyps bengalensis) also occur in the
same sanctuary. However, these two species
feed exclusively on carrion, while Neophron
is reported to feed on live insects and amphi-
bians as well (Ali and Ripley 1968). On one
occasion a single Torgos calvus joined a group
Gt Neophron percnopterus, and all of them
fed on a large dead Lissemys punctata.

Because of the extent to which Lissemys

Adult Lissemys punctata turned onto it’s carapace, showing flaps over hind

limbs and ability of the front plastral lobe to be closed completely.

~ 489

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AUIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 76

punctata can close its shell (Fig. 1), it is
remarkably adapted among soft-shelled turtles
in being able to protect itself from much pre-
dation. As in the turtle genera Kinosiernon
(Kinosternidae), Terrapene (Emydidae), and
Pelusios (Pelomedusidae), the anterior plastral
lobe can be pulled up tightly against the under-
side of the anterior carapace rim, completely
closing the anterior shell opening. In addition,
the posterior edge of the carapace contains
a partial series of peripheral bones (lacking
in other trionychids) that serve as insertions
for muscies enabling this part of the carapace
to be pulled downward around the base of the
tail, where the posterior tip of the plastron
is also flexed upward to enclose this area from
below. Finally, the hind legs are further pro-
tected by a hinged cartilaginous flap on each
side. The total effect is to produce a more or
less completely enclosed boney and cartilagin-
ous box into which entry is very difficult at
best and impossible for many likely predators.

The weakest part of the entire mechanism
is apparently at the hind leg flaps. The bill
of the white vulture is very narrow and pro-
portionately longer than that of the other two
Bharatpur species. Thus it is more easily in-
serted into the narrow, slit-like aperture at
the flaps over the hind legs of this turtle spe-
cies (Fig. 2). The bills of the other species

One or more white vultures may stand for
hours over a closed turtle, periodically biting
at the flaps until the muscles that hold them
closed become fatigued so that the flap can
no longer be tightly closed. The bill is then
inserted inio the slit-like opening, tearing away
at the flesh of the hind limbs. No longer able
to crawl away, even if offered an opportunity
to do so, the turtle slowly dies. The concomit-
ant relaxation of the other shell closure mus-
cles allow the vultures to eventually remove
the head and neck, limbs and viscera. When
finished with the carcass, the vultures leave
only an empty shell, which is sometimes later
nibbled at by either jackals or porcupines.

Additionally the turtles exude a viscous
yellow fluid, similar to egg yolk in both color
and consistency, from pores on the plastral
bridge in both the axillary and inguinal areas.
The smell is very objectionable, but difficult
to describe. The taste is probably vile as well.
It is quite probable that the normally long
time taken by vultures to kill these turtles is
related to these secretions, for the contents
of the glands are eventually emptied and the
constant pulling and tugging of the turtle
through the grass may serve to remove the
secretion.

On one occasion, a single individual of
Neophron percnopterus was observed to pick

Fig.

N

Head and bill shape in the vultures Neophron percnopterus (left) and

Torgos calvus (right).

of hawks, eagles, and kites that might possibly
prey on these turtles are also apparently too
short to accomplish this.

490

up a small stone, hop to a nearby live Lis-

semys punctata and drop it onto the carapace.

This was repeated several times. Though the

BEHAVIOUR OF LISSEMYS PUNCTATA

effect on the turtle seemed negligible, the be-
haviour of the vulture is very interesting.
Stone-dropping behaviour has been noted pre-
viously in this same vulture species (Alcock
1972), though in that case the stones were
dropped on bird’s eggs.

If during their movements over land the
turtles reach thick grass or forested areas, they
wedge themselves into debris under tussocks,
roots, or fallen logs, burying themselves to a
depth of 3-6 cm, measured to the top of the
carapace. Here they apparently aestivate until
the next rainy season. During this phase of
their dry season strategy they are sometimes
found and eaten by foraging wild pigs (Sus
scrofa). These are common in the Keoladeo
Ghana Sanctuary, but their level of predation
on the aestivating turtles remains unknown.
Only two crushed and scattered carcasses of
turtles that had been killed and eaten by wild
pigs were found.

Two Lissemys punctata were found in an
extremely weakened condition after, on the
basis of surrounding signs, struggling for per-
haps several days to free themselves from thick
drying mud. In both cases it was obvious that
water buffalo had stepped on them, forcing
them deep into the stiff, tenaceous mud at
the edge of the drying ponds.

The level of predation during drought in
this lake basin is probably higher than it would
be naturally, for the large number of grazing
bovines allowed in the sanctuary had eaten or
trampled practically all of the normally avail-
able cover surrounding the shoreline, as well
as in the water itself. Thus the turtles were

probably more exposed than in a Jess heavily

grazed environment.

Unfortunately, I was not able to remain at
the sanctuary until the last remaining pools
dried completely, so have no data bearing on
the total number of turtles eaten, or the pro-
portionate number that could be expected to

survive the drought.

Distance from Water and Headings: Be-
cause the water is the source of all turtles
found walking on the land, one would expect
a Poisson distribution with respect to the dist-
ance between the turtles and the shoreline.
However, this is not the case, suggesting that
those individuals walking on land near the
water frequently re-enter it. Those farther away
have a much smaller chance of re-entering
the water, and the frequency distribution is
clearly skewed in that direction. No individuals
found walking on causeways with water on
either side of them were inciuded in the fol-
lowing analyses of distance or direction. Only
those found in the open or at causeways with
water on only one side (N = 86) were included.

The distances from the shoreline at which
the 86 turtles were found varied from 3 to
1050 m, with the average being 237 m (SD=
+78 m). There was no significant difference
between the sexes and shoreiine distance,
though smaller individuals were generally
found closer to the remaining pools (PL<18
cm, OR=5-410 m, X=113.8 m, N=32;
PL > 18 cm, OR 3-1050 m, X=321.6 m,
N=54; t test= 2.66, df=84, P= < 0.005).

There is no apparent tendency in compass
headings of those individuals found over 25 m
from the closest shoreline (N=67), but at
shorter distances the major headings are clear-
ly away from the shoreline. Thus, the flat,
almost featureless lake basin surface seems
to offer few, if any, reliable landmarks to the
walking turtles, for movements once the shore-
line is left several metres behind seem com-
pletely random.

Conditions during which turtles left the
water: Deraniyagala (1939) stated that Lis-
semys punctata came ashore at night. How-
ever, as far as I could determine, al! terrestrial
movement of the turtles at Keoladeo Ghana
occurred between 0900 and 1639 hours. With-

49]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

in this period, no definitive peak(s) could be
demonstrated. Nor was there any terrestrial
activity during the few light showers in Nov-
ember, probabiy because these were associat-
ed with cold fronts passing through the area.

Mean maximum air temperatures in the
shade 10 cm above the ground surface varied
from 36°C in October, through 32.2°C for
November, to 30.1°C for the first week and
a half of December (after which the study
was terminated). Mean daytime minima in
the shade for the same periods were 24°C,
21°C, and 20.2°C respectively. The majority
(87%) of all emergences were noted at shade
air temperatures of from 29.6°C to 36.7°C,
though minimum daytime temperatures were
as low as 14.8°C and maximum as high as
38.1°C. Water temperature during days on
which turtles emerged to walk over the
basin surface varied from 15.2°C to 48.0°C,
with 90% of the emergences occurring when
water temperatures were above 35.0°C.

Pond size was apparently not a factor in
emergences, for individuals released in a
small pool only 3.3 m in diameter, but 52 cm
deep and provided with a good growth of
aquatic weeds, remained there throughout the
project. However, the water depth and vege-
tation in this pool (also protected from wallow-
ing water buffaloes) kept the water temperature
below 32.0°C during the entire study period,
even on days with high insolation. Thus water
temperature is probably the most important
factor in determining emergences in drying
pools, and this is greatly affected by water
depth (which was being reduced as much as
2.1 cm per day during parts of November;
less before and after that time) and vegetative
cover, which in turn is affected by the grazing
water buffaloes.

DISCUSSION
Bennett et al. (1970) believed that by mov-

ing away from drying ponds kinosternid turtles

492

may reduce the high predation level that
would probably occur if they burrowed in
higher concentrations in the pond bottom.
Wygoda (1979) has shown that predators do,
indeed, find turtles buried in the dry pond
floor. The present study suggests that preda-
tion level for especially the smaller turtles be-
comes significantly increased with reduction
of water level. Entrapment in the mud may
also be more common at low water levels.
In this study bovines trampling the shallows
apparently trapped some individuals, and some
Pleistocene fossils from Florida clearly show
that some buried turtles become permanently
sealed into hardening bottom deposits (author’s
fieldnotes).

On the other hand, predation levels are also
high during the emigration phase, when both
birds and mammals often attack and kill parti-
cularly the smaller turtles. Burrowing by all
turtles probably reduces both predation and
desiccation during dry periods (Bennett ef al.
1970), though in at least Lissemys some pre-
dation by especially large mammals continues
during this phase. :

Apparently some turtle species leave and
re-enter the water on an annual cycle, regard-
less of water level (Gibbons 1969, 1970; Gib-
bons and Coker 1977), though kinosternids
(Bennett 1972, Wygoda 1979), some chelids
(Worrell 1963), and the trionychid Lissemys
regularly leave the water during drought. Very
few data are available regarding the conditions
that cause the turtles to leave the water. How-
ever, water depth, temperature, and amount
of cover are here suggested as the most im-
portant factors leading to emergence, (as has
been shown in some emydids: Bennett et al.
1970, Gibbons 1970, Gibbons and Coker
1977). How common this habit is in Lessemys
punctata is unknown, though it is clear that
it is well adapted to contend with drought in
at least the more xeric parts of its habitat.
At Bharatpur, Lissemys punctata moves far-

BEHAVIOUR OF LISSEMYS PUNCTATA

ther from water in its terrestrial activity than
any other aquatic turtles studied so far. Ap-
parently it does not exhibit a tendency for
mass directional movement away from the
water, as has been demonstrated in several
other species.

Most immigrants of Lissemys punctata are
females, the same as in some other studies
of emigrating turtles, though the ratio may be
reversed during some months of the year
(Gibbons 1969). Wygoda (1979) and Gibbons
and Coker (1977) believed that the propor-
tionately larger number of females on land
may be related to nesting behaviour, though
this may not be the case in Lissemys, for the
females of this population had apparently all
laid their eggs many months previously. The
sex ratio of Lissemys in the ponds, however,
was 1:1, suggesting that females may be more
common than males in the entire population.
Skewed sex ratios in turtles have been report-
ed in the literature for several species and
the entire matter has been reviewed by Gib-
bons (1970). However, more data are required
on the sex ratio of Lissemys punctata in re-
latively undisturbed environments before
skewed ratios can be clearly demonstrated in

this species.

Though several vultures are found at Bha-
ratpur, only Neophron percnopterus attacks
and kills live turtles. Chapman (in Meinertz-
hagen 1959) reported that both this vulture
and Gypaetus barbatus feed on live turtles.
Land tortoises comprise the major food of
G. barbatus in several areas and the turtles are
killed by dropping them on rocks from a great
height. The present paper is apparently the first
reference to Neophron percnopterus dropping
stones on the shells of turtles. However, I can
hardly believe that they expect to break the
shell or have ever had any luck doing so. The
behaviour may be more important in stimulat-
ing the turtle to stop walking away.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Funds for the project were made available
through an Indo-American Faculty Research
Fellowship. Thanks are due to the University
Grants Commission, the Zoological Survey of
India, the American Institute of Indian Stu-
dies, and the American Communication
Agency for assistance and/or funding, and to
the Florida State Museum for providing me
with the freedom to conduct the research.

REFERENCES

ALcocK, J. (1972): The evolution of the use of
tools by feeding animals. Evolution 26 (3): 464-473.

AI, S., AND RIPLEY, S. D. (1968): Handbook
of the birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. 1. Oxford
Univ. Press; 380 p.

BENNETT, D. H. (1972): Notes on the terrestrial
wintering of mud turtles (Kinosternon subrubrum).
Herpetologica 28 (2): 245-247.

BENNETT, D. H., GIBBONS, J. W. AND FRANSON,

J. C. (1970): Terrestrial activity in aquatic turtles.

Ecology 51 (4): 738-740.

GIBBONS, J. W. (1969): Ecology and population
dynamics of the chicken turtle, Deirochelys reticu-
laria. Copeia 1969 (4): 669-676.

(1970): Sex ratios in turtles. Res.
Popul. Ecol. 12: 252-254.

AND COKER, J. W. (1977): Ecologi-
cal and life history aspects of the cooter, Chrysemys
floridana. Herpetologica 33 (1): 29-33.

GIBBONS, J. W. AND GREENE, J. L. (1978): Select-

ed aspects of the ecology of the chicken turtle,
Deirochelys reticularia (Letreille) (Reptilia, Testu-
dines, Emydidae). J. Herpetology 12 (2): 237-241.

DERANIYAGALA, P. E. P. (1939): The tetrapod
reptiles of Ceylon. Vol. 1. Colombo Mus. Nat.
Hist. Series. 412 p.

MEINERTZHAGEN, R. (1959): Pirates and preda-
tors. Oliver and Boyd. 230 p.

MINTON, S. A. (1966): A contribution to the
herpetology of West Pakistan. Bull. Amer. Mus.
Nat. Hist. 134 (2): 51-112.

SMITH, M. A. (1931): The fauna of British India.
Vol. 1. Taylor and Francis; 185 p.

WorRELL, E. (1963): Reptiles of Australia. An-
gus and Robertson. 169. p. c

Wycopa, M. L. (1979): Terrestrial activity of
striped mud turtles, Kinosternon bauri (Reptilia,
Testudinata, Kinosternidae) in west-central Florida.
J. Herp. 13 (4): 469-480.

493

THE TIMING OF BREEDING SEASON AND INTER-
_ BREEDING BETWEEN THE COLOUR PHASES IN THE
INDIAN REEF HERON, EGRETTA GULARIS (BOSC)*

R. M. Natk?, B. M. ParasHarya?,
The Indian Reef Heron, Egretta gularis
(Bosc) occurs on the coast of West Africa,
the Red Sea area and the western coast of the
Indian Ocean (Ripley in press). Though the
bird is not uncommon on the northern shores
of the Arabian Sea, coast of Pakistan, western
coast of India, Laccadive Islands and Sri
Lanka (Sdlim Ali and Ripley 1968), only
four of its breeding sites in the Indian region
have so far been recorded. It was found
breeding near Chilaw, Sri Lanka, “‘about a
hundred years ago’? by Layard (Henry 1971),

B. H. PATEL’, AND A. P. MANSuRIZ~

(1954) observed it in Kandla. Creek, Kutch,
and Kirkpatrick (1961) observed it near
Nellore (Andhra Pradesh). Since there are no
records of the breeding of this heron in be-
tween the sites so far recorded, it is presumed
that the bird “possibly migrates locally to
special areas’ (Sdlim Ali and Ripley 1968).

In view of the fact that only a few observa-
tions have been made on the breeding of the
Reef Heron in India, it is not surprising that
numerous gaps exist in our knowledge of this
bird’s Indian populations. A look at Table 1

TABLE 1-

NESTING OF THE INDIAN REEF HERON

Locality Nesting period

1. Chilaw May and June
(7°37'N, 79°53’E:)

2. Karachi First week of March to early June
(24°51 NN; 677 ee

3. -Kandla’ ; August and September

_- (23°N, 70°10’E.) fplannes Fone

4, Nellore Around April and May

Henle: 27 N, 80°02'B.)

Ts Goede

Bebauary to August-September

IN THE INDIAN REGION

~~ Authority
Layard |
(as quoted by Henry, 1971)
Eates (1926)
Salim Ali (1954).
Kirkpatrick (1961) ©

Present report

but its. brooding in Sn Laue ie apparently
not been recorded since then (Henry, loc. cit).
Eates (1926) observed it breeding in Karachi

1 Accepted September 1979.

2 Department of Biosciences,
sity, Rajkot-360 005, India. ©

3 Department of Zoology, Sir P. 20 Institute of
Science, Bhaynieet India.”

-Saurashtra Univer-

494

will seed ‘that the breeding period recorded
by Eates (loc. cit.). Sdlim Ali (loc. cit.) and
Kirkpatrick (loc. cit.) vary widely with no
definite trend, and because of this, any gene-
ralization regarding the timing of the breeding
season of this bird in India has been a. diffi-
cult proposition. Secondly, the white and
dark (grey) phases of the bird have been
known to interbreed in Africa, but there has

BREEDING SEASON OF THE REEF HERON

been. no. evidence of such happenings in India
(SAlim Ali and Ripley 1968).

The observations reported here were made
in Gogha and Bhavnagar. The latter is a
flourishing coastal city (21°46’N, 72°11’E)
on the gulf of Khambat..Gogha, at one time
a thriving port but now a small town of about
1,300 houses with a population of about 7000
people, is located 19 km southeast of Bhav-
nagar and spread over a strip of land jutting
out to a point in the gulf of Khambat.

_. OBSERVATIONS ~~ -

We (R.M.N. and B.H.P.) . accidentally
found the Indian Reef Heron nesting in Gogha
first in. February 1979; and some of us. paid
four successive visits later.on to observe the
bird nesting there until the first week of Sep-
tember. The main nesting colony was located
in a grove of trees within an enclosed quadr-
angle of the mamlatdar’s office. No other
birds except a pair of crows nested in these
trees during the study period. Our inquiries
with the old staff of the office revealed that
the. herons have been nesting there at least
for the last fifteen years. Pradumn Desai, .a
keen naturalist residing in Bhavnagar had
seen the herons nesting there (in the quadr-
angle of. mamlatdar’s oie’) several _ years
back.

One of. us. (BMP.) observed the heron
nesting also in Bhavnagar during the last week
of- July 1979; here, the bird was, nesting .in
a. mixed. heronry. of. the Cattle Egret. (Bubul-
cus. .ibis),..Night Heron (Nycticorax nyctico-

rax), and White Ibis (Threskiornis aethiopica)

in a school compound: The earlier. field notes
of one (B.M.P.) of us indicate the nesting of
the heron in Bhavnagar in the previous years
as well;.the heron was observed nesting there
with Cattle Egret, Night. Heron. and. White
Ibis in July 1973 and also in August 1974.

All the nesting colonies observed by us in
Gogha and Bhavnagar were in urban areas;
the Karachi colony observed by Eates (loc.
cit.) was also in urban areas, whereas. the
Kandla colony observed by Sdélim Ali (loc.
cit.) was on a tide-swept island in a creek.

The bird can use a wide variety of trees
for nesting. The trees used by the birds we
observed nesting, were the peepul Ficus reli-
giosa. Ficus tsila and neem Melia azadirachta
(syn. Azadirachta indica). Eates (loc. cit.)
observed the birds nesting on the peepul,
jujube Zizyphus jujuba, Portia tree Thespesia
populnea, Manila Tamarind ° Pithecolobium
dulce and Jambun Eugenia jambolina. Kirk-
patrick (loc. cit.) observed the bird breeding
in Ficus trees and Salim Ali (loc. cit.) in
mangroves.

We could record he timing of the heron’s S
breeding season at Gogha. On our first visit
to Gogha, we saw many pairs of the heron
engaged in courtship and nest-building acti-
vities on 23 February 1979. We (R.M.N. and
B.H.P.) paid a second visit to the place on
6 April 1979, when we could spend more time
watching the herons nesting there in three
groups: (1) The largest concentration of 86
nests located in a grove of 9 trees; was in the
quadrangle of the mamlatdar’s office, (2)
another group of 17 nests was located on a
roadside tree, and (3) the third group of 6
nests was on a roadside Tamarind tree. All
the nests (total hundred and four) were
attended by the parents; some pairs were en-
gaged in nest-building whereas most others
were either incubating or feeding the chicks.
We (R.M.N. and A:P.M.)° paid: a third visit
to Gogha on 5th June, 1979, when we found
the birds: nesting. only in the quadrangle of
mamlatdar’s office, there being’ no trace. of
the nests or the herons-in the other two places
where we had: found them nesting earlier. In
the heronry, there were about 75 nests of

495

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

which a few appeared deserted and the rest
had chicks; most of the chicks were grown up
and perching or hopping around on branches.
Only in five nests, the small chicks were being
brooded by the parents. One of us (B.M.P.)
paid a visit to Gogha on the 9th and 26th of
August 1979, and again on the 2nd of Sep-
tember 1979. There were 3 nests with eggs,
1 with chicks and a few deserted nests on
9 August, whereas there were 2 nests with
chicks and a deserted nest on 26 August, and
a few grown up chicks perching around two
empty nests on 2nd September.

We observed in Gogha that the mates with-
in a nesting pair were usually of the same
colour phase, that is both the mates were
either dark or white. However, we found
evidences that some interbreeding between the
two phases also occurs. In one pair that we
observed nest-building for about half an hour,
one mate was white while the other was dark.
In another nest, we observed a parent in the
white phase relieving its mate in dark phase
from the duty of incubating eggs.

DISCUSSION

The Indian Reef Heron is a common sight
throughout the year on the sea coast near
Gogha and Bhavnagar. The herons we observ-
ed breeding there were apparently derived
from the local population. The herons have
been breeding in Gogha and possibly also in
Bhavnagar since many years, but, the breeding
was not reported until now. We have some
unconfirmed reports suggesting that the herons
breed also in Porbandar and Surat (both in
Gujarat) as well. It is quite probable, there-
fore, that the heron populations at least on
the coast of Gujarat, if not all along the
Indian coast, are largely sedentary and that
many of the bird’s breeding sites have remain-
ed hitherto unreported.

496

The herons in Gogha, had a long nesting
season spanning a period from February to
August-September, the peak period having
been from February to June. Nesting period
of the heron recorded elsewhere by the earlier
workers falls within this period (Table 1).
Apparently the herons have a long nesting
season all along the sea coast from Pakistan
to Sri Lanka; the mildness of the maritime
climate and a ready availability of marine
food over a long period, would favour a long
breeding season.

The occurrence of the heron’s peak breed-
ing in the summer contrasts sharply with that
of the Little Egret (Egretta garzetta) occur-
ring in the monsoon. The Little Egret, like the
other egrets, spoonbill and ibises, seeks its
animal food inland and is consequently de-
pendent on the monsoon for an increased sup-
ply of food needed for the reproduction. The
difference in the timing of breeding between
the Indian Reef Heron and the Little Egret
would reduce the chances of possible intro-
gression between these two closely related
species.

During the heron’s peak breeding period
in summer, the other Cicontiformes (with a
possible exception of the Night Heron) that
may compete with the Indian Reef Heron
for the nesting sites, are not breeding. One
should expect the heron, therefore, to breed
in their heronry exclusively during the summer.
On the other hand, several species of Ciconi-
formes and the other birds, like Cormorants,
may compete with the heron for the nesting
sites and one may find the herons breeding
in the mixed heronry during that season. This
explains the fact that Salim Ali (loc. cit.) who
had seen the herons breeding during the mon-
soon found it breeding in the mixed heronry,
whereas Eates (loc. cit.) and Kirkpatrick
(loc. cit.) who saw the herons breeding in
summer found them breeding exclusively. In

BREEDING SEASON OF THE REEF HERON

Gogha, we saw the herons breeding in ex-
clusive heronry throughout its breeding season
from February to August. The only other
colonial tree-nester that bred any time during
this period in Gogha was the Spoonbill, but
it had segregated from the Indian Reef Heron
for nesting.

On the African coast, the dark and white
phases of the heron are known to interbreed

and the form intermediate between the two
has been described. In view of the fact that
interbreeding between the dark and white
phases occurs also within an Indian popula-
tion of the heron, the forms intermediate be-
tween the two phases would be expected to
occur in India as well, though so far not
recorded.

REFERENCES

Att SALIM, (1954): The Birds of Gujarat, Part
I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 374-458.

ALI, SALIM AND RIPLEY, S. D. (1968): Handbook
of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vol. I. Oxford
University Press, Bombay.

Fates, K. R. (1926): A note on the nidification
of Western Reef Egret (Lepterodius asha) in Kara-
chi city, Sind. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31 (3):
823-825.

HENRY, G. M. (1971): A guide to the Birds of
Ceylon. Oxford University Press, Bombay.

KIRKPATRICK, K. M. (1961): The Ashy Reef
Heron Egretta gularis (Bosc) on the east coast. J.
Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58: 275.

Rip.Ley, S. D. (in press): A synopsis of the Birds
of India and Pakistan (2nd edition). Bombay Natu-
ral History Society, Bombay.

497

ALPINE FLORA OF TUNGNATH IN. GARHWAL |
HIMALAYA* —

J. K. SEmwaL AND R. D. Gaur?

The present communication is an account of Angiosperms collected from an alpine Gott
area (Tungnath) in Garhwal Himalaya during the years 1977-1978. Tungnath is one
of the most important peaks situated in front of the famous Chaukhamba and Kedar-
nath peaks, in between 30°30’N and 79°15’E. The dominant families of this zone

are Ranunculaceae, Fumariaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Rosaceae, Saxifragaceae, Apiaceae, _-
Asteraceae, Gentianaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Polygonaceae, Orchidaceae, Liliaceae and |.
Poaceae. A total number of 280 species and 157 genera represented by 50 families :

ne been Oe
INTRODUCTION

The Himalayas are. a reservoir of many
natural resources, of which the vegetational
aspect is predominant. Although several work-
ers took interest in the collection and presen-
tation of Himalayan flora even before the 19th
century (Burkill 1965) and upto recently
(Rau 1975), still a comprehensive account,
specially on the exploration of alpine plants on
regional basis is lacking. Royle, Coventry and
Blatter studied the beautiful plants of West-
ern Himalaya (Rau 1975) laying more em-
phasis on the Kashmir valley in the extreme
west of the Himalayas. Duthie (1906) presented
the revised catalogue of plants of Kumaon and
adjacent portions of Garhwal, originally based
on the collections made by Strachey and
Winterbottom during 1846 to 1849, including
the works of Wallich, Royle, Falconer, Blink-
worth and Thomson. Holdsworth and Smythe,
members of the British Kamet Expedition col-
lected plants from Bhyundar valley, “The
Valley of Flowers’ (Smythe 1932 and 1938).
Recently Rau (1961) has made comprehensive

1 Accepted November 1979.
2Department of Botany, Garhwal University, Sri-
nagar-246 174, (U.P.).

498

collections ‘ from diffefent’ Wihindes: of ‘otth
Garhwal. Rau iG). has also ‘published an
extensive ‘compilation of high altitude flower-
ing plants of Western Himalaya.

GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

The approximate bearings of Tungnath re-
gion are 30°30’N and 79°15’E. The explored
area is a moist alpine zone ranging from 3250
to 4600 m above sea level. As usual in alpine
zones in India the climatic conditions include
dense frost, fog, heavy hailstorms, extremely
low temperature, high light intensity, high wind
velocity and lower Oxygen and Carbon dioxide
concentration. There are sharp fluctuations re-
garding these weather conditions even in the
same day. Low rainfall is generally reported
from other alpine areas but comparatively high
rainfall was observed in this area. Total rain-
fall from June to September during 1978 was
recorded 163.57 cm and maximum rainfall
was 51.77 cm in the month of July. Minimum
and Maximum atmospheric temperature during
the study period was -6 and 28°C respectively.

VEGETATION

The alpine vegetation of this part has many
characteristic features in connection with the

ALPINE FLORA OF TUNGNATH

separation zone from timber line, seasonal
succession and distributional pattern. Some
important plants which separate the alpine
zone from timber line are Clematis barbellata,
C. montana, Berberis edgeworthiana, Hyperi-
cum hookerianum, Rhododendron campanula-
tum, R. arboreum in south facing slopes and
Anemone rivularis, Thalictrum chelidonii,
Paeonia emodi, Thlaspi cochleariforme. Syrin-
ga emodi, Skimmia laureola, Geum urbanum,
Sorbus foliolosa, -Angleca glauca, Trillium
govanianum, in north-west facing slopes. Some
temperate plants, e.g. Rhododendron arboreum,
Dipsacus mitis and Lysimachia spp. are also
well adapted to the harsh alpine conditions.

On the basis of distribution the alpine plants
represent distinct habitats. They are found
on exposed dry rocks, crevices, ravines and
on much fertile loamy soils constituting the
alpine meadows.

The plant species which appear soon aiter
the snows melt, are Primula denticulata, Oxy-
graphis polypetala and Gentiana spp. imme-
diately followed by Ranunculus spp., Caltha
palustris, Gagea lutea and Anemone obdtusi-
loba, and species of Potentilla, Pedicularis,
Senecio, Saussurea, Polygonum and others
during July-August. In the late flowering
season in alpine zone Delphinium vestitum,
Selinum vaginatum, Pleurospermum — densi-
florum, Tanacetum longifolium, Taraxacum
officinale are observed. Some plants like Oxy-
graphis . polypetala, Ranunculus. spp. and
Gentiana spp. reflower at the end of season
during October-November. Periodical changes
in the flowering resulted in the appearance of
beautiful matted meadow of blue, violet, red,
pink, yellow and white colour during different
months of the favourable season. The general
mode of perennation of plants is through rhi-
zomes, rootstocks, runners, suckers, bulbs and
bulbils.

ENUMERATION OF SPECIES

_ This work is primarily a record of alpine
plants collected during the years 1977 and
1978. In this work Bentham and Hooker’s
system of classification has been followed with
some modifications particularly in splitting of
the families as proposed by Hutchinson
(1959). An: attempt has been made to incor-
porate nomenclature changes. Local names
of the plants where available have been given
after the botanical names and localities with
altitude have also been mntioned. Field num-
ber of each specimen is given in bracket and
the specimens are preserved in the Herbarium
of Botany Department, Garhwal EB rOH,
Srinagar.

. DICOTYLEDONS
RANUNCULACEAE

Aconitum balfourti Stapf (Loc.-Mitha bish)
Tall erect: herb with blue flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. Sept. 1977 (2658).

A. heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle (Loc. -Atish)
Erect herb with dull green purple veined
flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1977: (2634).
Anemone narcissifolia Linn. var. polyanthes
Finnet & Gagnep. (Loc.-Kakrya)
Hairy herb with white flowers.
3500 m. June 1977 (2694).

A. obtusiloba D. Don (Loc.-Chotu Kakrya)
Herb with white and blue flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. June 1977 (2700).

A. rivularis Buch.-Ham.

Herb with white flowers. Below Tungnath,
3250 m. June 1977 (2693).

A. vitifolia Buch.-Ham.

Herb with whitish: flowers. Fungnath, 3500 m.
Sept. 1977 (2606).

Caltha. palustris: Linn.

Herb with bright yellow flowers. Tungnath
3500 m..May 1977 (2695).

Tungnath,

499

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Clematis barbellata Edgew.

Climbing shrub with dull purple backed
flowers. Rawanshila, 3250 m. June 1978
(2833).

C. montana Buch.-Ham. ex DC.

Climbing shrub with white flowers. Rawan-
shila, 3250 m. June 1978 (2831).
Delphinium vestitum Wall. ex Royle
Hairy herb with blue flowers. Tungnath, 3500
m. Oct. 1977 (2681).

Oxygraphis polypetala (Royle) Hook. f. &
Thoms.

Small herb with bright yellow flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. May and Oct. 1977 (2702).
Ranunculus hirtellus Royle

Herb with bright yellow flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. May and Sept. 1977 (2612).

R. hyperboreus Rottb.

Small creeping herb with yellow flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. June 1978 (2805).

Thalictrum alpinum Linn.

Small herb with greenish drooping flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1978 (2827).

T. chelidonii DC.

Tall herb with the bulbils in the leaf axils.
Zabrya, 3250 m. Oct. 1978 (2758).

T. pauciflorum Royle

Herb on rocks with greenish flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2701).

PAEONACEAE

Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle (Loc.-Chandra)
Tall erect herb with white flowers. Chakdhar,
3250 m. June 1978 (2759).

BERBERIDACEAE

Berberis edgeworthiana Schneid. (Loc.-Chotra)
Shrub with yellow flowers and ovoid red ber-
ries. Rawanshila, 3250 m. July 1978 (2676).
B. jaeschkeana Schneid. (Loc.-Kingorh)
Spiny shrub with yellow flowers and red ber-
ries. Tungnath, 3500 m. July 1978 (2803).

500

B. kumaonensis Schneid. (Loc.-Jhuru)
Procumbent shrub with yellow flowers and
ovoid red berries. Tungnath, 3500 m. July
1978 (2760).

CIRCAEASTERACEAE

Circaeaster agrestis Maxim.
Small herb bearing minute greenish flowers at
the terminal rosette of leaves. Tungnath,
3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2625).

PAPAVERACEAE

Meconopsis aculeata Royle (Loc.-Kalyari)
Prickly herb with blue purple flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2816).

M. robusta Hook. f. & Thoms.

Prickly herb with light yellow flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2823).

FUMARIACEAE

Corydalis cashmeriana Royle

Delicate herb with sky blue flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. June 1978 (2705).

C. falconeri Hook. f. & Thoms.

Herb with yellow flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m.
June 1977 (2706).

C. govaniana Wall.

Herb with terminal dense many yellow flower-
ed racemes. Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1977
(2703).

C. meifolia Wall.

Herb with purple tipped yellow flowers. Above
Tunganth, 4600 m. Sept. 1978 (2763).

C. vaginans Royle

Delicate herb with yellow flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. June 1977 (2704).

BRASSICACEAE

Arcyosperma primulifolium (Thoms.) O. E.

Schulz

ALPINE FLORA OF TUNGNATH

Herb, with white flowers on rocks. Tungnath,
3500 m. June 1977 (2707).

Capselia bursa-pastoris (Linn.) Medik. (Loc.-
Botlya)

Herb with white flowers. Chakdhar, 3250 m.
June 1978 (2764).

Cardamine scutata Thunb .

Glabrous herb with white flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. July 1977 (2608).

Draba gracillima Hook. f. & Thoms.

Hairy herb with small yellow flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. June 1978 (2812).

Thlaspi cochleariforme DC.

Spreading herb with white flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. May 1978 (2765).

VIOLACEAE

Viola biflora Linn.

Glabrous herb with yellow flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. June 1977 (2708).

Y. canescens Wall. (Loc.-Banafsa or Dundi-
birali).

Stoloniferous herb with lilac flowers. Rawan-
shila, 3250 m. May 1978 (2766).

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Cerastium holosteoides Fries. (Loc.-Badyalu)
Herb with white flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m.
Aug. 1978 (2890).

Gypsophila cerastiodes D. Don

Spreading herb with purple streaked white
flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1977 (2709).
Lychnis nutans Benth.

Glandular herb with purple flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. July 1977 (2604).

L. pilosa Edgew.

Hairy herb, with solitary terminal purple
flowers on rocks. Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept.
1978 (2888).

Sagina saginoides (Linn.) Karsten

Small decumbent herb with white flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2889).

Stellaria alsine Grimm

Spreading herb with small green flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2843).

S. cherleriae (Fisch.) Williams

Densely tufted herb with small white flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1977 (2670).

S. patens D. Don

Decumbent herb with white flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2767).

HYPERICACEAE

Hypericum hookerianum W. & A.

Small shrub with golden yellow flowers. Daun,
3300 m. Aug. 1977 (2639).

H. nepaulense Choisy

Diffused herb with yellow flowers. Daun,
3300 m. July 1977 (2710).

GERANIACEAE

Geranium wallichianum Sw. (Loc.-Ratanjot) .
Spreading herb with pink purple flowers which
are streaked at the base. Tungnath, 3500 m.
Sept. 1977 (2643).

G. polyanthes Edgew. & Hook. f.

Herb with pink flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m.
Aug. 1978 (2768).

BALSAMINACEAE

Impatiens brachycentra Kar. & Kir. (Loc.-
Chaula)

Erect herb with pinkish white flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Sept. 1977 (2669).
I. roylei Walp.

Herb with light pink flowers.
3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2769).

Tungnath,

RUTACEAE

Skimmia leureola Sieb. & Zucc.
Glabrous aromatic shrub with yellow flowers.
Chakdhar, 3250 m. June 1978 (2770).

501

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

FABACEAE

Astragalus himalayanus Klotzsch
Hairy herb of alpine meadows;
3500 m. Oct. 1978 (2891).
Parochetus communis Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don
Herb with blue flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m.
Oct. 1978. (2680). eer :
Piptanthus nepalensis D. Don

Shrub with yellow flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m.
June 1977 Cit) a)

Tungnath,

ROSACEAE

Aruncus dioicus (Walter) Fern.
Erect herb with white flowers.
3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2820).
Cotoneaster acuminatus Lindl.
Shrub with white flowers and red oblong
fruits. Tungnath, 3500 m. July 1978 (2834).
C. microphyilus Wall. ex Lindl. (Loc.-Ruens)
Procumbent much branched shrub with white
flowers and red globose fruits. Tungnath,
3500 m. June 1977 (2719).
Fragaria daltoniana Gay.
kaphal)

Stoloniferous here with White solitary flower
and elongate ovoid bright scarlet fruit. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. July 1978 (2893).

F. vesca Linn. (Loc.-Gandakafal)

Herb with white flowers and sub-globose scar-
let fruit. Tungnath, 3500 m. July 1978 Ge
Geum elatum (Royle) Hook. f.

Herb with yellow flowers and much hairy
hooked seeds. Chandrashila, 3750:.m. July
1977 (2720). Hs

G. -urbanum Linn.

Herb with yellow flowers- aan renee ae
Chakdhar, 3250 m. July 1978 (2753).
Potentilla arbuscula D,. Don

Shrub with yellow flowers. oie 3500 m.
June 1977 (2721)... |

P. argyrophylla. Wall. ex Lehm.

Herb covered with soft silky white hairs and

Tungnath,

(Loc.-Kailashi-

502

yellow flowers.. Chandrashila; 3750 m. J une
1978 (2810).
P. atrosanguinea Lodd. |
Herb with dark crimson flowers.
3600 m. June 1977 (2715).

P. eriocarpa Wall. ex. Lehm.
Glabrous herb with yellow flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. Sept. 1977 (2671).

P. fulgens Wall. ex Hook. (Loc.-Bajradanti)

Tungnath,

Hairy herb with yellow flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. June 1977 (2716). ene a ey
P. gelida C. A. Mey. ri he
Spreading glandular aromatic herb with

yellow flowers. Rawanshila, 3430 m. ee 1978
(2802).

P. leuconota D. Don

Herb with subumbellate yellow flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. July 1978 (2752).

P. microphyila D. Don

Herb forming moss. like tufts with yellow
flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1977 (2713).
P. polyphylla Wall. ex Lehm.

Herb with yellow flowers. Tungnath, 3500 Aan
June 1978 (2718). |

Rosa sericea Lindl. (Loc. Safed Gulab)
Prickly shrub with white flowers and red fruits.
Tungnath, 3500 m. July 1978 (2837).

Rubus nutans Wall. (Loc.-Kailashi Hisar)
Herb with a woody rootstock, white flowers
and scarlet drupelets. Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug.
1978 (2751).

R. pedunculosus D. Don’ (Loc.-Hisar)

Large rambling prickly shrub with light pink
flowers and pink drupelets. fue gous
m. Aug. 1978 (2844). :

Sibbaldia cuneata Hornem. ex O. Ktze.
Procumbent herb with small pale yellow
flowers. Tungnath,’ 3500 m. June 1977 (2714).
S. micropetala (D.Don) Hand:-Mazz.. ~~ -~
Spreading herb with small yellow flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1977 (2712). —
Sorbus foliclosa (Wall.) Spach (Loc.-Thelaka)
Small tree with white flowers and red fruits.

ALPINE FLORA.OF TUNGNATH

Tungnath, 3500 m. July 1978 (2838).
Spiraea canescens D. Don (Loc.-Chhari)
Shrub. with white flowers. Tungnath, 3500. m.
June 1978 (2717).

S. bella Sims.

Shrub with pink flowers. Rawanshila, 3450 m.
June 1978 (2829).

S. vestita. Wall. ex 'G Don

Tall erect herb with white flowers and green
achenes. Zabrya, 3250 m. Aug.. 1978 (2750).

SAXIFRAGACEAE |

Astible rivularis Buch.-Ham.
Erect hairy herb with greenish-yellow flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. July 1978 (2895).
Bergenia stracheyi (Hook. f. & | fons)
Engl. (Loc.-Pakhan bhed) ~ ,
Procumbent glabrous herb with white flowers.
Chandrashila, 3750 m. July 1978 (2817).
Chrysosplenium tenellum Hook. f. & Thoms.
Annual procumbent glabrous herb with green
yellow: flowers. eee 3500 m. June 1978
(2806).

Parnassia affinis Hele f. & Thoms.

Small glabrous herb with white flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2611).

P. nubicola Wall. ex Royle

Herb with white solitary.. terminal flowers.
Chandrashila,. 3750 m. Aug. LOTT 2621).
Saxifraga brachypeda var. fimbriata (Wall.)
Engl. & Irmsch.. :

Small erect herb. in ‘spinulose eaves ond
golden yellow flowers. Tungnath. 3500 m.
mus, 1977 (2614). >. Shee ates ©
S. brunoniana Wall. ex Sternb. |
Tufted herb with yellow flowers.
3500 m. Aug. 1978. (2761).

S. diversifolia Wall. ex oe var. a Parnassitoli
(D. Don) Engl.

Erect’ herb™ with~ ‘yellow flowers.
3600 m. Aug. 1978 (2613). ©

Ne AS

Ten ay

ungnatht

S. filicaulis Wall. ex DC.

Small herb with yellow flowers.
3500 m.<Sept.- 1978 (2771).

S. hispidula D. Don

Small hispid herb with golden yéilow Rowers
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2762).

S. pallida Wall. ex. DC.

Small herb with white flowers. Tungnath, 3500
m. July 1977 (2603).

Tungnath,

_ GROSSULARIACEAE

Ribes glaciale Wall.
Trailing shrub with pink flowers. Tanenath’
3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2807).

CRASSULACEAE

Sedum linearifolium Royle

Glabrous herb with white flowers.
Tungnath, 4600 m. Sept. 1978 (2772).
S:. limearifolium var. sinuatum (Royle) R.
Hamet :
Glabrous herb with light pink flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2615). ©

S, quadrifidum Pall.

Tufted herb with dark pink flowers. Tt ung-
nath, 3500 m. June 1977 (2722).
Sempervivum acuminatum Decne.

Glabrous and fleshy herb with light Sree
rose flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m. Oct. 1977
(2686). He | SAGE UES

Above

ONAGRACEAE

Circaea imaicola eects et > oS -
Mazzeo 2)

Erect glabrous herb with white flowers. arig:
nath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2626).
Epilobium royleanum Hausskn.

Erect herb with “pink — flowers.
3500 m. BEDE: 1977 (2666).

Tungnath,

: _ APIACEAE.

Acronema tenera ‘Edgew. -
Small herb with oblong fruits which are nar-

503

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

rowed upwards. Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1977
(2609).

Angelica glauca Edgew. (Loc.-Chora)

Tall herb with white flowers. Tungnath, 3400
m. Aug. 1978 (2754).

Bupleurum longicaule Wall. ex DC.

Erect glabrous herb with blackish flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2618).
Chaerophylium acuminatum Lindl.

Hairy herb with oblong fruits narrowed at the
tip. Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1977 (2724).
Heracleum brunonis (DC.) C. B. Clarke
Hairy erect herb with white flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2628).

Osmorhiza aristata Makino & Yabe.

Erect herb with oblong fruits. Zabrya, 3250
m. Sept. 1978) (2755):
Pleurospermum densiflorum
Clarke (Loc.-Taggar)

Erect herb with white margined bracteoles
and ellipsoid fruits. Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept.
1978 (2617).

Salinum candollei DC. (Loc.-Moor)

Tall erect herb with white flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. Sept. 1977 (2629).

S. vaginatum C. B. Clarke (Loc.-Bhootkeshi)
Erect glabrous herb with white flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2756).

Trachydium roylei Lindl.

Small herb with white bracteoles and glisten-
ing blackish fruits. Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept.
1978 (2757).

Vicatia coniifolia DC.

Erect glabrous herb with ovoid fruits narrow-
ed at the apex. Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978
(2773).

(Lindl.) C. B.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE

Lonicera myrtillus Hook. f. & Thoms.
Procumbent shrub with white flowers and blue
ellipsoid berries. Tungnath, 3500 m. July 1978
(2840).

504

Viburnum foetens Decne.

Large shrub with white and light pink flowers
and red ovoid drupes. Tungnath, 3500 m.
May 1978 (2774).

RUBIACEAE

Galium asperuloides Edgew.

Glabrous herb with white flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2813).

G. mollugo Linn. (Loc.-Kura)

Rambling herb with minute white flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2775).

G. paucifiorum Bunge

Small herb with minute white flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. June 1978 (2847).

V ALERIANACEAE

Nardostachys jatamansi DC. (Loc.-Jatamansi
or Masi)

Aromatic herb with dull white flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2723).

Valeriana hardwickii Wall.

Erect herb with white flowers and hairy ache-
nes. Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2623).

DIPSACACEAE

Dipsacus mitis D. Don

Tall erect herb with white heads. Tungnath,
3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2777).
Morina longifolia Wall. ex DC. (Loc.-Kan-
dara)

Prickly herb with deep pink flowers, Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2818).
Triplostegia glandulifera Wall. ex DC.

Erect glandular herb with white flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Sept. 1977 (2667).

ASTERACEAE

Adenocaulon bicolor Hook. f.
Hairy erect herb with white flowers. Zabrya,
3250 m. Sept. 1978 (2781).

ALPINE FLORA OF TUNGNATH

Anaphalis contorta Hook. f. (Loc.-Buglya)
Erect woolly herb with small dense dirty-white
heads. Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2782).
A. cuneifolia Hook. f. (Loc.-Buglya)

Erect herb with black centred white heads.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2673).

A. royleana DC. (Loc.-Buglya)

Woolly herb with black centred white heads.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2645).
Brachyactis menthodora Benth.

Tall erect herb with pale blue flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2778).

Carpesium cernuum Linn.

Hairy erect herb with yellow drooping heads.
Chakdhar, 3250 m. Aug. 1978 (2779).
Circium verutum (D. Don) Spreng. (Loc.-
Kandaru).

Prickly erect herb with purplish white heads.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2780).
Cicerbita cyanea (D. Don) Beauv.

Erect herb with purplish heads and white
pappus. Zabrya, 3250 m. Sept. 1978 (2790).
C. macrorhiza (Royle) Beauv. (Loc.-Karhatu)
Glabrous herb on rocks with purple heads.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2789).

C. violaefolia (Decne.) Beauv. (Loc.-Karhatu)
Glabrous herb with purple heads and white
pappus. Tungnath, 3500 m. Oct. 1977 (2675).
Doronicum roylei DC.

Tall erect herb with yellow flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2646).

Erigeron alpinus var. multicaulis Hook. f.
Erect herb with purple flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2672).

Gerbera kunzeana Braun & Aschers.

Herb with long peduncled heads and pale
pappus. Tungnath, 3500 m. Oct. 1978 (2785).
G. lanuginosa Benth. (Loc.-Kabas)

Small herb with white solitary heads. Tung-
~nath, 3500 m. June 1978 (2783).

Jurinea macrocephala (DC.) C. B. Clarke
(Loc.-Bish Kandara)

Stemless herb with sessile purplish heads.

Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2819).
Leontopodium himaiayanum DC.

Tufted woolly herb with white flowers. Above
Tungnath, 4600 m. Sept. 1978 (2784).
Ligularia amplexicaulis DC. (Loc.-Kalank)
Robust herb with yellow corymbose heads.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2635).

L. arnicoides DC. (Loc.-Jarhil)

Tall erect herb with yellow drooping heads.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2791).
Myriactis nepalensis Less.

Erect slightly hispid herb with light purple
heads. Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1978 (2808).
M. wallichi Less.

Erect hairy herb with purplish brown heads.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2796).
Saussurea hypoleuca Spreng.

Erect herb with solitary globose dark purple
heads. Tungnath, 3500 m. Oct. 1977 (2682).
S. leontodontoides (DC.) Lipsch.

Stemless herb on rocks with purple heads.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Oct. 1977 (2683).

S. obvallata (DC.) Sch.-Bip. (Loc.-Brahm
kamal)

Aromatic herb with hemispherical black tip-
ped heads. Above Tungnath, 4600 m. Oct.
1978 (2786).

S. piptathera Edgew.

Erect herb with purple dense terminal corym-
bose heads. Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1978
(2787).

S. taraxacifolia Wall. ex DC.

Prostrate aromatic herb with purple heads.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1977 (2622 and
2684).

Senecio alatus Wall. ex DC.

Pubescent herb with dirty brown pappus.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2792).

S. chrysanthemoides DC.

Erect glabrous herb with yellow flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2633).

S. graciliflorus DC.

Tall glabrous herb with yellowish brown heads.

505

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIELY, Vol. 78

Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2793).

S. kunthianus Wall. ex DC.

Aromatic erect. herb with yellow flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2634).

S. levingii C. B. Clarke

Tall glabrous herb with yellowish brown heads.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2794).

S. rufinervis DC.

Robust herb with small brownish yellow heads.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2795).
Tanacetum longifolium Wall. ex DC. (Loc.-
Guggul)

Aromatic herb with yellow corymbose heads.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1977 (2661).
Taraxacum officinale Weber (Loc.-Karhatu)
Prostrate glabrous herb with yellow solitary
heads. Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1977 (2660).

CAMPANULACEAE

Campanula argyrotricha Wall. ex DC.
Procumbent hairy herb with sky blue flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Oct. 1977 (2678).
Cyananthus integer Wall. ex Benth.
Procumbent glabrous herb on rocks with
blue flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m. Oct. 1977
(2697).

C. lobatus Wall. ex Benth.

Decumbent herb with blue flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2616).

C. microphyllus Edgew.

Glabrous trailing herb with blue flowers.
Tungnath, 3500- m. Oct. 1977 (2677 and
2027)

ERICACEAE

Cassiope fastigiata D. Don

Tufted small shrub with drooping. white
flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m. June. 1977 (2725).
Gaultheria tricophyila Royle (Loc.-Bhuinla)
Prostrate small shrub with white flowers. and
blue berries. PURER ARS 3500 m. June wed
(2726). . a .

506

Rhododendron EEL NSE D.. Don (Loe:
Kodya) . | aes
Smail shrub with, ‘dul vailow denver Tone:
nath, 3500 m. June 1977 (2727).
RR. arboreum Sm. (Loc.-Burans).
Tree with red flowers. Tungnath,
June 1978 (2797).
R. parbatum Wall. ex.G. Don. —. ©
an with deep red flowers. Rawanshila, 3300
. June 1978 (2798).
= campanuiatum D. Don (Loc.-Simaru)
Small tree with light pink flowers. ‘Tungnath.
3500 m. June 1977 (2728).
kt. lepidotum Wall. ex G. Don
Shrub with dark pinkish-red flowers.
nath, 3500 m. June 1977 (2729).

3500 m.

Tung-

PRIMULACEAE

Lysimachia japonica Thunb.

Small herb with white flowers. Zabrya, 3250
m. June 1978 (2825).

L. prolifera Klatt.

Creeping herb with light pink flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2687).

Primula denticulata Sm.

Herb with dark purple to pale lilac flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. pu 1007, ee

P. peticlaris Wall.

Mealy herb with nae ‘flowers.
3500. m. May 1978 (2799).

P. reidii Duthie (Loc.-Hainsandari)
Herb, with solitary white flowers on rocks.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 Ce

Tangnath

OLEACEAE

Syringa said Wall. cx: Ga Don: ecw)
Small tree with. oblong” pointed tipped cap-
sules. Zabis 3250 m. Sept. 1978 —

GENTIANACEAE he eo

Gentiana argentea Royle ex D: ‘Dow aoc rrr
Small herb with blue ‘flowers.’ Tungnath,
3500. m..' June 1977:.(2731):.

ALPINE FLORA_OF TUNGNATH |

G. carinata Griseb. _

Herb with dense glabrous leaves and terminal
clustered blue flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m.
June 1977 (2824).

G. leucomelaena Maxim.

Prostrate herb with long exserting capsules.
Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1978 (2824).

G. stipitata Edgew.

Prostrate herb with_ greenish white flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Oct. 1977 (2679).

Swertia ciliata (G. pow) B.. kL. Burtt ioe
Chirayata)

Erect herb with purplish white flowers pink
at the base. Tungnath, 3500 m. Oct. 1977
(2674).

S. cuneata D. Don

Erect herb with light purple flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2631).

S. speciosa D. Don (Loc.-Chirayata).

Tall erect herb with greenish flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2632).

S. tetragona C. B. Clarke

Erect herb with whitish flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2853).

BORAGINACEAE
Cynoglossum wallichii G. Ee (Loc.-Lich-

kura)

Hairy herb with blue flowers. Tungnath, 3500
m. Aug. 1978 (2601).

Hackelia uncinata (Benth.).C.E.C. Fischer
Laxly hairy herb with dark blue and_ pink
flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2652).
Lindelofia longifiora (Benth.) Bail. ic
Hairy erect herb with dark blue and pink
flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m. AME: 1978 (2656).
Onosma emedi Wall.

Densely hairy herb with light bare apped
flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2854).

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Shae platyphylla Pennell -:
Small herb with white pink freaked POSS.

Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2619).
Kaiconeria himalaica Hook. f.

Decumbent glabrous herb, with blue flowers
on rocks. Tungnath, 3500 m. July 1977 (2688).
Hemiphragma heterophyllum Wall.

Prostrate diffused herb with dimorphic leaves,
rosy flowers and red fruits. Tungnath, 3500 m.
May 1978 (2826).

Pedicularis hofimeisteri Kioeechs
Glabrous herb with yellow flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2641).

P. porrecta Wall. ex Benth.
Decumbent glabrous herb with pink flower.
Tungnath, 3500 m. ee 1977 ee

P. gracilis Wall. -

Tall erect herb with rose purple flowers white
at the base. Tungnath, 3500 m. me 1978
(2640).

Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle ex Benth. (Loc.-
Katuki or Karui)

Spreading herb with bluish flowers and ine:
dery white seeds. Tungnath, 3500 m. June
1978 (2809). :
Scrophularia calycina Benth.

Glabrous tall erect herb with light green
flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m. July ts E880):
Veronica cana Wall.

Erect hairy herb with light blue flowers. Tune:
nath, 3500 m. July 1977 (2689).

¥Y. macrostemon Bunge ex Ledeb.

Hairy herb with terminal crowded subsessile
white flowered. racemes. Tungnath, 3500 m.
July 1978 (2647). cre eee,

OROBANCHACEAE

Boschniakia himalaica Hook.f. & Thoms. -
Parasite on Rhododendron campanulatum
with dense flowered ochreous brown racemes
and tuberous base. Rawanshila, 3250 m. June
1978 (2776).

507

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

LENTIBULARIACEAE

Utricularia orbiculata Wall.
Small herb with white flowers yellow at the
base. Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2620).

LAMIACEAE

Clinopodium umbrosum (M. Bieb.) Koch
Herb with purple flowers. Daun, 3250 m. Sept.
1977 (2659).

Elsholtzia strobilifera Benth.

Hairy aromatic herb with pale purple flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1977 (2668).
Phiomis bracteosa Royle ex Benth.

Tall stout herb with blue-purple flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2605).

Prunella vulgaris Linn.

Ascending herb with violet-purple flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2855).

Salvia hians Royle ex Hook.

Viscidly hairy tall erect herb with blue flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2630).

S. nubicola Sweet.

Viscidly hairy erect herb with yellow flowers.
Zabrya, 3250 m. Sept. 1978 (2856).
Teucrium royleanum Wall.

Hairy herb with purple flowers. Daun, 3250
m. Sept. 1978 (2857).

PLANTAGINACEAE

Plantago brachyphylla Edgew. (Loc.-Isabgul)
Glabrous rosette herb with oblong black seeds.
Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1978 (2832).

POLYGONACEAE

Oxyria digyna Hill (Loc.-Kailashi almorha)
Glabrous herb with green-pink flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Sept. 1977 (2665).

Polygonum affine D. Don

Herb with crowded red flowers. Above Tung-
nath, 4600 m. Sept. 1978 (2858).

508

P. alpinum All. (Loc.-Sarain).

Tall erect herb with white flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. Sept. 1977 (2663).

P. amplexicaule D. Don

Large glabrous herb with red flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. June 1977 (2733).

P. delicatulum Meissn.

Tufted glabrous herb with minute axillary
greenish flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug.
1977 (2644).

P. emodi Meissn.

Creeping glabrous herb with red flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. July 1977 (2607).

P. filicaule Wall. ex Meissn. (Loc.-Tufrya)
Slightly hairy herb with whitish and pink
flowers which are sometimes tinged pink.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2699).

P. macrophyllum D. Don (Loc.-Kukhri)
Erect herb with terminal red spikes. Tungnath
3500 m. July 1977 (2691).

P. nepalensis Meissn.

Glabrous herb with terminal greenish and
pink heads. Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977
(2637).

P. perpusillum Hook. f.

Small herb with pink flowers. Tungnath, 3500
m. July 1978 (2852).

P. rumicifolium Royle ex Bab. (Loc.-Kanthla)
Erect herb with dull pink flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. June 1978 (2841).

P. sinuatum Royle

Creeping glabrous herb with pink flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2636).

P. sphaerocephalum Wall. ex Meissn.
Creeping herb rooting at the nodes with white
flowers. Chakdhar, 3250 m. June 1977 (2692).
P. vaccinifolium Wall. ex Meissn .

Creeping woody shrub with rose-red flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1977 (2662).

P. viviparum Linn.

Herb with pink solitary erect spike lower por-
tion of which is replaced by bulbils. Tungnath,
3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2732).

ALPINE FLORA OF TUNGNATH

Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meissn. (Loc.-Dolya
or Archa)

Tall erect herb with white flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. June 1978 (2804).

R. moorcroftianum Royle

Tall erect herb with pinkish flowers. Above
Tungnath, 4200 m. Aug. 1978 (2859).
Rumex nepalensis Spreng. (Loc.-Khulya)
Erect herb with green flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. July 1978 (2860).

EUPHORBIACEAE

Euphorbia pilosa Linn. (Loc.-Daya)

Erect glabrous herb with yellow green flowers.
Chakdhar, 3250 m. June 1977 (2690).

E. stracheyi Boiss. (Loc.-Dudhya Bish)
Prostrate herb with yellow green flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1977 (2698).

URTICACEAE

Parietaria debilis Forst.

Straggling herb with minute greenish flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2861).

Pilea wightii Weddel var. roylei Hook. f.
Small creeping herb with minute pinkish
flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2842).

BETULACEAE

Betula utilis D. Don (Loc.-Bhooj or Bhoj-
patra)

Tree with peeling bark and hanging catkins.
Chandrashila, 3750 m. July 1978 (2862).

SALICACEAE

Salix lindleyana Wall. ex Anderss.

Prostrate creeping shrubby herb with green
yellow catkins. Tungnath, 3500 m. July 1977
(2738).

MONOCOTYLEDONS
ORCHIDACEAE

Cypripedium elegans Reichb. f.

Hairy, two leaved delicate herb with pink
solitary flower. Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1978
(2835).

Goodyera fusca Hook. f.

Herb with fleshy leaves and white flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Sept. 1977 (2664).

G. repens R. Br.

Glabrous herb with white flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. Sept. 1978 (2863).

Habenaria fallax King & Panitl.

Glabrous herb with greenish flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2655).

H. latilabris Hook. f.

Erect herb with green flowers. Daun, 3250 m.
Aug. 1978 (2864).

Herminium gramineum Lindl.

Herb with yellowish flowers. Tungnath, 3500
m. Aug. 1978 (2865).

Malaxis muscifera (Lindl.) O. Ktze.
Glabrous herb with minute yellowish green
flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1977 (2736).
Orchis chusua D. Don

Glabrous herb with purple flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. July 1977 (2610).

Q. latifolia Linn. (Loc.-Hathajorhi)

Erect herb with palmate tubers and purple
flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m. July 1977 (2735).
O. spathulata Reichb. f. ex Hook. f.
Glabrous herb with whitish purple flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1977 (2737).
Peristylus elisabethae (Duthie) P. F. Hunt
Small glabrous herb with white flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2866).

SCITAMINACEAE

Roscoea alpina Royle
Herb with dark purple flowers. Tungnath.
3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2867).

509

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. .HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

HAEMODORACEAE

Aletris nepalensis Hook. f.

Herb with white flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m.
Aug. 1978 (2868).

Ophiopogon intermedius D. Don

Glabrous herb with white drooping flowers.
Chakdhar, 3250 m. Aug. 1978 (2869).

IRIDACEAE

Iris kumaonensis Wall. ex G. Don — :
Glabrous herb with blue flowers. Chandra-
shila, 3750 m. July 1978 (2801). a

LILIACEAE

Allium stracheyi Baker (Loc.-Pharan)

Herb with white flowers. Tungnath, eee m.
Sept. 1978 (2870).

A. wallichii Kunth (Loc.-Lainka)

Tall herb with dark purple flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. Sept. 1977 (2657).

Clintonia udensis Trautv. var. alpina (Kunth
ex Baker) Hara

Glabrous herb with white flowers. Tungaath,
3500 m. June 1978 (2839). |
Fritillaria roylei Hook. :
Herb with yellow-green solitary flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. May 1977 (2744).

Gagea lutea Schultz. f. (Loc.-Naunya)
Delicate glabrous herb with yellow flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1977 (2743).
Lloydia alpina Salisb.

Herb with white flowers. Tungnath, 3500 m.
June 1977 (2740).

L. longiscapa Hook. f.

Herb with white flowers which are pink at the
base. Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1977 (2739).
Nomocharis nana (Kotzsch) E. H. Wilson
Herb on rocks with bluish-purple flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1978 (2850).
Polygonatum geminiflorum Decne.

Glabrous herb with white flowers. Tungnath,

5i0

3500 m.. June 1978 (2872).

P. verticillatum All.

Glabrous herb with dirty white flowers. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. June 1978 (2871).

Smilacina purpurea. Wail. ets

Stoloniferous herb with purple pink flowers.
Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1977 (2742),
Smilax elegans Wall.

Small. glabrous shrub with sreenish- white
flowers. Rawanshila, 3400 m. June 1978
(2828).

Trillium govanianum Wall. ex Royle

Herb with dark pink tepals and yellow sta-
mens. Below Pangea 3250 m. Maa el
(2741). : |

Ju NCACEAE

auncis, elena Royle ex D.Don, ..

Herb with white. flowers. Tungnath, +3500 m.
Aug. 1977 (2649).

J. himalensis Klotzsch & Garcke

Glabrous herb with dark brown flowers. Above
Tungnath, 4600 m. Sept. 1978 (2873).

J. membranaceus Royle ex D. Don
Glabrous herb with white flowers. Tungnath,
3500 m. July 1977 (2745). ~
Luzula multiflora (Retz) Lef.
Hairy herb with brown flowers.
3500 m. June 1978 (2830).

L. spicata DC.

Herb with dark brown flowers. Above Tung-
nath, 4600 m. Sept. 1978 (2874).

ARACEAE

-Tungnath,

Arisaema intermedium Blume

Erect herb with green white striped gee
Tungnath, 3500 m. July 1978 (2875).

A. jacquemontii Blume

Herb with green spathe. eee 3500 m.
June 1978. (2851). We |
A. wallichianum Hook. f. (Loc.-Meen):

Herb with dark purple white striped spathe.
Tungnath, 3500 m. June 1978 (2848).

\ “AEPINE FLORA OF TUNGNATH

CYPERACEAE

‘Carex inanis Kunth. a a
Grass with grey green teres: Tongnatt, 3500
m. June 1977 (2749).

c. setigera_ D. Don — : ae

Grass with ‘brownish spikes. “corece, 3500
m. June 1977 (2748). ,

Kobresia nitens C. B. Clarke

Grass-with greenish spikes. ‘Tungnath, 3500 m.
June 1977 (2746).

POACEAE

Agrostis canina Linn.

Grass with purple-green panicles.
3500 m. July 1977 (2642).

A. munroana Aitch. & Hemsl. 3
Grass with greenish spikes. Tungnath, 3500 m.
Aug. 1978 (2876).

A. pilosula Trin.

Grass with green panicles. Tungnath, 3500 m.
July 1978 (2654).

A. stolonifera Linn.

Erect grass with purplish spikelets. Tungnath,
3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2877).

Danthonia cachymeriana Jaub. & Spach. (Loc.-
Mamcha)

Densely tufted grass with light pale spikelets.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1977 (2651).
Deyeuxia pulchelia (Griseb.) Hook. f.
Tufted grass with dark purple-green spikelets.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2653).

D. scabrescens (Griseb.) Munro ex Duthie
Tall grass with light purple spikelets. Tung-
nath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2879).

Festuca gigantea Vill.

Loosely tufted grass with pale green spikelets.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2880).

F. kashmiriana Stapf

Tufted grass with green panicles. Tungnath,
3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2881).

Tungnath,

~F. rubra Linn.

Erect grass with two nodes and green spike-

lets. Tungnath, 3500 m, Aug. 1978 (2882).

F. valesiaca Schleich.

‘Tufted grass with ae green seine Tung-

nath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2883).

Helictotrichon virescens (Nees ex Steud.) Henr.
Tall erect slender grass with green spikelets.

Tungnath, 3500 m. coe 1977 (2650).

Poa alpina Linn..

Densely tufted grass with secre ponicles
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2884).

P. annua Linn.

Stoloniferous glabrous grass with green pani-
cles. Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 197 7(2696).
P. nepalensis Wall. ex Duthie

Erect grass with long pedicelled green spike-
lets. Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2885).
P. pagophila Bor

Grass on rocky slopes with long pedicelled
purple spikelets. Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978
(2886).

P. supina Schrad.

Erect glabrous herb with pale green spikelets.
Tungnath, 3500 m. Aug. 1978 (2887).
Trisetum clarkei (Hook. f.) R. R. Stew.
Tall erect slender grass with shining green
spikelets. Tungnath, 3500 m. Oct. 1977
(2685).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. A. N. Purohit for
providing all the facilities and encourage-
ment. Grateful thanks are also due to the
authorities of the Botanical Survey of India,
Northern Circle, Dehra Dun for providing
necessary help in identification. We also ac-
knowledge Mr. B. P. Nautiyal’s help during
collection. This work was supported by a
grant from Department of Science and Tech-
nology, (SERC), Govt. of India.

O11

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

REFERENCES

BURKILL, I. H. (1965): Chapters on the History
of Botany in India. Botanical Survey of India,
Calcutta.

DuTHIE, J. F. (1906): Catalogue of the plants
of Kumaon and of the adjacent portion of Garhwal
and Tibet, based on the collections made by Stra-
chey and Winterbottom during the years 1846-1849
and on the catalogue originally prepared in 1852.
London.

HUTCHINSON, J. (1959): The Families of Flo-
wering Plants. Oxford.

512

Rau, M. A. (1961): Flowering Plants and Ferns
of North Garhwal, Uttar Pradesh, India. Bull. Bot.
Surv. Ind. 3: 215-51.

(1975): High Altitude Flowering
Plants of West Himalaya. Botanical Survey of India,
Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah-3.

SMYTHE, F. S. (1932): Kamet conquered. Lon-
don.

(1938): The Valley of Flowers.

London.

THE FOOD HABITS OF THE INDIAN HARE, LEPUS
NIGRICOLLIS, IN CHATRI FOREST, AMRAVATI,
MAHARASHTRA*

J. H. SABNIS?

This study has attempted to ascertain the food of the Indian Hare by an examination
of its faecal pellets collected in a square kilometre in the Chatri forest near Amravati,
Maharashtra. 73.34% of the food has been found to consist of various grasses and
the rest of other plants, all with a high moisture content.

INTRODUCTION

In the wild, it is very difficult to determine
the food of herbivores except by watching and/
or killing them. One important and relatively
unworked method in India is by faecal ana-
lysis (Koppikar and Sabnis 1976, 1979).
Although the hare has been a part of the
Indian countryside for hundreds of years and
has been known to compete for food with
domestic stock and wild herbivores, the in-
fluence which they exert on vegetation has
received scant attention. The need for study-
ing the eco-biology of wild herbivores in gene-
ral and the hare Lepus nigricollis in particular
prompted me to undertake this investigation
of the food spectrum and its habitat on the
basis of epidermal remains of plants found
in its faeces. This paper presents data on the
food preferences and the relation of their
abundance or otherwise with the population
of the animal.

METHODS

The study was commenced in October 1978
in the Chatri forest and continued upto June
1979. Five trips per month, 45 in all, were

1 Accepted March 1980.
2 Department of Zoology, Vidarbha Mahavidya-
laya, Amravati, 444604, India.

made at approximate intervals of about a
week, and fresh samples collected over an
area of one square kilometre.

The plants occurring in the area were collect-
ed and identified. A set of illustrations show-
ing the structural pattern of the epidermis of
each kind of leaf was prepared by peeling the
surface and mounting on slides in glycerine.
The structural peculiarities of the epidermis
were drawn with a camera lucida. From each
set of droppings, five pellets were soaked in
water for 2 days, allowed to disintegrate and
then thoroughly mixed. The epidermal remains
were teased out and mounted on temporary
glycerine slides and then compared and match-
ed with the illustrations by microscopic exa-
mination. The plant remains in 25 sets of
droppings were examined and identified each
month and used for calculating the monthly
percentage of the different species consumed.

At approximately monthly intervals, five
pasture samples were cut to ground level,
weighed on a spring balance and then sorted
by hand into component species in the labo-
ratory. Each plant species was then weighed
and dried in an oven for determining its water
content.

OBSERVATIONS
Physiography. The study area in the Chatri

forest near Amravati, Maharashtra State,

513

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

(20°56’N. 77°47’E.) has on its eastern side
a hilly tract of reserved and open forest rising
above c 400 m. Chatri forest and the area
studied form the westward slope of these hills.

with an elevation between 350 to 400 m. The ;

climatic conditions are uniform throughout the
year. The average rainfall is 653 mm per year.
The minimum and maximum _ temperatures
fluctuate between 10°C and 20°C during
winter and 35°C and 45°C during summer.
Vegetation. The habitat is a degraded dry
decavous forest due to biotic or bio-edaphic

leana, Setaria tomentosa, Cynodon dactylon
and Aristida adscensionis.

1) Production of pasture’ = = >

The procedure is detailed under ‘Methods’
above and an attempt was made to study the
plots nautrally grazed upon by wild and dome-
stic animals. The dry weight of the pasture
was ascertained to compare the amount of
pasture available at different times but no

attempt was made to calculate the sustaining

capacity of the habitat. No sample area was
used a second time. The data in | Table I re-

TABLE I

WEIGHT (IN GM) OF PASTURE IN- SAMPLE AREAS (60x60 CM)-~ GRAZED UPON BY HARE- AND CATTLE

Condition of Habitat Oct. Nov. Dec.
(Moderately) grazed 290 250 235
Medium grazed 256 135 125
Over-grazed 10° © 48 30°

Jan) Eeb. Mari “Apr May Jun.
25° 930, 2 eS lose ete
125° (P45 LS My PGE’ Siggol mont cola kawiaG

49 35. 5c 71 22 27

interferences. (This feature is characteristic of
Chatri hare habitat). The hills in general
appear barren but a few areas have patchy
vegetation. There is comparatively thicker
forest on the eastern side.
' Dry deciduous scrub forests is available at
the base of the hillocks, where there is intense
grazing by wild and domestic animals, and
which has resulted in deciduous shrub. The
permanent species are Acacia leucophloea, A.
catechu, Zizyphus jujuba, Mimosa hamata,
Gymnosporia montana, Butea monosperma
and Lantana camara.
The common ephemeral species are repre-
sented by Triumfetta rhomboidea, Solanum
xanthocarpum, Heylandia latebrosa, Indigofera
linifolia, Ludwigia parviflora, Tridax’ procum-
bens, Euphorbia pulcherrima, Crotalaria hir-
suta, Justicia simplex, Ocimum canum, Atylo-
sia scarabaeoides, Enicostema littorale, Vicoa
auriculata, and Cassia tora.

The grasses are represented Iseilema anthe-
phorides, Ischaemum pilosum, Digitaria roy-

514

presents the total weight of plant cover on the
ground sampled. 7
ii) Water content of palatable. plants

The differences in the water content of the
different plants had considerable influence on
their palatability for the hare. Table II lists
the seasonal variations in water content of the
plants grazed upon. The water content of some
plants falls below 60% in late winter and sum-
mer (March to June) when it appears from
data available. that it is insufficient, and
prompts the hare to change its food.

In summer, this leads to an -active search
for anything green (and at this time almost
anything that was green was eaten) and the
summer grasses were subject to severe grazing
pressure. This behaviour is supported by pre-
sence of fresh faecal matter being largely
located on the banks of the dry streams, which
held patches of green grass.

The number of droppings varies in. different
months and. ‘suggests that. it may be. due to
changes in population numbers caused by local

FOOD HABITS OF THE INDIAN HARE

“TABLE IT
ee ey ae PERCENTAGE OF WATER CONTENT OF PALATABLE PLANT
nee nected 3 : Oct. mon wn DEE: omc nn Feb. : Mar. Apr. May Jun.
Iseilema anthe phorides 68.42 65.35. 66.49 63.68 65.35 = $4.37 54.38 — —
Ischaemum pilosum _. 82.76 78.84 78.55 64.46 66.73 55.35 53:58.) 2 52.58. 50.62
Cynodon dactylon - 60.83 58.68 65.67 62.37 56.69 55.85 54.37 58.33 62.67
Heylandia latebrosa ..- 82.57 75.65 66.33 59.66 — — —_— | os ==
Euphorbia pulcherrima .. 85.50 79.35 76.54 78.39 75.65 72.58 72.33 68.69 64.33
Indigofera linifolia . 66.38 63.87 63.45 62.31 62.16 61.33 60.19 60.35 58.89
Ludwigia parviflora — aes — — VAP 68.18 66.29 . 62.33 60.87
75.49 75.15 58.66

Sonchus arvensis : 89.79 74.19
migration. Fresh faecal ’ pellets which glisten
because of a mucus covering are olive green.
They turn to black in a week’s time and older
ones are bleached to' pale grey or almost
white. Each set consisted of 11 to 30 pellets
and comparison with rectal pellets taken in
freshly killed animals confirmed that the rec-
tum is fully evacuated in every single defae-
cation. The presence of more than one set of
fresh droppings in small area therefore indi-

cates the presence of more than one individual.

The. droppings of the, young can be separated
by their smaller size—adults 1.3 cm in length
and 395 mg in weight, cf. 3 mm and 75 mg
in the young .

73.38

72.72 68.71 58.26

is no clear-cut breeding season, and young may
be found throughout the year. Mr. H. Abdu-
lali (Pers. Comm.) confirms that in. his ex-
perience he has seen pregnant females shot
during December to March.
Food: |

Table IV reveals the variety of plants eaten
by the hare. A few species of grass are the
most constant food of the hare, and were found
in 77.34 per cent of the faeces examined. The
occurrence of their own hair is no doubt due
to their constant habit of licking and cleaning
their body.

Immediately after the monsoon, the period

- October to December is rich in food for the

TABLE Il

MONTHLY POPULATION

IN PERCENTAGE. OF ADULT AND YOUNG ANIMALS ON BASIS OF PELLET SIZE

© Oct.

Adult 62.66 50 62.05
Young S78 4y 50) 37.05

Feb.

Mar. , Apr. May Jun.
53.13 75.13 68.00 68.79 70.28 62.05
46.87 24.83 32.00 31.21 29.72 37.05

From Table HI it will be noted that the
number of young (estimated on the proportion
of small droppings). increases from 37.84 in
October to 46.87 in January but then drops to
29. 72 in May. The Wild Animals (Protection)
‘Act, 1971 in Maharashtra ‘protected the hare
along with other Small Game from Ist April
to 30th September, but it is evident that there

hare, and vegetation is still in the growing
state. Not all the plants in the environment
were found in the faeces. The predominant
grass species are Iseilema anthephorides, Is-
chaemum pilosum, Digitaria royleana. Other
plants grazed upon are Heylandia latebrosa,
Indigofera linifolia and Cynthocline lyrata.
Species observed to have been grazed by hare

S15

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

TABLE IV

FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF DIFFERENT ITEMS IN THE FAECES OF 225 HARE, Ocr.-MAY

aS RI SS ed

Species Frequency in faeces %
A Grass, all species 77.34
Iseilema anthephorides 50.00
Digitaria royleana 20.00
Ischaemum_ pilosum 50.00
Setaria tomentosa 16.66
Aristida adscensionis 6.66
Cynodon dactylon 36.66
B Other Plants 22.66
Heylandia latebrosa 26.66
Indigofera linifolia 55.00
Cynthocline lyrata 50.00
Ludwigia parviflora . 35.00
Sonchus arvensis 10.00
Euphorbia pulcherrima 28.33
Tridax procumbens 36.66
Zizyphus jujuba seed 18.33
Hairs of hare 38.33
TABLE V

SEASONAL VARIATION IN PERCENTAGE OF FOOD PLANTS BASED ON FAECAL ANALYSIS (25 SETS PER MONTH)

Food Items Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June
Grass
Iseilema
anthephorides 100 85.71 71.43 100 62.05 40 — - 12.05 —_
Ischaemum pilosum 71.42 57.14 57.14 75 37.05 20 DOE — —
Digitaria royleana 57.14 42.85 42.85 25 50 — 11.11 62.05 —_—
Setaria tomentosa — — oe —_ = — 33.33 37.05 12.50
Cynodon dactylon — — a — — — 66.66 62.05 62.50
Aristida adscensionis — a — — 37.05 20 — _ _
Other plants
Heylandia latebrosa 57.14 71.42 71.43 — — — — — _—
Indigofera _linifolia 42.85 57.44 57.14 715 62.05 60 55.55 50 50
Cyathocline lyrata 28.56 42.85 28.57 75 50 60 DE 2e 75 62.05
Ludwigia parviflora — — —_ — 50 80 33.33 — 75
Sonchus arvensis — ~ — 50 37.50 20 — 50 _
Euphorbia pulcherrima — _— — 50 — 60 44.44 50 50
Tridax procumbens — — 57.14 50 37.50 25 33.35 50 52.05
Zizyphus jujuba seed — a — 75 50 50 —_ — —e
Hairs of hare 28.56 37.05 42.85 25 25 40 44.44 37.05 37.50

516

FOOD HABITS OF THE INDIAN HARE

during the period of investigation from Octo-
ber to June are given in Table V. The food
preference is more or less similar for the winter
months.

The summer is the driest and most critical
period. The entire terrain goes dry. The hare
has to travel long distances in search of green
food. The patchy green grassy vegetation is
now available only on the banks of dry streams
intermittently at distances of 100 to 500 metres.

The predominant summer grass is Cynodon
dactylon, and the plants Euphorbia pulcher-
rima, Ludwigia parviflora, Indigofera linifolia,
and Tridax procumbens are now largely con-
sumed. The importance of availability appears
to be illustrated in the seasonal variations in
the kind of plants consumed by them.

DISCUSSION

It is usually more satisfactory to measure
in one specimen the percentage volume of each
food item against the total content (McAtee
1912). This procedure has the advantage of
showing accurately what an animal has ingest-
ed but the disadvantage that the animal must
usually be killed, thus the information obtain-
ed is about only one meal or part of meal.
Nevertheless considerable information on the
food habits of animals has been obtained in
this manner (Henderson 1927, McAtee 1912,
Davison 1940, Indurkar and Sabnis 1976, and
Sabnis and Kolhatkar 1977).

There are usually indigestible parts in all
kinds of food and these indigestible or un-
digested parts are eliminated from the body.
The contents of faecal droppings or regurgi-
lated pellets can be identified by differences in
shape, size, colour or histological and hair

structure (Dusi 1949, Koppikar and Sabnis
1977).

The droppings must as far as possible be
collected fresh as they quickly disintegrate in
wet weather. However as far as plant tissue
remains are concerned these do not offer any
such difficulty. A considerable advantage of
pellet analysis is the possibility of a continuous
diet analysis of the same animal or species
through long periods of time without disturb-
ance to its normal behaviour (Dalk 1935,
Errington 1932, and Koppikar and _ Sabnis
1979). Among methods so far described above
the faecal analysis is best suited for food
studies of species which it is not desired to
kill in large numbers.

The present study carried out over a short
period does not claim to establish the quanti-
ties or overall food of the hare, but it is hoped
that the data indicating seasonal preferences
of vegetable food will assist further studies
of this and other herbivores which have been
sadly neglected in this country.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

I express my thanks to Mr. B. L. Kolhatkar
for his help during field work. I am especially
grateful to the Bombay Natural History So-
ciety for providing a research grant from
Charles McCann Field study fund for under-
taking the present project. I am thankful to
Mr. Humayun Adulali for suggesting the pro-
ject and for critical assessment of the report
during its preparation, and to Mr. S. A. R.
Quadri, Head of the Zoology Department for
providing me with the necessary facilities. I
am also thankful to Principal Dr. G. S. Bedag-
kar for his keen interest in the project.

517

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

REFERENCES

Dak, P. D. (1935): Droppings analysis and
indication of pheasant food habits. Tran. Zist. Amer.
Game Conf. pp. 387-391.

Davison, V. E. (1940): A field method of ana-
lysing game bird food. J. wild. Man. 4; 105-116.

Dus1, J. (1949): Methods for the determination
of food habit by plant microtechnique and histology
and their application to Cotton tail Rabbit food
habits. J. Wild Man. 13: 295-298.

ERINGTON, P. L. (1932): Technique of raptor
food habits study. Condor, 34: 75-86.

HartT.Ley, V. L. (1948): The Assessment of the
food of birds. Bull. Illinois St. lab. Nat. Hist. 7:
195-272.

HENDERSON, J. (1927): Practical value of Birds.
The MacMillion Co., New York.

INDURKAR, S. S. & SABNIS, J. H. (1976): Obser-
vations on the dietary components of garden lizard

518

Calotes versicolor (Daud.). Comp. Physiol. Ecol.
I, 9-12.

KopPiKAR, B. R. & SABNis, J. H. (1976): Identi-
fication of hairs of some Indian Mammals. J. Bom-
bay nat. Hist. Soc. 73: 5-20.

(1977): Further studies on the
identification of hairs of some Indian Mammals. ibid.
74: 50-59.

(1979): Faecal hair remains serves
as evidence for determination of food habit of
Tiger Panthera tigris. International Symposium on
Tiger. Feb. 1979 New Delhi. ee Oley

McATEE, W. L. (1912): Methods of estimating
the contents of bird stomachs. Auk. 29: 249-464.

SABNIS, J. H. & KOLHATKAR, B. L. (1977): Ob-
servations on the food preference of Rana cyanophly-
ctis tadpole. Comp. physiol. Ecol. 2 (4): 232-233).

TEACHING OF BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE
THROUGH PRACTICAL APPLICATION—AN
URGENT NEED’

A. N. HENRY AND M. CHANDRABOSE?

Teaching of Botanical Nomenclature is carried out in several Universities of India
through a few lectures that are mostly historical in view point, as opposed to practi-
cal. It is suggested that a very effective way of training botanical students in nomen-
clature is by the ‘case method’ of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.
Solutions including process and investigation of three sample nomenclature cases are

given in this paper.

Systematic Botany or Systematics embraces
the whole field of systematic work and is
broadly divisible into two parts: Taxonomy
deals with the placement of an individual plant
into a taxonomic group or taxon, and the
assignment of the taxon into the general sys-
tem of classification which is, of course, phy-
logenetic in nature; and Nomenclature deals
with the determination or selection of the cor-
rect name to be applied to a known taxon in
conformity with the International Code of
Botanical Nomenclature. Systematic work is
correctly and fully done only when both these
steps or stages (viz. taxonomic and nomencla-
tural) are properly carried out. Nomenclature
thus forms an inseparable and important part
of Systematic Botany. Undoubtedly, nomen-
clature serves taxonomy.

- The International Code of Botanical Nomen-
clature, is derived mainly from the Laws of
Botanical Nomenclature proposed by Alphonse
de Candolle in 1867. These laws, in their turn,
are mainly based on the various aphorisms
and pronouncements clearly stated by Linna-
eus in his Fundamenta Botanica (1736) and
explained in great detail in Critica Botanica
(1737). The text of the current edition of the

a Accepted November 1979.
2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641002.

“Code” (Stafleu et al. 1978) is based upon
the decisions reached by the Nomenclature
Section of the Twelfth International Botanical
Congress held in Leningrad from 3rd to 10th
July, 1975. It is the product of the intense
study by specialists in the field of botanical
nomenclature, who for nearly a century have
been studying the problems connected with
the naming of plants. In various botanical con-
gresses held generally at an interval of about
five years, every effort was made to make the
system work satisfactory in all respects and
to secure a stable and uniform system of plant
nomenclature by way of suitable amendments
to the Code, including amendments in the list
of nomina conservanda which are often the
result of considerable dedication and labori-
ous bibliographic research.

In various floras of India published up to
the early part of 20th century, much attention
was not paid to the selection of the correct
names of plants. Relevant synonymy was also
invariably omitted. These have caused much
confusion in the identity and nomenclature of
several common Indian plants. A _ break-
through in floristic research in India was notic-
ed in 1953 when Santapau published his FLORA
OF KHANDALA ON THE WESTERN GHATS OF
INDIA adopting the correct identity and nomen-
clature of the plants treated therein and also

519

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

by citing relevant synonymy. Several regional/
district floras of India published since then,
have followed suit. The plant names given in
these floras no doubt vary considerably from
the old floras. The majority of the recent
name changes of Indian plants are due to
strict application of the International Code of
Botanical Nomenclature, while others are either
due to the better understanding of the identity
of the plant or even to the proper judgement
of the taxonomic status of the species. Hence
identity and nomenclature are equally import-
ant and they should go side by side in fixing
the correct names of plants.

Santapau (1965) stressed that the “‘Code”’
should be included in the curriculum of at-
least such post-graduate students who take up
any of the branches of plant systematics for
their special study. It is gratifying to note that
in recent times it has gained increased recog-
nition and this is reflected by a large num-
ber of colleges and universities in India that
include it in their syllabi. Normally taxonomic
part is taught at length by lectures, laboratory
work and on field excursions; but nomencla-
ture is usually covered briefly in a few lectures
that are mostly historical in view point, as
opposed to practical. These lectures, no doubt,
are of value, but the student does not gain
a detailed knowledge of the laws of the Code,
and this creates difficulty for him to follow
the nomenclatural/taxonomic synonymy given
in recent floras/monographs and to arrive at
the correct names of plants. While naming the
plants, he still uses the incorrect names given
in the old out-dated floras. Hence a very
effective way of training botanical students in
nomenclature is by the case method of the
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.
Harold St. John, as early as 1958, stressed
this aspect in his “Nomenclature of Plants’’.
Each student should be able to investigate and
evaluate the validity of the publication cited,

520

search for synonymy in classical books/litera-
ture and for pertinent facts such as basionyms,
homonyms, tautonyms and to understand the
terms often used such as comb. nov. and nom.
nov.

Solutions including process and investigation
of three sample nomenclature cases are given
below:

Ophioxylon serpentinum Linn. Sp. Pl. 1043.
L753:

Ophioxylon trifoliatum Gaertn. Fruct. Sem.

Ps To
Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth. ex
Kurz; For: (Fl Burma 2:90 712 1877:

The earliest of these names is Ophioxylon
serpentinum which is found in Linnaeus’ Spe-
cies Plantarum—1753. There on page 1043
Linneaeus validly published this name (accord-
ing to Art. 32 to 45 of the International Code
of Botanical Nomenclature). Further, accord-
ing to Art. 13, valid publication of names for
Spermatophyta and Pteridophyta, begins from
Ist May, 1753 (Linnaeus, Species Plantarum
ed. 1.). In Linnaeus’ Species Plantarum the
placing of the epithet in the margin opposite
the name of the genus clearly indicates the
combination intended (Art. 33). Bentham (in
Genera Plantarum 2: 697. 1876) appears to
have been the first in uniting Ophioxylon Linn.
(Sp. Pl. 1043. 1753; Gen. PI. ed. 5. 467. 1754)
and Rauvolfia Linn. (Sp. Pl. 208. 1753; Gen.
Pl. ed. 5. 98. 1754), after adequate compre-
hension of the generic characteristics of both
the genera. The issue is of course a taxono-
mic one. He adopted the name Rauvolfia for
the combined genus and this name is accord-
ingly to be retained (Art. 57.2). Bentham did
not really effect the transfer of the species
Ophioxylon serpentinum Linn. to Rauvolfia.

Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth. ex
Kurz was a combination based on the oldest
epithet-bringing synonym (basionym)—Oph-
ioxylon serpentinum Linn. (Art. 33.2.). When

TEACHING OF BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE

a species is transferred to another genus but
retains its epithet the author of the basionym
(who published this as a legitimate name)
must be cited in parentheses, followed by the
author who effected the combination (Art. 49).
Kurz in his Forest Flora Burma 2: 171. 1877
first validly published the combination by
directly giving reference to the basionym, but
ascribed it to Bentham. According to recom-
mendation 46C. I, the correct author citation
is the name of the publishing author (Kurz),
but the name of the other person followed by
the connecting word ex may be inserted be-
fore the name of the publishing author, if de-
sired (i.e. Benth. ex Kurz).

Another question of some concern is the
orthography of the generic name. Plumier
followed by Linnaeus consistently used the
Latin version of Rauwolf’s name and named
the genus as Rauvolfia. But Willdenow in his
Species Plantarum and following him several
others including authors of Indian floras spelt
the generic name as Rauwolfia. However, ac-
cording to Art. 73, the original spelling of Lin-
naeus (intentional latinisation of Rauwolf’s
name) viz. Rauvolfia is to be preserved.

In 1791, Gaertner (Fruct. Sem. Pl. 2: 123)
validly published the name—Ophioxylon tri-
foliatum. However, this name became super-
fluous (Art. 63), as Gaertner’s plant already
had an earlier, validly published name—O.
serpentinum Linn. (1753).

Hence, the correct name of ‘Sarpagandha’
is Rauvolfia serpentina (Linn.) Benth. ex
Kurz.

Another case involving both identity and
nomenclature is discussed below:

Entada pursaetha DC. Prodr. 2: 425. 1825.

Mimosa entada Linn. Sp. Pl. 518. 1753.

Entada rheedii Spreng. Syst. 2: 325. 1825.

Entada monostachya DC. Prodr. 2: 425.

1825.
Entada scandens auct.

non Benth. 1841;

Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras 417. 1919.

Most of the earlier Indian floras report the
occurrence of Entada scandens (Linn.) Benth.
in India. However, recent critical studies under-
taken by way of ‘type method’ have revealed
that the true Entada scandens (Linn.) Benth.
which is synonymous to Entada phaseoloides
(Linn.) Merrill does not occur in India, but
is found only in Amboina in the Moluccas;
and the correct identity of the common £n-
tada occurring in India should be Entada pur-
saetha DC.

Now investigation of the nomenclature case
reveals:

The earliest of these names is Mimosa en-
tada which was validly published in Linnaeus’
Species Plantarum p. 518. 1753. Augustin de
Candolle (1825) while transferring this spe-
cies to the genus Entada, could not retain the
specific epithet “‘entada’’ as the resulting
binary name ‘“‘Entada entada’ is a tautonym
which is inadmissible according to Art. 23.
Hence he proposed a new name Entada mono-
stachya DC. (in his Prodr. 2: 425). The three
competing names for this species in the genus
Entada viz. E. pursaetha DC., F. rheedii
Spreng. and EF. monostachya DC. all date from
1825. Brenan (Kew Buil. 1955: 164. 1955)
appears to have been the first to unite all the
above three species; he adopted the name
Entada pursaetha DC. for the combined spe-
cies, and this name is accordingly to be re-
tained (Art. 57.2).

Now regarding the citation of the misap-
plied name: according to Recommendation
50D.1, the name EF. scandens as a misidentifi-
cation should not be included in the synonymy
of FE. pursaetha but added after it. Further,
the misapplied name, i.e. Entada scandens
should be indicated by the words auct. non
followed by the name of the original author
(Benth.) and the bibliographical reference of
the misidentification, i.e. reference to Gamble,

521

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Veil. 78

Fi. Pres. Madras or any other floras as the
case may be which have misidentified the
plant.

The correct identity and nomenclature of
the common Indian species of Entada is, there-
fore determined as Entada pursaetha DC.

Another nomenclature case involving the
proper judgement of the taxonomic status of
two genera is given below:

In most of the older floras, the genera Abel-
moschus Medicus, Malv. 46. 1787 and Hibis-
cus Linn. Sp: PI. 693. 1753; Geni: Ply ed 5:
310. 1754 are treated as congeneric (i.e. syn-
onymous). However, K. Schumann (in Eng-
ler & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. 3(6): 47.
1895) and following him several monographers
treated them as distinct based mostly on the
nature of the calyx: spathaceous, irregularly
2 to 3-lobed and caducous in Abelmoschus;
and campanulate, cupular, regularly 5-lobed
or truncate with minute teeth, and persistent
in Hibiscus.

Consequently several species of Hibiscus in-
cluding H. esculentus Linn. were transferred
to genus Abelmoschus:

Abelmoschus esculentus (Linn.) Moench,

Meth. Pl. 617. 1794.
Hibiscus esculentus Linn. Sp. Pl. 696. 1753.
Hibiscus longifolius Willd. Sp. Pl. 3: 827.
1800.

Abelmoschus esculentus (Linn.) Moench
was a combination based on the oldest epithet-
bringing synonym (basionym)—Hibiscus escu-
lentus Linn. (Art. 33.2). Moench in his Me-
thodus Plantas (1794) first validly published
the combination by directly giving reference
to the basionym. The author of the basionym
is cited in parantheses, followed by the author

522

who effected the combination (Art. 49). —

In 1800, Willdenow (Sp. Pl. 3: 827) validly
published the name Hibiscus longifolius. How-
ever, this name became superfluous (Art. 63)
as Willdenow’s plant already had a prior vali-
dly published name—H. esculentus Linn.
(1753). 3

Hence the correct name of ‘bhindi’ is Abel-
moschus esculentus (Linn.) Moench. ri

The solutions of even these simple nomen-
clature cases bring the student in contact: with
several of the fundamental botanical publica-
tions. The correct interpretation depends on
an understanding of the principles of priority,
synonymy, regulation governing the binominal
system, and other concerned Articles and Re-
commendations of the International Code of
Botanical Nomenclature. Several other cases
can be digested and solved in a similar way
and certainly the study will aid in giving the
student a sounder training in Botany. Only
after investigation and evaluation of a few
cases, he evinces interest in comparing the old
and recent floras for name changes and in
course of time will be able to fix for himself
the correct identity and nomenclature of the
common local plants in conformity with the
rules of the International Code of Botanical
Nomenclature.

It may be stated that name changes are an-
noying to ecologists, foresters, economic bota-
nists and other plant users including teachers
of Botany, who feel that the names ought to
be stabilised. Stabilization is not fixation:
stabilization should be achieved only through
the application of the International Code of
Botanical Nomenclature.

TEACHING OF BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE
REFERENCES

SANTAPAU, H. (1965): The International Code of New York.
Botanical Nomenclature. Sci. Cult. 31: 456-467. STAFLEU, F. A. et al. (1978): International Code
(1967): The Flora of Khandala on of Botanical Nomenclature. Utrecht—-Netherlands.
the Western Ghats of India. Rec. bot. Surv. India SUBRAMANYAM, K. (1968): Identity and Nomen-
ed. 3, 16 (1): 1-372. : clature of some South Indian Medicinal Plants.
JoHN, H. St. (1958): Nomenclature of Plants. Indian Drugs & Pharm. Indus. July-Aug.

523

SOME FRESH-WATER OLIGOCHAETA FROM
BOMBAY CITY AND ENVIRONS:

K. VANAMALA Nambu? & K. ABHINENDER NAIDU?

(With fifty-eight text-figures)

INTRODUCTION

Stephenson (1923) has listed the known
species of oligochaetes from the nine regions
of the Indian sub-continent, in which the
Western region, comprising of Goa to Cutch,
the ghats to the sea has only 5 species of fresh-
water oligochaetes known, all belonging to
family Naididae. The other eight regions have
the following number of species of fresh-water
oligochaetes noted against them.

Sri Lanka, while in three other regions, viz.

Indo-Gangetic Plain it had increased from 19

to 22 species, Burma, Andaman and Nicobar

from 4 to 6 species, and Southern Region from

7 to 51 species.

The fresh-water oligochaetes known from

the Western Region at present are:

1. Chaetogaster langi Bretscher, 1896 from
Satara

2. Chaetogaster limnaei bengalensis Anna-
dale, 1905 from Khandala

North Western Territory
North Eastern Frontier Region
Western Himalaya Region
Indo-gangetic Plain

Burma, Andaman & Nicobar
Main Peninsular Area
Southern Region

Sri Lanka (Ceylon)

PEs IT TT PS + ET

OANA N PWN

Naidu (1961 and 1966) tabulated the fresh-
water oligochaetes then known to the above
nine regions, in which no additions were ob-
served in respect of N.W. Territory, Western
Himalayan Region, N.E. Frontier Region,
Main Peninsular Area, Western Region and

1 Accepted July 1979.

2Government College, Chittoor-517 002.

3 Department of Zoology, Sri Venkateswara Uni-
versity, Tirupati-517502.

524

Aeolos- Naidiade Tubific ae Total
omatidae idae idae
2 15 2 0 19
0 0 2 0 2
0 5 0 0 5
1 16 2 0 19
0 3 1 0 4
0 4 2 0 6
0 5 2 0 7
1 3 1 1 6

3. Nais communis Piguet, 1906 from Khan-
dala
4. Aulophorus furcatus (Muller, 1773) from
Bombay and Khed
5. Pristina longiseta
1828 from Bombay
With a view to study the fresh-water oligo-
chaetes of Bombay, one of us (K.V.N.) made
some collections in the summer of 1965 in and
around Bombay city. In addition Dr. U. Obai-

longiseta Ehrenberg,

FRESH-W ATER OLIGOCHAETA FROM BOMBAY

LOCALITIES FROM WHICH F.-W. OLIGOCHAETES WERE COLLECTED, LATES OF COLLECTION, ETC.

Allonais gwaliorensis

Type of

non-sexual

22.5.65

Date of

Name of
Name of locality Species collected worm collection the col-
lector
Vehar Lake 1. Aeolosoma hemprichi 3 non-sexual 28.4.65 K.V.N.
2. Chaetogaster crystallinus 2 non-sexual 29.4.65 K.V.N.
3. Dero cooperi 3 non-sexual 29.4.65 K.V.N.
4. Pristina evelinae 3 non-sexual 29.4.65 K.V.N.
5. Pristina proboscidea 4 non-sexual 29.4.65 K.V.N.
6. Dero nivea 5 non-sexual 3.5.65 K.V.N.
7. Branchiura sowerbyi 3 non-sexual 28.4.65 K.V.N.
29.4.65
8. Pristina longiseta 2 non-sexual 29.4.65 K.V.N.
longiseta
Powai Lake 1. Chaetogaster crystallinus 3 non-sexual 1.5.65 K.V.N.
2. Dero digitata 11 non-sexual 28.4.65
1.5.65 K.V.N.
24.4.65
20.5.65 U.O.H.
3. Dero cooperi 6 non-sexual 28.4.65 K.V.N.
4. Dero zeylanica 3 non-sexual ZiS65 K.V.N.
5. Dero indica 4 non-sexual 20.5.65 U.O.H.
6. Aulophorus hymanae 3 non-sexual 1.5.65 K.V.N.
7. Allonais gwaliorensis 3 non-sexual 28.4.65 K.V.N.
8. Allonais rayalaseemensis 4 non-sexual 28.4..65 K.V.N.
9. Pristina synclites 5 non-sexual 28.4.65 K.V.N.
20.5.65 U.O.H.
10. Pristina longiseta 4 non-sexual 28-4-65 K.V.N.
longiseta
11. Pristina proboscidea 3 non-sexual 28.4.65 K.V.N.
5.5.65
12. Aulodrilus pluriseta 8 sexual 1.5.65 K.V.N.
Bandra Tank 1. Dero cooperi 2 non-sexual 1.5.65 K.V.N.
2. Dero nivea 2 non-sexual 1.5.65 K.V.N.
3. Dero digitata 2 non-sexual 1.5.65 K.V.N.
4. Aulophorus furcatus 6 non-sexual 1.5.65 K.V.N.
5. Aulophorus michaelseni 5 non-sexual 1.5.65 K.V.N.
6. Allonais gwaliorensis 4 non-sexual 1.5.65 K.V.N.
7. Pristina longiseta longiseta 6 non-sexual 1.5.65 K.V.N.
8. Branchiura sowerbyi 3 non-sexual 1.5.65 K.V.N.
9. Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri 2 sexual 1.5.65 K.V.N.
Castle Mill 1. Dero digitata 3 non-sexual 22.4.65 U.O.H.
Pond, Thana 2. Dero cooperi 3 non-sexual 22ES2O5 U.O.H.
3. Aulophorus hymanae 5 non-sexual 22.5.65 U.O.H.
4. Allonais gwaliorensis 6 non-sexual 22.5.65 U.O.H.
5. Allonais rayalaseemensis 3 non-sexual 22.5.65 U.0O.H
Railway Station 1. Aulophorus hymanae 5 non-sexual 22-565) U O.H
Pond, Thana 2. Allonais rayalaseemensis 3 non-sexual 225.65 U.0.H
3. 5

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Aeolosoma bengalense
Dero digitata
Allonais rayalaseemensis

6. Bio-filter Ih
Purification De
Works, Dadar By

4. Pristina synclites
7. Fish Tank, 1.
Colaba

Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri

4 non-sexual

2 non-sexual 20.5.65 U.0.H

4 non-sexual 20.5.65 U.0.H
22.5.65

3 non-sexual 20.5.65 U.O.H

2 sexual 28.4.65 K.V.N

dulla Hussainy (U.O.H.) of Melbourne, Aus-
tralia, then working at the Zonal Laboratory of
National Environmental Engineering Research
Institute, Bombay, had made some collections
of fresh-water ologochaetes and sent them for
examination. All these collections when stu-
died, revealed the existence of 21 species of
fresh-water oligochaetes, 2 Aeolosomatids, 15
Naidids and 4 Tubificids. Of these 2 species
are already known for the Western Region
and hence 19 species are new to this region.
They are:

1. Aeolosoma bengalensis Stephenson, 1911,
2. Ae. hemprichi Ehrenberg, 1831, 3. Chaeto-
gaster crystallinus Vejdovsky, 1883, 4. Dero
digitata (Muller, 1773), 5. D. coopri Stephen-
son, 1932, 6. D. nivea Aiyer, 1930, 7. D. indica
Naidu, 1962, 8. D. zeylanica Stephenson, 1913,
9. Aulophorus hymanae Naidu, 1963. 10. A.
michaelseni Stephenson, 1923, 11. Allonais
gwaliorensis (Stephenson, 1920), 12. A. raya-
laseemensis Naidu, 1963, 13. Pristina evelinae
Marcus, 1943, 14. Pr. proboscidea Beddard,
1896, 15. Pr. synclites Stephenson, 1925, 16.
Branchiura sowerbyi Beddard, 1892, 17. Lim-
nodrilus hoffmeisteri Claparede, 1862, 18. Au-
lodrilus pluriseta (Piguet, 1906) and 19. A.
pigueti Kowalewski, 1914. With the addition
of these 19 species, the Western Region now
has a total of 24 species of fresh-water oligo-
chaetes.

MATERIAL AND METHODS
Aquatic plants, decaying leaves, wood, etc.,

algae and bottom mud samples from differ-

526

ent water sources in Bombay city and from
the Vehar Lake and Powai Lake were collect-
ed and placed in beakers submerged in
water for a day. The worms from them settled
on the walls of the beakers near the surface
of the water. The worms were examined under
the compound microscope in living condition
for the number and characters of the setae,
colour of epidermal glands, shape of the pros-
tomium, position and shape of stomach, pig-
mentation of the body, number and shape of
the gills, position of the dorsal blood vessel
and contractile lateral vessels, presence or ab-
sence of coelomocytes, shape and position of
spermathecae, atria, etc. They were later nar-
cotised and preserved in formalin for further
study of length and diameter of the worms,
number of segments, position of fission zones,
etc.

SYSTEMATIC SECTION
AEOLOSOMATIDAE

1. Aeolosoma bengaiense Stephenson, 1911.
(Figs. 1-2).
Stephenson, 1923, p. 41. Aiyer, 1926, p. 131-
136, fig. 1-3; 1929, p. 18. Michaelson and
Boldt, 1932, p. 589. Marcus, 1944, p. 16-17,
fig. 2A-B. Herlant-Meewis, 1954, p. 80. Yama-
guchi, 1953, p. 280-281, fig. 1. Dioni, 1961, p.
112. Naidu, 1961, p. 648-649, fig. 1A-B;
1965a, p. 16; 1966, p. 209, 222. Costa, 1967,
p. 39. Bunke, 1967, p. 229-235, fig. 17-18.
length (preserved) =0.9-1.0 mm; diameter
(preserved) =0.15 mm; s (number of seg-

FRESH-W ATER OLIGOCHAETA FROM BOMBAY

ments) = 12-14; n (number of segments be-

hind which budding zone forms) = 8-10.
Worms pale white, transparent with variously
shaped dirty yellow and greenish yellow epi-
dermal glands in integument. Prostomium
rounded, wider than body diameter. Hair setae
(Figs. 1-2) all bayonet shaped, unequal, longer
in dorsal bundles than in ventral bundles, 2-3
long seta per bundle of 200-300 » and 2-4
short setae of 150-200 p» long dorsally, 2-3 of
100-150 » and 80-100 » long ventrally. Intes-
tine dilated in 4 [V—4 IX, narrow behind.
Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Svi
Lanka (Ceylon); Travancore, Cuddapah, Ban-
galore (S. India); Nagpur (C. India); Calcutta

i
<i
S)
O
m =
O
199)
me
a
ie >
as
St ile 8

DO

34 3) © 7

20p

(E. India); now reported from Bombay (W.
India).
Further distribution: Germany (Europe);
China, Java, Japan (Asia); Canada (N. Ame-
rica); Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay (S. America).
2. Aeolosoma hemprichi Ehrenberg, 1831.
(Figs. 3-4).

Naidu, 1961, p. 650-651, p. 2A. Cekanovskaya,
1962, p. 144-145, fig. 69, 70 A. Bucher, 1965,
p. 97, fig. 1-6. Bunke, 1967, p. 194-198, fig. 1-
2, 62-63, 65. Costa, 1967, p. 39. Ercolini, 1969,
p. 11-12. Brinkhurst, 1971, p. 126. Van Der
Land, 1971, p. 670-672.

1=0.4-0.8 mm _ (Single), 1.5-2.0 mm
(Chains); d=0.05-0.07 mm; s = 12-15; n=7-10.

Ope
20/0

9 10

Figs. 1-2. Aeclosoma bengalense: 1. Long hair seta, 2. short hair seta; Figs. 3-4. Aeo-

losoma hemprichi: 3. Long hair seta, 4. short hair seta; Fig. 5. Chaetogaster crystal-

linus: 5. Ventral seta of Il segment; Figs. 6-8. Dero digitata: 6. Needle seta, 7. ventral

seta of II, 8. ventral seta of posterior segment; Figs. 9-11. Dero cooperi: 9.- Needle

seta, 10. ventral seta of II, 11. ventral seta of posterior segment; Figs. 12-14. Dero
nivea: 12. Needle seta, 13. ventral seta of II, 14. ventral seta of VII.

527

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

3 =
Lk ew | YY |e
EY RY
20
(5S
17 18
lo 19 A

[5,0

27 28 2

22

Figs. 15-17. Dero indica: 15. Needle seta, 16. ventral seta of III, 17. ventral seta of
middle segment; Figs. 18-20. Dero zeylanica: 18. Needle seta, 19. ventral seta of II.
20. Ventral seta of middle segment; Figs. 21-23. Aulophorus furcatus: 21. Needle
seta, 22. ventral seta of II, 23. ventral seta of VII; Figs. 27-29. Aulophorus michael-
seni: 27. Needle seta. 28. ventral seta of II, 29. ventral seta of middle segment.

Worms small, transparent with spherical
orange-red epidermal glands. Prostomium
rounded, wider than body diameter with late-
ral sensory ciliated pits. Setae are all hair
setae (Figs. 3-4), bayonet shaped, bundles
with short and long setae, long setae 1-3 of
80-120 », short setae 1-4 of 40-80 » long. In-
testine dilated in IV-VI. First pair of nephri-
dia between II and III.

Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Travan-
core, Cuddapah, Bellary, Kakinada (S. India);
Lahore (Pakistan).

Extralimital distribution: Europe, Asia, Africa,
Australia, North and South America.

528

NAIDIDAE

Sub-family CHAETOGASTRINAE Sperber, 1948

3. Chaetogaster crystallinus Vejdovsky, 1883.
(Fig. 5).

Sperber, 1948, p. 68-71, fig. 7 E, K, Pl. L
fig. 3, Pl. II, fig. 1-3. Naidu, 1962a, p. 135-
137, fig. 6A-H. Brinkhurst, 1963, p. 17, fig.
2d; 1964, p. 202, fig. 1D. Cekanovskaya, 1962,
p. 207-208, fig. 120, 121. Liang, 1964, p. 643.
Costa, 1967, p. 40. Brinkhurst and Jamieson,
1971, p. 311-312, fig. 7.1 L-N. Ali and Issa-—
que, 1975, p. 55. |

1=4-5 mm (Chains); d=0.3-0.4 mm; s= |

14-17; n=8-9. |

FRESH-W ATER OLIGOCHAETA FROM BOMBAY

Worms are transparent. Prostomium incons-
picuous with a median incision. Dorsai setae
and ventral setae of III-V are absent. Ventral
setae (Fig. 5) in II 5-8 per bundle, 130-160 p
long, in others 2-6 per bundle, 90-120 y» long.
Stomach in V-VII with 20-24 transverse ducts.
Brain with a statocyst.

Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Sri
Lanka (Ceylon); Cuddapah, Bangalore (S.
India); Calcutta (N. India); Dacca (Bangla-
desh).

Extralimital distribution: Europe, Asia, Africa,
N. America.

5 -
OS ° is
=
fo) a
26
pA. 29

a0
3|

NAIDINAE Lastockin, 1924
Dero Oken, 1815
Subgenus Dero Oken, 1815

4. Dero digitata (Muller, 1773). (Figs. 6-8).
Sperber, 1948, p. 165-178, fig. 19A-F, 27A,
Pi. XIV, fig. 2-5, Pl. XV-XVIII, fig. 1-3, 6;
1958, p. 49. Cekanovskaya, 1962, p. 170-171,
fig. 89. Naidu, 1962b, 531-533, fig. 13 A-H.
Brinkhurst, 1964; p. 212-213, fig. 2B. Hrabe,
1966, p. 377-378, fig. 10-16. Ercolini, 1969,
p. 16-18, fig. 6-8, 17-19; 1970, p. 276-279, fig.
2-7. Brinkhurst and Jamieson, 1971, p. 365-

=|
)
=) = as
e) ro)
= ) = =
at
=)
O
ew
32
a3
34 35 36

Figs. 24-26. Aulophorus hymanae: 24. Needle seta, 25. ventral seta of II, 26. ventral

seta of VII; Figs. 30-32. Allonais gwaliorensis: 30. Needle seta, 31. ventral seta of II,

32. ventral seta of X; Figs. 33-35. Allonais rayalaseemensis: 33. Needle seta, 34. ven-

tral seta of Il, 35. ventral seta of VIII; Fig. 36. Pristina longiseta longiseta: 36. ven-
tral seta of III.

529

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Toye

iop
|Op
lop.

37 38 AO
390 A

Ac

20/0
20

30/0

A3 an 45

A6

Fig. 37. Pristina longiseta longiseta: 37. ventral seta of VIII; Figs. 38-40. Pristina

evelinae: 38. Needle seta, 39. ventral seta of II, 40. ventral seta of X, 41. giant seta

of V; Figs. 42-43. Pristina proboscidea: 42. ventral seta of II, 43. ventral seta of

posterior segment; Figs. 44-46. Pristina synclites: 44. Needle seta, 45. ventral seta of
II, 46. ventral seta of middle segment.

367, fig. 7.13 D-H. Brinkhurst, 1971, p. 120,
fig. 3L. Ali and Issaque, 1975, p. 57. Ali and
Zaman, 1976, p. 90-91, fig. 4 A-E.
1=5-7 mm; d=0.25-0.30 mm;
n= 19-22.
Worms with orange-red pigment granules in
integument with concentration in branchial
fossa. Dorsal setae from VI, 1 hair seta, bayo-
net-shaped, 170-200 p» long and 1 bifid needle
seta (Fig. 6), 60-66 » long, nodulus 1/3 from
distal end, distal tooth 14 times as long as
proximal. Ventral setae (Figs. 7-8) in II-V,
slender and less curved, 90-100 p» long, nodu-
lus proximal, teeth parallel, distal tooth 14

s = 28-35;

530

times as long as proximal; in others, 3-4 per
bundle, thick and more curved, 66-76 » long,
nodulus distal, tooth diverging, distal tooth
thinner, slightly longer or equal to proximal.
Branchial fossa with 4 pairs of gills. Stomach
in IX-X. Dorsal vessel mid-dorsai in H-V and
lateral to left from VI on. Contractile lateral
vessels in VI-XI.

Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Trivan-
drum, Kottayam, Cuddapah, Bellary, Banga-
lore (S. India); Dacca (Bangladesh).

Extralimital distribution: Europe, Asia, Africa,
Australia, N. and S. America.

FRESH-W ATER OLIGOCHAETA FROM BOMBAY

5. Dero cooperi Stephenson, 1932.
9-11).

Sperber, 1948, 170-180. Naidu, 1962b, p. 538-

540, fig. 16 A-I, Brinkhurst, 1966, p. 138.

Costa, 1967, p. 43. Brinkhurst and Jamieson,

1971, p. 369, fig. 7.14 B-E.
1=3.5-5.0 mm; d=0.25-0.30 mm;
50; n= 20-26.

(Figs.

S50

Worms with red pigment spots lateral to dor-
sal bundles. Dorsal setae from VI, 1 hair seta
and 1 needle seta per bundle. Hair setae 180-
210 » long; needle setae (Fig. 9) bifid, 72-75
uw long, nodulus distal, teeth short and equal.

48 [ /
|
a2
>

ca)

20K.

=)
O
mr)

AY

A7
»O

54.
52

5]

=e

rel

Ventral setae (Figs. 10-11) 3-5 per bundle,
in II-V slender, less curved, 100-120 p» long,
nudulus proximal; in others thick, more curv-
ed, 70-75 » long, nodulus distal, distal tooth
thinner, equal to or longer than proximal.
Branchial fossa with 4 pairs of gills. Stomach
in IX-X. Dorsal vessel mid-dorsal in II-V,
lateral to left from VI. Contractile lateral ves-
sels in VI-X.
Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Sti
Lanka (Ceylon); Cuddapah, Bangalore (S.
India); Agra (N. India); Lahore (Pakistan).
Extralimital distribution: Africa, Europe, S.
America.

20K
20,2

a
oh

30

55 57

538

Figs. 47-50. Branchiura sowerbyi: 47. bifid needle seta, 48. pectinate needle seta,

49. ventral seta of II, 50. ventral seta of X; Figs. 51-53. Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri:

51. Dorsal seta, 52. ventral seta, 53. chitinous penial tube; Figs. 54-55. Aulodrilus

pluriseta: 54. Needle seta, 55. ventral seta; Figs. 56-58. Aulodrilus pigueti: 56. Needle
seta, 57. ventral seta, 58. penial seta.

531

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

6. Dero nivea Aiyer, 1930. (Figs. 12-14).
Sperber, 1948, p. 184-186, fig. 196, pl. XVIII,
fig. 4; 1958, p. 49, fig. 5-7. Naidu, 1962b, p.
540-541, fig. 17 A-C; 1965a, p. 17. Cekanov-
skaya, 1962, p. 173-174. Brinkhurst, 1964, p.
214, fig. 4D. Costa, 1967, p. 44. Brinkhurst and
Jamieson, 1971, p. 370-371, fig. 7.14 J-M.
Brinkhurst, 1971, p. 120, fig. 3 M.

1=3-4 mm; d=0.14 mm;
n= 14-16.
Dorsal setae begin in VI, 1 hair seta and 1
needle seta per bundle. Hair setae are 95-110
pw long; needle setae bifid (Fig. 12), 40-45 pu
long, nodulus distal, teeth equal and small.
Ventral setae (Figs. 13, 14) 2-4 per bundle,
60-70 » long, in II-V slender and less curved,
nodulus proximal, distal tooth longer than
proximal; in others thick and curved, nodulus
distal, teeth equally long, distal thinner than
proximal. Branchial fossa with 3 pairs of gills.
Stomach in VIII. Dorsal vessel mid-dorsal in
1-V, lateral to left from VI. Contractile late-
ral vessels in VI-VIII.
Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Sri
Lanka (Ceylon); Trivandrum, Ouralpatti,
Tandikondi, Cuddapah (S. India).
Extralimital distribution: Europe, Asia, Africa,
Australia, N. America.
7. Dero indica Naidu, 1962. (Figs. 15-17).
Naidu, 1962b, p. 533-536, fig. 14 A-G; 1966,
p. 215, 222. Brinkhurst and Jamieson, 1971,
p. 367-368, fig. 7.13 I-M. Ali and Issaque,
19753 pe 8:

1=6-8 mm; d=0.3-0.4 mm;

n = 24-30.
Dorsal setae begin in VI, 2 hair setae and 2
needle setae anteriorly, 1 each per bundle
posteriorly. Hair setae 200-300 » long; needle
setae bifid (Fig. 15), 85-105 p» long, nodulus
1/3 from distal end, distal tooth longer and
thinner than proximal. Ventral setae (Fig. 16,
17) 2-5 per bundle, of II-V slender and less
curved, 110-130 ,» long, nodulus proximal to
middle, distal tooth 14 times as long as proxi-

s = 20-28;

s = 32-60;

332

mal; in others 80-100 » long, nodulus distal,
distal tooth thinner and longer than proximal.
Branchial fossa with 4 pairs of gills. Stomach
in [X-X. Dorsal vessel mid-dorsal in I-V, late-
ral to left from VI. Contractile lateral vessels
in VI-X.

Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Cudda-
pah, Bangalore (S. India); Dacca (Bangla-
desh).

8. Dero zeylanica Stephenson, 1913. (Figs.
18-20).

Sperber, 1948, p. 178-179. Naidu, 1962b, p.
536-538, fig. 15 A-K. Brinkhurst and Jamieson,
1971, p. 368, fig. 7.13 N-P, 7.14 A. Ali and
Issaque, 1975, p. 58.

1=6-9 mm; d=04-0.45 mm;

n= 18-25.
Dorsal setae begin in VI, 3 (4) hair setae and
3 (4) needle setae per bundle anteriorly, de-
creasing to 1 each per bundle posteriorly. Hair
setae 220-300 pw long; needle setae (Fig. 18)
bifid, 100-125 » long, nodulus distal, teeth fine,
distal tooth longer than proximal. Ventral
setae (Figs. 19, 20) 2-6 per bundle, in II-V
slender and less curved, 110-120 p» long, nodu-
lus median, distal tooth 14-2 times as long as
proximal; in others thick, curved, 80-95 p
long, nodulus distal, distal tooth longer or
equal to proximal. Gills 4 pairs. Stomach in
IX-X. Dorsal vessel mid-dorsal anteriorly,
lateral to left from VI. Contractile lateral ves-
sels in VI-X.

Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Kandy

(Sri Lanka); Trivandrum, Cuddapah, Banga-

lore (S. India); Dacca (Bangladesh).
Sub-genus Aulophorus Schmarda, 1861.

9. Aulophorus (Muller, 1773).
(Figs. 21-23).

Sperber, 1948, p. 191-194, fig. 20 b-d; 1958,

p. 49. Cekanovskaya, 1962, p. 175, fig. 93.

Naidu, 1963a, p. 899-902, fig. 20 A-G. Hrabe,

1966, p. 381-382, fig. 29-32. Costa, 1967, p.

45. Ercolini, 1969, p. 19-21, fig. 13-15, 23;

s = 40-70;

furcatus

FRESH-W ATER OLIGOCHAETA FROM BOMBAY

1970, p. 281-285, fig. 11-15. Brinkhurst and
Jamieson, 1971, p. 376-377, fig. 7.17 A-D.
Brinkhurst, 1971, p. 120, fig. 4A. Ali and
Issaque, 1975, p. 58.

1(p)=2-4 mm; d(p)=0.22 mm; s=30-40;

n= 16-20.
Dorsal bundles from V and 1 hair seta and
1 needle seta; hair setae 130-150 p» long; needle
setae bifid (Fig. 21) 48-56 » long, nodulus 1/3
from distal end, distal tooth thinner and
shorter than proximal. Ventral setae (Figs.
22-23) 2-4 per bundle, in II-IV slender and
less curved, 62-70 » long, nodulus median,
distal tooth 14 times longer than proximal;
in others 48-60 » long, nodulus distal, distal
tooth thinner and equal or longer than proxi-
mal. Branchial fossa with 1 pair of palps and
3 pairs of gills. Stomach absent. Coelomocy-
tes absent. Dorsal vessel mid-dorsal in I-V,
lateral to left from VI. Contractile lateral ves-
sels in VI-X.
Distribution in Indian subcontinent: Sri Lanka
(Ceylon); Trivandrum, Ouralpatti, Tandi-
kondi, Madras, Cuddapah, Kakinada, Bellary,
Bangalore (S. India); Dacca (Bangladesh).
Extralimital distribution: Europe, Asia, Africa,
Australia, N. and S. America.
10. Aulophorus hymanae Naidu, 1963 (Figs.

24-26).

Naidu, 1963a, p. 905-908, fig. 22 A-F; 1965a,
p. 17; 1966, p. 216, 222. Costa, 1967, p. 46.
Brinkhurst and Jamieson, 1971, p. 377-378,
fig. 7.17 E-H. Ali and Issaque, 1975, p. 58.

1 (p) =8-10 mm; d(p) =0.4 mm; s=50-80;

n= 22-35.
Dorsal bundles from V with 1 hair seta and
1 needle seta. Hair setae 220-270 ,» long;
reedle setae (Fig. 24) 72-80 yp» long, bifid,
nodulus 1/3 from distal end, distal tooth thin-
ner and longer than proximal. Ventral setae
(Figs. 25, 26) 2-5 per bundle, in II-IV slender
and less curved, 90-100 » long, nodulus me-
dian, distal tooth 14 times longer than proxi-

mal; in others thick and curved, 72-88 p long,
nodulus distal, distal tooth thinner and about
equal in length to proximal. Branchia! fossa
with 1 pair of palps and 3 pairs of gills. Coe-
lomocyies absent. Stomach absent. Dorsal ves-
sel mid-dorsal in I-V, lateral to left in others.
Contractile lateral vessels in VI-XI.
Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Sri Lanka
(Ceylon); Cuddapah, Bangalore (S. India);
Dacca (Bangladesh).
Extralimital distribution: Singapore (Asia).
11. Aulophorus michaelseni Stephenson, 1923.
(Figs. 27-29).

Stephenson, 1923, p. 93-94, fig. 35. Ajyer,
1930, p. 43, fig. 18. Naidu, 1963a, p. 902-904,
fig. 21 A-E; 1965, fig. p. 17; 1966, p. 216,
222. Ercolini, 1969, p. 21-22, fig. 24-25; 1970,
p. 285-288, fig. 16-19, 29, 31.

1 (p) =4-5 mm; d(p)=0.3 mm; s=40-50;

n= 23-26.
Dorsal bundles from V with 1 hair seta and
1 needle seta; hair seta 175-230 » long, needle
setae (Fig. 27) bifid, 64-70 p» long, nodulus
distal, distal tooth thinner and longer than
proximal. Ventral setae (Figs. 28-29) 2-4 per
bundle, in II-ITV slender and less curved 80-
98 » long, nodulus proximal, distal tooth 14
times longer than proximal; in others 60-74
wu long, nodulus distal, distal prong thinner
and about equal to proximal. Branchia! organ
with a pair of slender palos and 4 pairs of
gills. Coelomocytes present. Stomach absent.
Contractile lateral vessels in VII-X.
Distribution in Indian Sub-continent: Kandy
(Sri Lanka); Trivandrum, Cuddapah, Banga-
lore, Bellary (S. India).
Extralimital distribution:
Somalia (Africa).
12. Allonais gwaliorensis (Stephenson, 1920).

(Figs. 30-32).

Sperber, 1948, p. 205-206; 1958, p. 50. fig. 10-
12. Naidu, 1963a, p. 919-921, fig. 27 A-F;
1965, p. 20, fig. la. Ercolini, 1970, p. 292-296,

Singapore (Asia);

533

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

fig. 38-42. Brinkhurst and Jamieson, 1971,
p. 387, fig. 7.20 D-G.

1=4-10 mm; d=0.2 mm; s=24-60; n=29.
Dorsal bundles from VI with 1-2 hair setae
and 1-2 needle setae; hair setae 140-180 p
long; needle setae bifid (Fig. 30) 60-68 » long,
nodulus weak 1/3 from distal end, distal tooth
longer than proximal. Ventral setae (Figs. 31-
32) 4-6 per bundle, in II-V thinner and less
curved, 56-65 » long, nodulus middle, distal
tooth longer than proximal; in others thick
and curved, 50-56 » long, nodulus distal, dis-
tal tooth thinner about equal in length to pro-
ximal. Coelomocytes present. Stomach in IX-
X. Dorsal vessel mid-dorsal in I-VI and lateral
to left in others. Contractile lateral vessels in
VI-VIII.
Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Cudda-
pah, Kakinada (S. India); Gwalior (C. India).
Extralimital distribution: China, Sunda Island,

Singapore (Asia); Madagascar, Somalia
(Africa).
13. Allonais rayalaseemensis Naidu, 1963.

(Figs. 33-35).

Naidu, 1963a, p. 917-919, fig. 26A-F; 1965,
p. 19; 1966, p. 217, 223. Costa, 1967, p. 46.

§= 16-20 mm; d=0.35-0.4 mm; s= 90-120;

n= 48-54.
Dorsal setae from VI, 1-2 hair setae and 1-2
needle setae per bundle. Hair setae 240-370 p
long; needle setae (Fig. 33) bifid, 90-106 p
long, nodulus distal, distal tooth thinner and
half as long as proximal. Ventral setae (Figs.
34, 35) 4-7 per bundle, 85-105 » long, in II-
V nodulus about middle, distal tooth longer
than proximal; in others nodulus distal, distal
tooth thinner and longer than proximal. Coe-
lomocytes present. Stomach in XI-XII. Dorsal
vessel mid-dorsal in I-V and lateral to left in
others. Contractile lateral vessels in VI-XI.
Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Sri
Lanka (Ceylon); Cuddapah, Bellary, Kaki-
nada (S. India).

534

Sub-family Pristininae Lastockin, 1924

14. Pristina longiseta longiseta Ehrenberg,
1828. (Figs. 36-37).

Sperber, 1948, p. 236-237, pl. XXI, fig. 2, 6.
Naidu, 1963b, p. 216-219, fig. 34 A-K. Costa,
1967, p. 47.
Pristina longiseta Ehrenberg. Liang, 1964,
p. 650. Brinkhurst and Jamieson, 1971, p. 402-
403, fig. 7.21 J, 7.25 E-I. Brinkhurst, 1971,
p. 124, fig. 4 G.

1=2-3 mm (single), 4.5 mm (chains); d=

0.12 mm; s=22-28; n= 14-17.
Prostomium with a median proboscis. Dorsal
bundles from II with 1-3 hair setae and 1-3
needle setae. Hair setae of III especially long,
non-serrate, 650-720 p long, of others serrate
200-300 p» long. Needle setae simple pointed
distal part gently curved, 35-50 » long, without
nodulus. Ventral setae (Figs. 36, 37) 3-7 per
bundle, in IL longest, 62-66 » long, nodulus
proximal; in others 48-56 ,» long, nodulus
median to distal, distal tooth twice as long as
proximal in II, II] and thinner and longer
than proximal in others. Stomach in anterior
half of VIII, pear-shaped with intracellular
canal Coelomocytes present. Dorsal vessel
mid-dorsal. Contractile lateral vessels in II-
VII.
Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Bheem-
nagar, Trivandrum, Ouralpatti, Tandikondi,
Cuddapah, Bangalore (S. India); Bombay
(W. India); Gwalior (C. India); Calcutta
(E. India); Lahore (Pakistan).
Extralimital distribution: Europe, Asia, Africa,
Australia, Paraguay (S. America).
15. Pristina evelinae Marcus, 1943. (Figs. 38-

41). |

Sperber, 1948, p. 232, fig. 25. Naidu, 1963b,
214-216, fig. 33A-D. Costa, 1967, p. 48. Brin-
khurst and Jamieson, 1971, p. 401-402, fig.
7.24 H, 7.25 A-D.

1=2-4 mm; d=0.13 mm; s= 18-24; n=13-

16.

FRESH-W ATER OLIGOCHAETA FROM BOMBAY

Prostomium with a median proboscis. Dorsal
bundles from II with 1 hair seta and 1 needle
seta. Hair setae 90-165 » long; needle setae

(fig. 38) bifid, 35-40 p long, nodulus 1/3 from |

distal end, teeth fine and short. Ventral setae
(Figs. 39, 40) 4-7 per bundle, in HI longest
50-55 » long, in III shortest, 38-40 » long, in
V giant setae (Fig. 41) 70-77 » long, in others
42-46 » long; in II nodulus proximal, distal
tooth is longer than proximal, in others nodu-
lus distal, distal tooth thinner and equal to
proximal. Stomach in 4 VII-VIII, pear shaped
with intra-cellular canals. Dorsal vessel! mid-
dorsal. Contractile lateral vessels in VI and
Vil.
Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Sti
Lanka (Ceylon); Trivandrum, Cuddapah,
Bangalore (S. India).
Extralimital distribution: Brazil (S. America).
16. Pristina proboscidea Beddard, 1896. (Figs.
42-43).

Sperber, 1948, p. 239-240. Naidu, 1965a, p. 20-
21. Ercolini, 1970, p. 302-304, fig. 27-28, 47-
49. Brinkhurst and Jamieson, 1971, p. 405-
406, fig. 7.21 N-Q. Brinkhurst, 1971, p. 124,
fig. 4 F.
Pristina proboscidea f. typica Beddard. Ali and
Issaque, 1975, p. 59. Ali and Zaman, 1976,
p. 91, fig. 2 A-D.

1=3-5 mm; d=0.35-0.40 mm;

n= 16-20.
Prostomium with proboscis. Dorsal bundles
from II with 1-3 serrated hair setae of 300-400
uw long and 1-4 simple pointed needle setae of
46-50 » long, without nodulus. Ventral setae
(Figs. 42, 43) 3-7 per bundle, distal tooth
longer than proximal, in IT 94-100 » long and
thick, in others 65-76 » long and thin. Stomach
in anterior half of VIII, pear shaped with intra-
cellular canals. Coelomocytes present. Dorsal
vessel mid-dorsal.
Distribution in Indian
Lanka (Ceylon);

§ = 28-35;

sub-continent: Sri
Trivandrum (S. India);

Dacca (Bangladesh).
Extralimital distribution: Europe, Asia, Aus-
tralia, Africa, N. and S. America.
17. Pristina synclites Stephenson,
(Figs. 44-46).

Sperber, 1948, p. 225. Naidu, 1963b, 208-210,
Fig. 30 A-D. Brinkhurst and Jamieson, 1971,
piso. fis. \7:23: C-E:

1=4-6 mm; d=0.3-0.35 mm;

n= 18-22.
Prostomium with proboscis. Dorsal bundles
from IL with 1-2 hair setae, smooth 200-300 p
long and 1-2 bifid needle setae (fig. 44) 70-98
uw long, nodulus weak 1/3 from distal end, dis-
tal footh shorter than proximal. Ventral setae
(Figs. 45, 46) 2-4 per bundle, in HI-III 62-
66 p» long, in others 73-84 p» long, distal tooth
thinner and about equal to proxima!, nodulus
middle in Hi-[V and distal in others. Stomach
in 4+ VII-VII. Dorsal vesse! mid-doral. Con-
tractile lateral vessels in IV-VII.
Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Cudda-
pah, Bellary, Bangalore, Mysore (S. India).

1925;

s= 40-60;

TUBIFICIDAE

Sub-family Banchiurinae Hrabe, 1966

18. Branchiura sowerbyi Beddard, 1892.
(Figs. 47-50).

Cekanovskaya, 1962, p. 291-292, fig. 184, 185.
Naidu, 1965b, p. 473-475, fig. 4 a-j. Brinkhurst
and Jamieson, 1971, p. 563-564, fig. 8.36 D-F.
Brinkhurst, 1971, p. 114, fig. 2 H. Ali and
Issaque, 1975, p. 60. Ali and Zaman, 1976,
p. 92-93, fig. 9 A-F.

1= 30-40 mm; d=1.0-1.1 mm; s=upto 150.
Dorsal bundles start in II, 3-4 hair setae of
200-280 » long and 3-6 needle setae of 85-100
vu. long anteriorly, hair setae decrease in num-
ber and disappear about the middle, needle
setae (Figs. 47, 48) are simple pointed and
bifid anteriorly, bifid and pectinate in later

535

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

segments, distal tooth is thinner and shorter
than proximal. Ventral setae (Figs. 49, 50)
6-8 simple pointed setae anteriorly, 4-6 bifid
setae in the middle decreasing to 1-2 setae pos-
teriorly per bundle, nodulus distal, 70-110 »
long. Posterior third of the worm has mid-
dorsal and mid-ventral tubular gills with vas-
cular loops. Stomach absent. Dorsal vessel late-
ral mostly and mid-dorsal in I-VI. Lateral
contractile vessels in IX and X.
Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Madras,
Cuddapah (S. India); Calcutta, Manipur (E.
India); Agra, Lucknow (N. India); Lahore
(Pakistan); Dacca (Bangladesh). Now report-
ed from Bombay (W. India).

Extralimital distribution: Europe, Lake Inle
(Burma), Asia, Africa, Australia, N. and S.
America.

Sub-family TuUBIFICINAE Eisen, 1879.

19. Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri Claparede, 1862.
(Figs. 51-53).

Naidu, 1965b, p. 477-479, fig. 6a-g; 1965a,
p. 21. Brinkhurst, 1971, p. 112-113, fig. 2D.
Brinkhurst and Jamieson, 1971, p. 464-467,
fig. 8.3 M; 8.4 C, H, I; 8.5 E. Ali and Issaque,
1975, p. 59. Ali and Zaman, 1976, p. 91, fig.
5A-D.

] = 24-30 mm; d=0.6-0.8 mm; s=upto 120.
Dorsal and ventral setae (Figs. 51 and 52)
are all alike, 6-8 per bundle anteriorly and de-
creasing to 1-2 posteriorly, 66-90 » long, nodu-
lus distal, distal tooth thinner and longer or
shorter than proximal. Stomach absent. Con-
tractile lateral vessels in VIII-[X. Clitellum in
XI-XII. Vasa deferentia are long and coiled,
atrium small spindle shaped, ejaculatory duct
ending with chitinous penial sheath (Fig. 53)
8 times as long as wide. Spermathacae in X,
club-shaped and curved.

Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Kandy
(Sri Lanka); Adoni, Bellary, Cuddapah, Ban-
galore (S. India); Calcutta, Belgachi (E.

536

India); Lahore (Pakistan); Dacca (Bangla-
desh).

Extralimital distribution: Europe, Asia, Africa,
Australia, N. and S. America.

sub-family AULODRILINAE Brinkhurst and
Jamieson, 1971

20. Aulodrilus pluriseta (Piguret, 1906). (Figs.

54-55).
Cekanovskaya, 1962, p. 225, fig. 135. Naidu,
1965b, p. 466-467, fig. 2 a-e. Brinkhurst, 1971,
p. 114, fig. 2 I. Brinkhurst and Jamieson, 1971,
p. 525-526, fig. 8.23 J-N. Ali and Zaman,
1976, p. 92, fig. 10 A-F.

1=10-16 mm; d=0.5 mm; s=70-100.

Dorsai bundles from II with 4-8 hair setae
of 100-160 » long and 6-8 bifid needle setae
(Fig. 54) of 60-74 p» long, nodulus distal, distal
tooth shorter than proximal. Ventral setae
(Fig. 55) 6-10 bifid setae of 50-65 p» long
nodulus distal, distal tooth shorter and thinner
than proximal. Stomach absent. Laterai con-
tractile vessels in VI. Hind part of the worm
is without setae and highly vascularised. Clitel-
lum in VI-VIII. Atria spherical with thick
eversible pseudopenes. Spermathecae in VI,
ampullae cylindrical and thin walled, its duct
thin walled. Penial setae absent.
Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Sri
Lanka (Ceylon); Travancore, Bellary (S.
India); Burhanpur (C. India); Dacca (Bangla-
desh). Now reported from Bombay (W.
India).
Extralimital distribution: Europe, Asia, Aus-
tralia and N. America.
21. Aulophpherus pigueti Kowalewski, 1914.

(Figs. 56-58).
Brinkhurst and Jamieson, 1971, p. 526-527, fig.
S231:
Aulodrilus remex Stephenson. Stephenson,
1921, p. 753-757, fig. 2-6, PI. XXVIII,
1923, p. 107-108, fig. 42-44. Aiyer, 1925, p. 35,
fig. 5; 1929, p. 81-86, p. IV, fig. 1-9. Naidu,

FRESH-W ATER OLIGOCHAETA FROM BOMBAY

1965b, p. 470-473, fig. 3A-E. Lauzanne, 1969,
p. 100. Ali and Issaque, 1975, p. 60.

1(p) = 10-16 mm; d(p) =1.0 mm: s=about

100.
Worms are reddish, posterior third pale yel-
low without setae and highly vasculised. Dor-
sal setae begin in [i with bayonet-shaped hair
setae 85-115 » long and needle setae (Fig. 56)
simple pointed, bifid and oar-shaped, 60-80
uw long, nodulus distal. Ventral setae (fig. 57)
are bifid, 55-80 » long, nodulus distal, upper
tooth thinner and shorter than lower tooth.
Stomach absent. Lateral vessels in VI. Clitel-
lum in 4 VI-4 VIII (2 segments). Atria are
elongate ovoid with prostate glands opening
a little in front of short ejaculatory duct. Male
pores open close to each other ventrally in a
genital fossa in VII. Spermathecae are ovoid.
Penial setae (Fig. 58) 1-2 per bundle in VII.
Distribution in Indian sub-continent: Sri
Lanka (Ceylon); Travancore, Adoni, Bellary,
Cuddapah (S. India); Burhanpur (N. India);
Dacca (Bangladesh).
Extralimital distribution: Europe; China in
Asia; Lake Tchad in Africa; Australia; Lake
Eire in N. America; Brazil in S. America.

SUMMARY

Twenty-one species of fresh-water oligoch-

aeies belonging to three families Aeolosomati-
dae, Naididae and Tubificidae from Bombay
city and environs of the Western region are
described. Of these nineteen species are new
to the Western region.. With the addition of
these, the total number of species known for
the Western region has increased from 5 to
24 species. The descriptions of the species in-
clude details of size of worm, number of seg-
ments, length and position of nodulus of the
setae, etc. Geographical distribution in Indian
sub-continent and in the world is given.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Dr. U. Obeidullah Hus-
sainy, Melbourne, Australia for kindly mak-
ing available his collections of freshwater oli-
gochaetes made in and around Bombay city
for inclusion in this paper and Sri O. V. Sub-
rahmanyam, Government Silver Jubilee Col-
lege, Kurnool for drawing the figures. Senior
author is thankful to Dr. Ksneersagar of the
National Environmental Engineering Research
Institute Zonal Laboratory, Bombay for pro-

viding facilities to study the live worms in

zonal laboratory during his stay at Bombay
in April-May, 1965.

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MiICHAELSEN, W. AND Botpr. W. (1932): Oligo-
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tion. In: A. Thienemann Tropische Binnengewasser
ii. Arch. Hydrobiol. Suppl. 9: 587-626, pl. 12-13.

Nalbu, K. V. (1961): Studies on the fresh-water
Oligochaeta of South India I: Aeolosomatidae and
Naididae, Part I. J. Bombay nat. His. Soc. 58(3):
639-652, 3 figs.; Part 2. ibid. 131-155, 5 figs.; Part 3.
ibid. 59(2): 520-546, 11 figs.; Part 4. ibid. 59(3):
897-921, 8 figs. (1963). Part 5, ibid. 60(1): 201-227,
8 figs. (1963).

(1965a): Some fresh-water Oligo-
chaeta of Singapore. Bull. Natn. Mus. St. Singapore,
33:3). 13-20 ie.

(1965b): Studies on the fresh-water
Oligochaeta of South India II: Tubificidae. Hydro-
biologia, 26(3-4): 463-483, 6 figs.

(1966): Check-list of fresh-water
Oligochaeta of the Indian sub-continent and Tibet.
Hydrobiologia, 27(1-2): 208-226.

SPERBER, C. (1948): A taxonomical study of the
Naididae. Zool. Bidr. Upps. 28: 1-296, 21 pls, 29
figs.

(1958): Uber einige Naididae aus
Europa, Asien und Madagascar. Arkiv. Zool. K.
Svenska Vetenskaps. 12: 45-53, 19 figs.

STEPHENSON, J. (1923): Oligochaeta. The Fauna
of British India. xxiv+518 p., 262 figs. Taylor &
Francis, London.

VAN Der Lanp, J. (1971): Aeolosomatidae. In
Brinkhurst’ and Jamieson: Aquatic Oligochaeta of
the World, 645-707, fig. 13. Oliver & Boyd, Edin-
burgh.

Yamacucul, H. (1953): Studies on the aquatic
Oligochaeta of Japan VI. A systematic report, with
some remarks on the classification and phylogeny
of the Oligochaeta. J. Fac. Sci. Hokkaido Univ.
Ser. VI Zool. Il: 277-342, 25 figs., 1 pl.

WEEDY ELEMENTS IN THE FLORA OF CHANDRAPUR
DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA STATE’

S. K. MALHOTRA AND SIRASALA MoorTHy?
In the present paper, weedy elements of Chandrapur district are presented which are
classified into different categories depending on their habitat and nature.

INTRODUCTION

During the plant exploration of Chandrapur
district, most of the weeds occurring in the
area were found harmful for the growth of
various crops and fruit trees in the district. A
lot of man-power and valuable time is wasted
in weeding out such elements. Hence it was
thought worthwhile to record the various weeds
occurring in different habitats of the district for
the benefit of Agricultural Scientists who may
experiment with weedicides.

Chandrapur district of Maharashtra State,
has an area of about 24, 118 sq. km. of which
14.36 lakh hectares, i.e. about 60% of geo-
graphical area is under forest and 5.42 lakh
hectares, ic. 22% of the total area is culti-
vable land. The area under irrigation is 18%
of the total cultivable area. The main crops of
the district are paddy and rabi jowar. In 1961-
62 the district had 159086-159581 hectares
under paddy while jowar occupied 30.02%
(1961 census) of the gross cropped area of the
district as against 30.95% for the State. Some
other crops like wheat, cotton and maize are
also common. }

The important pulses in the district include
horsegram, gram, blackgram and greengram.
These and other minor pulses together occu-
pied 14.67% of the gross cropped area during
the period from 1957-58 to 1959-60 in the dis-

trict as against 10.69% of the State. Under

1 Accepted December 1978.
2 Botanical Survey of India, Pune-1.

narcotics in 1963-64 the tobacco crop occupied
only 261.022 hectares in the tahsil Gadchiroli
and Chandrapur tahsils also have large area
under tobacco.

in addition, Linseed and Sesamum are the
most important oil seeds that are produced in
the district and all the oilseeds together
occupy 12.35% of the gross cropped area of
the district as against 8.18% for the State be-
tween 1957-58 and 1959-60. Besides there are
several. vegetable crop fields throughout the
district. Brinjal and other green vegetables in
1961-62 occupied an area of 337.103 hectares
in the district. They are followed by onion and
sweet-potatoes etc.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

While investigating the plant wealth of
Chandrapur district, some efforts were made
to identify the weeds in the field and the re-
levant data like their habitat, local name,
flowering, fruiting period etc. were obtained
along with the sample specimens which were
labelled and housed in the herbarium of West-
ern Circle (BSD), Poona.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

As weeds are a menace to the cultivated
fields an attempt has been made to keep a
record of weedy elements of the district which
are ciassified into various heads like crop-
weeds, weeds of vegetable gardens, gardens
and orchards, weeds of road-sides, rail-track
sides, wastelands, aquatic and parasities. How-

539

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

ever the common weeds which occur every-
where are not repeated under different heads.
The weeds recorded amounts to nearly 200
species belonging to 150 genera and about 60
families. The following are the ten dominant
families recorded in the area:

Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae,

Euphorbiaceae, Amaranthaceae, Convolvula-
ceae, Acanthaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and
Malvaceae.

Weeds of crop fields :

In the cultivated fields, weeds observed in
paddy, wheat, Jower and cotton etc. were:

DOMINANT: Anagallis arvensis Linn., Bor-
reria articularis (Linn.) F. N. Will., Caesulia
axillaris Roxb., Celosia argentea Linn., Cype-
rus iria Linn., C. rotundus Linn., Desmodium
triflorum (Linn.) DC., Emelia_ sonchifolia
(Linn.) DC., Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.)
Nees, Euphorbia hirta Linn., Indigofera lini-
folia Retz., Ischaemum indicum (Houtt.)
Merr., Merremia tridentata (Linn.) Hail. f.,
Mollugo pentaphylla Linn., Murdannia spirata
(Linn.) Brenan, Oryza rufipogon Griff., Poly-
gala erioptera DC., Polygonum plebeium
R. Br., Portulaca oleracea Linn., Sorghum hal-
epense (Linn.) Pers., Sphaeranthus indicus
Linn., Striga angustifolia (D. Don) Saldanha.
Tribulus terrestris Linn.

FREQUENT: Ageratum conyzoides \Linn.,
Amberboa ramosa (Roxb.) Jafri, Digera muri-
cata (Linn.) Mart., Enicostema hyssopifolium
(Willd.) C. B. Roy, Eragrostis ciliaris (Linn.)
R.Br., Eriocaulon dianae Fyson, E. quinquan-
gularis Linn., Hedyotis nudicaulis Wt. & Arn.,
Indigofera cordifolia Heyne, Oxalis cornicu-
lata Linn., Polygala chinensis Linn., Setaria
glauca (Linn.) P. Beauv.

UNCOMMON: Ammannia_ baccifera Linn.,
A. multiflora Roxb., Alternanthera _ sessilis
(Linn.) R. Br. ex DC., Bacopa monnieri
(Linn.) Pennell, Biophytum sensitivum DC.,

540

Cassia mimosoides Linn., C. pumila Lamk.,
Corchorus aestuans Linn., Cyanotis cristata
(Linn.) D. Don, Cyperus difformis Linn., Digi-
taria adscendens (H.B.K.) Henr., Echinochloa
colonum (Linn.) Lamk., Eleusine indica
(Linn.) Gaertn., Fimbristylis littoralis Gaud.,
Melochia corchorifolia Linn., Paspalum scro-
biculatum Linn., Physalis minima Linn., Seta-
ria pallida-fusca (Sch.) Stapf et C. E. Hubb.,
S. tomentosa (Roxb.) Kunth., Vernonia cine-
rea (Linn.) Less.

RARE: Goniocaulon glabrum Cass., Solanum
nigrum Linn.

The weeds like Centaurium centuroides
(Roxb.) Rolla Rao et Hem., Heppea dicho-
toma Willd., Hydrolea zeylanica (Linn.) Vahl,
Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell were often
observed growing only in the harvested fields.

Weeds of vegetable crop fields:

DOMINANT: Cleome viscosa Linn., Gonio-
gyne hirta (Willd.) Ali, Trianthema_ portula-
castrum Linn.

FREQUENT: Aftylosia scarabaeoides (Linn.)
Benth., Bergia ammannioides Roxb. ex Roth,
Evolvulus alsinoides Linn., Grangea maderas-
patana (Linn.) Poir., Lobelia alsinoides Lamk.,
Malachra capitata (Linn.) Linn., RAynchosia
minima DC., Solanum surattense Burm. f.,
Zornia gibbosa Span.

RARE: Cyperus michelianus (Linn.) Link.
ssp. pygmaeus (Rottb.) Aschers & Greabn.,
Helioropium indicum Linn., Indigofera astra-
galina DC., I. glandulosa Roxb. ex Willd.
Launaea fallax (Jaub. & Spach) Kuntze, Ro-
rippa indica (Linn.) Hiern., Trichodesma in-
dicum R. Br., var. amplexicaule Cooke; T.
sedgewickianum Banerjee.

Weeds of gardens and orchards:

DOMINANT: Alysicarpus vaginalis (Linn.)
DC., A. monilifer (Linn.) DC., Barleria prio-
nitis Linn., Boerhavia diffusa Linn., Bidens

_ WEED FLORA: OF CHANDRAPUR |...

biternata (Lam.) Merr. et Sherfl, Borreria
pusilla (Wall.) DC., Chenopodium album
Linn., Cleome gynandra Linn., Commelina
benghalensis Linn., Euphorbia geniculuwa
Orteg., E. thymifolia Linn., Gomphrena cew-
sioides Mart., Lagascea mollis Cav.

FREQUENT: Crotalaria linifolia Linn. f., C.

albida Heyne ex Roth, C. medicaginea Liunk.,
Corchorus fascicularis Lamk., Cardiospermum
halicacabum Linn., Amaranthus spinosus Linn.,
Argemone mexicana Linn., Cassia tora Linn.,
Chrozophora prostrata Dalz., Croton bonplan-
dianum Baill., Cyperus pumilus Linn., Dacty-
loctenium aegyptium (Linn.) P. Beauv. Datura
fastuosa Linn. var. alba Cl., Eclipta prostrata
(Linn.) Linn., Glinus lotoides Linn., Hibiscus
lobatus (Murr.) O. Ktze, Hybanthus enneas-
permus (Linn.) F. N. Muell., Hyptis suaveo-
lens (Linn.) Poit., Lantana camara var. acu-
leata (Linn.) Mold., Leucas cephalotes Spreng..
Martynia annua Linn., Oldenlandia corym-
bosa Linn., Pavonia odorata Willd., P. zeyla-
nica Cav., Polycarpon prostratum (Forsk.)
Asch. & Schweinf., Tephrosia purpurea Pers.,
Tridax procumbens Linn., Urena lobata Linn.,
Xanthium strumarium Linn., and also the weeds
like Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet, Acan-
thospermum hispidum DC., Adhatoda vasica
(Linn.) Nees, Apluda mutica Linn., Calotropis
gigantea (Linn.) R. Br., Cassia occidentalis
Linn., Coldenia procumbens Linn., Dicanthium
annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf, Dipteracanthus pro-
stratus (Poir.) Nees, Echinops echinatus
Roxb., Indigofera linnaei Ali, Ipomoea erio-
carpa R. B., I. hederifolia Linn., I. nil (Linn.)
Roth, Lepidagathis cristata Willd., Leonotis
nepetifolia (Linn.) Ait. f., Melanocenchris
jacquemontii Jaub. et Spach., Opuntia elatior
Mill., Pedalium murex Linn., Pergularia dae-
mea (Forsk.) Chiov., Peristrophe dicalyculata
(Retz.) Nees, Phyllanthus asperulatus Hutch.,
P. maderaspatensis Linn., Pupalia lappacea
(Linn.) Juss., Rungia repens (Linn.) Nees,

Saccharum..spontaneum Linn., Scirpus. articu-
latus Linn., Scoparia dulcis: Linn., Sebastinia
chameleon. (Linn.) Muell.-Arg., Sesamum
mulayanum Nair, Sopubia delphinifolia (Linn.).
G. Don, Tephrosia hirta Buch.-Ham., Triwin-
fetta rhomboidea Jacq., Verbascum chinense
(Linn.) Sant.

RARE: Flaveria trinervia (Spreng.) C. Mohr.,
Parthenium hysterophorus Linn., Amischo-
phacelus axillaris (Linn.) Rolla Rao et Kam-
mathy, A. cucullatus (Roth) Rolla Rao et
Kammathy, Corchorus capsularis Linn., C.
olitorious Linn., Crotalaria orixensis Willd.,
C. prostrata Rottl. ex Willd.

Aquatic and marshy weeds:

COMMON: Ceratophyllum demersum Linn.,
Cyperus allulatus Kern, Hygrophila auriculata
(Sch.) Heine, Jpomoea aquatica Forsk., I.
carica (Linn.) Sweet, Limnophila aquatica
(Roxb.) Alston, Marsilea minuta Linn., Najas
indica (Willd.) Cham., Nelumbo nucifera
Gaertn., Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Green, Pistia
stratiotes Linn.

FREQUENT: Aeschynomene aspera Linn., A.
indica Linn., Cyperus kyllinga Endl., Dentella
repens (Linn.) J.R. & G. Forst., Limnophyton
obtusifolium (Linn.) Miq., Ludwigia fyssopi-
folia (G. Don) Exell, L. perennis Linn., Mono-
charia vaginalis (Burm. f.) Presl. ex Kunth,
Nymphaea nouchali Burm., N. stellata Willd.,
Nymphoides cristatum (Roxb.) O.K., N. indi-
cum (Linn.) O.K. Ofttelia alsinoides Pers.,
Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) FawCett et Rendle,
Smithia conferta Sm.

RARE: Aponogeton natans (Linn.) Engl. &
Krause and Myriophyllum spathulatum Blatt.
& Hall.

Parasites :
Among the parasities the abundant ones were

341.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb., and Cassytha filiformis ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS
Linn. while Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn.)
Etting was frequently met with and Viscum
articulatum Burm. and V. nepalense Spreng.
were rarely seen.

We are grateful to the Director, Botanical
Survey of India for providing facilities and to
the Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of
India, Western Circle, Poona for encourage-
ment.

FOOD OF JUVENILE GARRA MULLYA (SYKES)*
(FAMILY CYPRINIDAE)’

V. S. SOMVANSHI? AND S. S. Bapat*
(With two text-figures)

The study on food of juvenile Garra mullya (Sykes) includes observations made
on 146 juveniles collected from Kham river near Aurangabad.

Percentage composition of main food items of juveniles did not show marked
seasonal differences. Variations in the percentage composition of different food items
were noticed in relation to growth of juveniles. Study on the percentage of prevalence
indicated that the juveniles preferred diatoms, algae and higher plants as their food.
Juveniles of G. mullya were found to be herbivorous bottom feeders.

INTRODUCTION

Many fishes are known to change their food
and feeding habits during their life histories
and in different seasons. Information on food
and feeding habits of juvenile G. muillya in
relation to growth and seasons is not available.
Therefore, an attempt was made to study
variations in food and feeding habits of G.
mullya juveniles.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A total of 146 juvenile specimens of G.
mullya ranging in size between 21 and 55 mm
were collected from Kham river near Auran-
gabad. Fish were brought to the laboratory
every week, their length measured and the
alimentary canal was preserved in 5% forma-
lin. The analysis of gut contents was carried
out by two methods (i) Qualitative, the iden-
tification of food items and (ii) Quantitative,
their percentage composition in the gut. Oc-
currence method described by Hynes (1950)
and Pillay (1952) under the numerical me-

*The valid name for this fish is currently Dis-
cognathus mullya—Eps.

1 Accepted November 1979.

2 Present address: Assistant Director, Exploratory

thods was followed for the calculation of pre-
valence of various food items.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

(1) Qualitative study of food:

The food items found in the guts of juvenile

G. mullya were:

(1) Higher plants: Pieces of leaves and roots
of higher aquatic plants.

(2) Algae: Pieces of filamentous algac like
Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Zygnema, Oscillatoria
and Cosmarium.

(3) Diatoms: Asterionella, Fragillaria, Syne-
dra, Tabellaria, Navicula, Cymbella, Pin-
nularia and Nitzschia.

(4) Debris: Decomposing organic
mixed with mud and sand.

(II) Quantitative study of food:

Seasonal changes in the percentage composi-

tion of main food items taken by juvenile

G. mullya:

Fig. 1. shows the variations in percentage
of main food items in different months.

matter

Fisheries Project, XIII/488, Kochangadi, Co-
chin-682 005.
3 Department of Zoology, Marathwada University,

Aurangabad-431 004.

543

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

60

Sa)
=)

i
©

Percentage

oO

Months

Monthwise changes in the percentage composition of main food items of
juvenile G. mullya.

od.

Fig. 1.

Higher plants were seen in lower proportion
than the other food items, fluctuating from
4.8 in February to 13.8 in June. There are
comparatively low values during January to
May and high values during June to Decem-
ber (except’ in September). The percentage
of algae varied from 21.7 (in September) to
36.7 (in March) and is next to diatoms in
predominance. Diatoms form the major food.
The higher percentage of diatoms throughout
the year suggests that the juveniles feed on
these. The percentage _ of diatoms changed

from 36.7 (in June): to 58.3 (in September). .

Along. with. other food items; juveniles also
take in debris. The percentage of debris was

544

F .

M A M

found to fluctuate between 12.3 (in. Septem:
oo) and 19.3 (in August).

Average percentage of different food iene
of juveniles for the year are: diatoms 45.4,
Zeale 30.1, higher plants 8.6, and debris 15. 8.

Changes in the percentage composition of
main food items of juveniles _ in relation. to
growth:

The intake of food ee varies during dif-
ferent stages of growth in fishes. The data
were analysed for 5 mm denett PUES as
shown in Fig. 2.

Higher plants were: rteets by all pret ‘size
groups in varying percentages, their values

FOOD OF JUVENILE GARRA MULLYA (SYKES). -

ey

70;

SOL

©

©

‘Percentage —

oe.

Tay lane
gle CO

eae

5+55>

or

Length=groups (mm)

Fig. 2. Percentage composition of main food items of juvenile G. mullya in each 5 mm length group.

fluctuating between 3.7 (in 21-25 mm length
group) and 10.6 (in 51-55 mm length group).
In general the percentage of this food item
increases. with the increase in length. However,
high percentage of higher plants (10.4) was
noticed in 36-40 mm length group. Algal mat-

ter is consumed in varying percentages in all
the length groups. The percentage of. algae
varied from 23.9 (in 21-25 mm length group)
to 34.2 (in 51-55 mm length group). The
intake of algae increases with the growth of
juveniles, however, lower values were record-

545

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

TABLE 1

SEASONAL CHANGES IN THE PERCENTAGE OF PREVALENCE OF MAIN FOOD ITEMS TAKEN BY JUVENILE

G. mullya
Higher plants Algae Diatoms Debris
veers No. of No. of No. of No. of
guts H% guts Ve guts oO guts oF
1973
August 9 75.0 9 75.0 12 100.0 9 75.0
September 12 70.6 14 82.8 17 100.0 10 58.8
October 12 66.7 15 83.3 17 94.4 10 55.6
November 9 64.3 13 92.9 14 100.0 10 71.4
December 9 69.2 11 84.6 13 100.0. 9 69.2
1974
January 6 85.7 6 87.7 7 100.0 6 85.7
February 4) 70.0 8 80.0 9 90.0 8 80.0
March 9 69.2 11 84.6 10 76.9 7 53.9
April 13 76.5 13 76.5 15 88.2 12 70.6
May 8 80.0 9 90.0 9 90.0 6 60.0
June 3 75.0 3 75.0 4 100.0 3 75.0
July 8 W240 9 81.8 11 100.0 4 36.4
TABLE 2

CHANGES IN THE PERCENTAGE OF PREVALENCE OF MAIN FOOD ITEMS TAKEN BY JUVENILE G. mullya IN
EACH 5 MM LENGTH GROUP

Length Higher plants Algae Diatoms Debris
(adn) No. of No. of No. of No. of

guts % guts Ye guts % guts %
21-25 6 60.0 9 90.0 10 100.0 5 50.0
26-30 5 55.6 8 88.9 9 100.0 4 44.4
31-35 10 66.7 14 93.3 15 100.0 11 73.3
36-40 13 76.5 15 88.2 16 94.1 11 64.7
41-45 17 70.8 18 75.0 24 100.0 19 79.2
46-50 24 82.8 21 72.4 29 100.0 20 69.0
51-55 32 76.2 34 81.0. 36 85.7 31 73.8

ed in 31-35 mm (28.6) and 41-45 mm (26.8)
length groups. Diatoms form a main food
item of juveniles. The percentage composition
of diatoms fluctuated between 64.7 in 21-25
mm length group and 37.3 in 51-55 mm length
group. As the length of the juveniles increases
the percentage of diatoms decreases, showing
thereby that the smaller sized juveniles feed

546

mainly on diatoms, and as they grow algal per-
centage increases. Debris percentage was found
to increase with the increase in the length of
the juveniles. The percentage of debris was
found to vary form 7.8 in 21-25 mm length
group to 18.0 in 51-55 mm length group. An
abrupt fall was, however, noticed in 46-50 mm
length group.

FOOD OF JUVENILE GARRA MULLYA (SYKES)

(II) Percentage of prevalence:

Number of guts containing a particular food
item either in each month or in each 5 mm
length group is expressed as percentage of
prevalence.

Seasonal changes:

The variations in the percentage of preval-
ence are shown in Table 1, which would give
an idea of availability of the food items and
the preference given to them by the juveniles
in different months.

Higher plants were found in guts of G.
mullya juveniles in all the months. The fre-
quency of occurrence was found to vary from
64.3 (in November) to 85.7% (in January).
Algae were consumed throughout the year.
The percentage of prevalence of algae varied
from 75.0 (in June and August) to 92.9 (in
November). The percentage of prevalence or
occurrence of diatoms is highest of all the food
items taken by the juveniles. The percentage
of pervalence fluctuated between 76.9 (in
March) and 100.0 (in most of the months)
showing thereby that most juvenile G. mullya
consume diatoms. The average frequency of
occurrence of debris was found to be lower
than that of the other food items. The values
varied from 36.4 (in June) to 85.7% (in
January).

Changes in relation to growth:

It can be seen from Table 2 that higher
plants are present in guts of juveniles in all
size groups. The frequency of occurrence of
this food item varied from 55.6 in 26-30 mm
length group to 82.8% in 46-50 mm length
group. Algae were also present in guts of in-
dividuals in all size groups. Their percentage
of prevalence fluctuated between 72.4 in 46-
50 mm length group and 93.3 in 31-35 mm
length group. The percentage of diatoms was

highest of all the other food items in all size
groups. Their values ranged from 85.7 in 51-
55 mm length group and 94.1 in 36-40 mm
length group to 100.0% in the remaining
length groups. In all the five length-groups
each gut was found to contain diatoms, there-
by showing the affinity of the fish for this food
item. Debris was taken by the juveniles in all
the length groups. The percentage of occur-
rence of debris was found to vary from 44.4
in 26-30 mm length group to 79.2 in 41-45 mm
length group. |

Thus it can be stated that as the juveniles
grow from 21 to 55 mm length, the percentage
of higher plants, algae and debris in their food
increases whereas the percentage of diatoms
decreases. It can be inferred that diatoms form
a favourite food item of juveniles, and algae
and higher plants come next. As the percent-
age of prevalence of debris is the least of all
the food items and there is no consistent in-
crease of this food item in the guts of juveniles
during the rainy season when the waters are
turbid with a high load of suspended silt, it
can be said that it is not a food item which
is favoured by the juveniles. Hence, debris
must be accidentally swallowed together with
the other food items.

The inferior mouth and the long alimentary
canal suggest that juveniles of G. mullya are
bottom feeders and purely herbivorous in their
habit.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Prof. R. Nagabhusha-
nam, Head, Department of Zoology, Marath-
wada University, Aurangabad, for providing
facilities to carry out this work. One of the
authors (V.S.S.) is thankful to the University
Grants Commission, New Delhi, for financial
assistance.

REFERENCES

Hynes, H. B. N. (1950): The food of fresh-
water sticklebacks (Gastrosteus pungitius) with a

review of methods used in studies of the food of fp 2m.

fishes. J. Anim. Ecol.,19(1): 35-38.

Pittay, T. V. R. (1952): A critique of the me-
thods of study of food of fishes. J. zool. Soc. India,

547

"MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

| P: ‘VY. -BoLE AND M. R. ALMEIDA

Oe from Vol. 77 (3):

ine ©
Impatiens Linn. «—

1. Plants ‘scapigerous. <0 0. co ees A. sicalit
1. Plants: non-scapigerous ..... 0.4. sce+ wise a's 2
2 \Elowers), yellow o-40. au ese

2. Flowers pink or purple....... cate ate aioe es!
3.-Herbs = 1 metre-tall:..32.1: pulcherrima

3. Herbs = 0.5 metre tall. reais. ke eRe5 084

: 4. Leaves alternate ....:...:1. balsamina
4. Leaves opposite .:..... Seay OE. 5

oe Lamina, with two glands at base
ain ee sess: anaes ie Ae Tr: _Kleinii
5. Lamina without glands. . aN 6
6. Pedicels glabrous

eoeeteee ee © oe

I. oppositifolia
i,

eeeevee eee eee ee eo

ro. Pedicels. hainy, (tec. cutee doce
7. Hairs .on pedicels rufous..

Se SEERA Sal tetas 1h tomentosa
7. Hairs on pedicels not —
‘rufous, only hairy lines. .

k ‘pusilla

eceec ee eee e ese ee ee

1. Impatiens acaulis Arn. in Hook. Comp.
Bot. Mag. 1: 325; 1835;. Dalz. & Gibs. 42;
FBI 1: 443; Nairne, 43; Birdwood, 404; Wood-
row, 11: 266; Cooke, 1: 170 (180): Santapau,
ee & 400; Puri & Mahajan, 120.

I. scapiflora Hook. in Bot. Mag. 64, t. 3587,
1837; ‘(non Heyne, 1820); Snes 34;
Birdwood, 9. au
This i is a beautiful scapigerous species attach-

ed to ‘precipitous rocks below the waterfalls.
FLOWERS: July-October; FRUITS: August-
December. priate isi
LOCAL NAME: Lahan Tirda.

2. Impatiens dalzellii Hook. f. .& ‘Thomson,
in J: Linn.’ Soc. Lord: 4: ° 123, 1860; Dalz. &

548

464],

Gibs. 43; Birdwood, 9: Naime, 44; Birdwood,
404; Woodrow, 11: 266; Cooke, 649 & 1:
173 (183); Blatter 36: 312; nant sEes: 289 &
440; Puri & Mahajan, 120. :

This is a common monsoon herb with yellow
flowers. It grows in forest undergrowth in loose
soil and disappears soon after monsoon.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: August-October.

LOCAL NAME: Pivla Tirda. :

3. Impatiens pulcherrima Dalz. in Hook. J.
Bot. 2: 37, 1850; Hook. Bot. Mag. t. 4615,
1837; Dalz. & Gibs. 44; FBI 1: 458; Nairne,
44; Cooke, 650 & te 195 (185); Woodrow,
Mig 266. oo

‘This is a tall, and showy balsam: fairly
common and gregarious along the Fitzgerald
Ghat.

‘FLOWERS & FRUITS: August- J: anuary..

LOCAL NAME: Motha Tirda.

4. Impatiens balsamina Linn. Sp. . Pl. 938;
1753; Graham, 34 -(p.p.); Dalz. & Gibs. 44
(p.p.); Nairne, 44; Santapau, 400; Puri & Ma-
hajan, 120. ite
I. balsamina var. vulgaris Hook. f. in FBI
1: 454, 1874. 5 ine 1 DOO! dat
- This is.a rare species collected from road-
sides on way to Panchgani. — |
FLOWERS & FRUITS: J uly-Septemiber:
_ LOCAL NAME: Tirda.

5. Impatiens baleaniine. var. rosea (Lindl.)

Hook. f. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 1: 454, te ene

wood, 9: Blatter, 367 314. ! :
I, rosea Lindl. Bot. Reg. 't. 27, 1841. tele

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

I. balsamina var. brevicalcarata Cooke, FI.

Pres. Bombay, 1: 174, 1901.

This is a common and gregarious species of
balsam, all over Mahabaleshwar. It appears
sometimes in July and lasts until November.
Its rosy mauve flowers which are produced in
profusion make it a conspicuous species in the
latter part of the monsoon.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: July-November.

- LOCAL NAME: Ran Tirda.

6. Impatiens kleinit Wight & Arn. Prodr. 140,
1834; Dalz. & Gibs. 43; Nairne, 44; Wight,
Icon. t. 884; Cooke, 1: 171 (181); Birdwood,
120; Blatter 36: 311; Santapau, 290.
A rare plant along Fitzgerald Ghat.
FLOWERS & FRUITS: August-September.
LOCAL NAME: Tirda.

7. Impatiens oppositifolia Linn. Sp. Pl. 937,
1753; Graham, 34; Wight, Icon. t. 883; Dalz.
& Gibs. 43; Nairne, 44; FBI. 1: 448, Birdwood,
9 & 404; Woodrow, 11: 266; Cooke, 1: 172
(182); Blatter, 36: 312.

I. rupicola Hook. f. in Kew Bull. 1910: 292,

1910; Blatter, 36: 310.

This is common and gregarious species,
in forest clearings and under trees, as well
as in open rocky situations. The dark pink-
purple flowers are very conspicuous during
rainy season.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: August-September.

LOCAL NAME: Tirda. |

8. Impatiens pusilla Heyne ex Hook. f. &
Thomson, in J. Linn. Soc. 4: 122, 1860; Blat-
ter, 36: 312.
I. inconspicua auct. (non Benth. ex Wight
& Arn. Prodr. 139, 1834); Graham, 34:
Birdwood, 9; Cooke, 649, & 1: 171 (182);
Santapau, 289.
I. inconspicua var. pusilla Hook. f. in F.B.I.
1: 448, 18.
A common herb among the grasses in wet

places, very variable species.
FLOWERING & FRUITING: August-October.
LOCAL NAME: Tirda.

9. Impatiens tomentosa Heyne ex Dalz. &
Gibs., Bombay Flora, 43, 1861; Wight, Icon.,
t. 749; Nairne. 45.

This species is included on the authority of
Nairne.
10. Impatiens lawii Hook. f. & Thomson in
J. Linn. Soc. 4: 122, 1860; FBI 1: 448; Nairne,
45; Cooke, 1: 172 (183); Blatter 36: 312.

There is one specimen of this species from
Mahabaleshwar in B.S.I. (Poona) Herbarium,
collected by R. K. Bhide.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: A AR it

TROPAEOLACEAE
Tropaeolum Linn.

1. Tropaeolum majus Linn. Sp. Pl. 343, 1753.
A cultivated plant occasionally found in
private gardens.

CON NARACEAE
Connarus Linn.

1. Connarus monocarpus Linn. Sp. Pl. 678,
1753; Graham, 35; Dalz. & Gibs. 53; FBI. 2:
50, Birdwood, 11, 1897.

This species is included here on authority
of Birdwood only. i .
Rourea Aublet (nom. cons.)

1. Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Alston, in Trimen,
Handb. Fl. Ceylon 6:67, 1931; Leenh, in Van
Steenis, Fl. Malesiana, Ser. 1, 5:514, 1958.
Aegiceras minus Gaertner, Fruct. 1:216, t.

46, 1788. |

R. santaloides (Vahl) Wight & Arn., Prodr.

144, 1844; Connarus santaloides Vahl, Symb.

4: 84, 1794.

This species is reported here on authority
of Birdwood.

549

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

RUTACEAE
DT RCES re crs Coens ie ele eA eee esi mee Evodia
1. Shrubs eee ee eee 2)
2: Waharmed ‘shrubs 0. eo 3
~ 3. Leaves with 5 or less leaflets..........
Bee ch OE. BN cisnerc ane Coie Glycosmis
3. Leaves with more than 5 leaflets........
si acl eugealii cy Hel celal anit eat ea Oa Murraya
22 VMATMEG SHTUDS” | ee CoN en i 4
4. Leaves trifoliate .............. Toddalia
4--: dueaves’, unifoliate:(. sjec%. erie. 2 5
5 cerectishrubsi9 2. Oe) ck ak. Atalantia
5. Scandently climbing shrubs ..........
SE EG Gracy elo SRC nea yh Paramignya

Atalantia Corr.

1. Atalantia racemosa Wight & Arnott, Prodr.
91, 1834; FBI 1: 512; Cooke, 1: 187 (199);
Talbot, 1:201, 125; Blatter, 36:310; Santapau,
40.
A. monophylla Graham, Cat. Bombay, PI.
23, 1939; (non Corr. nec. DC. 1824); Dalz.
& Gibs. 28; Lisboa, 210; Nairne, 48; Cooke,
1: 187 (199); Blatter, 36: 310; Puri &
Mahajan, 121.
This is a common species at Mahabaleshwar.
Lodwick Point, Tiger path, Fitzgerald Ghat,
Koyna Valley.
FLOWERS: October-December;
FRUITS: March-August.
LOCAL NAMES: Makad Limbu, Ran Limbu.

Evodia Forst.

1. Evodia lunu-ankenda (Gaertn.) Merrill, in
Phil. Journ. Sci. 7: 378, 1912, Santapau, 307.
_ Fagara lunu-ankenda Gaertn. Fruct. 1: 334,
- t. 68, £. 9, 1788. Zanthoxylum triphyllum
Graham, Cat. 36, 1839; Dalz. & Gibs. 45.
E. roxburghiana Benth. Fl. Hongkong, 59,
1861; FBI 1: 487; Lisboa, 210; Cooke, 1:
177 (188); Talbot, 1: 185, t. 113; Blatter,
36: 315; Puri & Mahajan, 122.
Usually a tree up to 10 metre tall, but on
way to Wada there are a few trees which reach
15 metres height. Though it is not found in

550

abundance anywhere, it is a well distributed
species.

Table lands, Rotunda Ghat, Lodwick point,
Lingmala, Chinaman’s falls, Fitzgerald Ghat.

FLOWERS: April-June;

FRUITS: August-December.

LOCAL NAME: Tikatna.

Glycosmis Corr.

1. Glycosmis arborea (Roxb.) DC. Prodr. 1:
538, 1824.
Limonia pentaphylla Retz., Obs. Bot. 5: 24,
1788; [non Glycosmis pentaphylla (Roxb.)
DC.] L. arborea Roxb. Pl. Cor. t. 85, 1798.
G. pentaphylla auct. [non (Roxb.) DC.
1824]; Graham, Cat. Bombay pl. 23; Dalz.
& Gibs. 29; Nairne, 47; FBI 1: 499; Cooke,
1: 181 (192); Talbot, 1: 191, t. 117; Blat-
ter, 36: 317; Puri & Mahajan, 121.
A rare species at Mahabaleshwar, which is
only known from Dr. T. Cooke’s Collection.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: October-June.
LOCAL NAME: Kirmira.

Murraya Linn. (nom. cons.)

1. Leaflets 3-7; flowers few, = 3 cm long........
M. paniculata
1. Leaflets 11-25; flowers numerous, + 1 cm. long
M. koenigii

ecocoeeeeoeeeeecee eee ee ee ee ew ew eo 8 8

1. Murraya koenigii (Linn.) Spreng, Syst. 2:
315, 1826; FBI 1: 503; Lisboa, 210; Nairne,
47; Cooke, 1: 182 (193); Talbot, 1: 193;
Blatter, 36: 318; Puri & Mahajan, 121.
Bergera koenigii Linn. Mant. 1: 565, 1767;
Graham, 24: Dalz. & Gibs. 29.
A small tree very common along Fitzgerald
Ghat. Occasionally found on the plateau.
FLOWERS: March-April;
FRUITS: March-June.
LOCAL NAME: Kari patta, Kari nim.
LOCAL USES: Leaves used for flavouring
curries and chutnies.

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

2. Murraya paniculata (Linn.) Jack. in Misc.
1: no. 5, 31, 1820; Graham, 24; Dalz. & Gibs.
29: Blatter, 36: 317.
Chalcas paniculata Linn. Mant. 1: 68, 1767.
Murraea exotica Linn. Mant. 2: 563, 1771;
Graham, 24; Wight, Icon. t. 96; Nairne, 47;
Cooke, 1: 182 (193); Puri & Mahajan, 120.
_ M. exotica var. paniculata (Jack.) Birdwood,
in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 10; 404, 1897.
There is only one specimen of this species,
collected from south of Mahabaleshwar.

Paramignya Wight
1. Paramignya monophylla Wight, Ill. 1: 109,
t. 42, 1840.
A shrubby straggling climber seen only once
on the slopes of Lodwick point, from Dhobi
falls.

Toddalia Juss.
1. Toddalia asiatica (Linn.) Lamk. Ill. 2: 116,
1797, Blatter, 36: 316; Santapau, 38.
Paullinia asiatica Linn. Sp. Pl. 365, 1753.
T. aculeata Pers. Syn. 1: 249, 1805; Graham,
37; Dalz. & Gibs. 46; FBI 1: 479; Birdwood,
404; Cooke 1: 179 (190); Talbot 1: 189,
t. 115.
Limonia oligandra Dalz. in Kew J. Bot. 2:
258, 1850; Dalz. & Gibson, 28.
A rare shrub found only between Dhobi
falls and Lodwick point. Leaves prominently
gland-dotted.

FLOWERS: August-January.

ICACINACEAE
Nothapodytes Blume

1. Nothapodytes foetida (Wight) Sleumer,
Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin Dahlem, 15: 247,
1940; Howard in J. Arnold Arbor. 23: 70,
1942.
Stemonurus foetidus Wight, Icon. t. 955,
1845.

Mappia foetida (Wight) Miers. Contrib. 1:

64, 1851; Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 2: 9,

395, 1853; FBI 1: 589; Birdwood, 405;

Cooke, 1: 225 (239); Talbot 1: 267, t. 158;

Santapau, 47.

M. oblonga Miers, Contrib. 1: 65, 1851;

Dalz. & Gibs. 28: FBI. 1: 589; Birdwood,

405.

Common tree at Mahabaleshwar. The power-
ful foetid smell of flowers attracts the atten-
ion of insects as well as human beings.

FLOWERS: August-December;

FRUITS: December-January.

LOCAL NAME: Ghanera.

Chinaman’s falls, Dhobi falls, Lodwick point,
Madhu Kosh, Bhilar.

HIPPOCRATEACEAE
1. Style overtopping the stamens...... Loeseneriella
1. Style shorter than the stamens........ Reissantia

Loeseneriella A. C. Smith

1. Loeseneriella obtusifolia (Roxb.) A. C.
Smith, in Amer. J. Bot. 28: 440, 1941 & J.
Arn. Arbor. 26: 169, 1945.
Hippocratea obtusifolia Roxb. FI. Indian 1:
170, 1820; Graham, 27; Woodrow, 11: 270;
Malbot.1: 282, t 282, t. 167. Cooke, ©&. I:
234 (249).
Less common than Reissantia indica, found
near Fitzgerald Ghat.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: November.
LOCAL NAME: Dahshir.

Reissantia Halle

1. Inflorescence terminal............. R. grahamii
1. Inflorescence axillary............. BR ot R. indica
1. Reissantia grahamii (Wight) Ding Hon, in
Blumea, 12: 33, 1963.
Hippocratea grahamii Wight, Ill. 134, 1838
& Icon. t. 380, 1840; FBI 1: 624; Dalz. &
Gibs. 32; Cooke 1: 235 (249); Talb. 1: 283,
t. 168.

551

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

An extensive climber over 10 metre long
near Lodwick point. Only two plants were
seen in this area.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: March-May.

Lodwick point, Fitzgerald Ghat.

2. Reissantia indica (Willd.) Halle, Mem.
Inst. Franc. Afrique Noire n. 64: 85, 1962.
Hippocratea indica Willd. Sp. Pl. 1: 93,

1797; Graham, 27: Dalz. & Gibs. 32: FBI
_ 1: 624; Nairne, 58; Cooke, 1: 235 (250);
Talbot, 1: 285, t. 169.

Found at Fitzgerald ghat in abundance but

it is scarcely seen on the plateau.
FLOWERS: April; FRUITS: June-August.
LOCAL NAME: Kazurati.

MELIACEAE

Ph Reaves ‘sintple. on Oe ee ee

1. Leaves pinnately compound................ 2
2. Seed, notuwwinseds. .4) too ee
2. Seed winged

Melia Linn.

1. Melia azedarach Linn. Sp. Pl. 384, 1753;
Graham, 30; FBI 1: 544; Nairne 53; Cooke

1: 205 (218).

This is a beautiful tree due to its light Whe
flowers which are produced in large panicles.
It is cultivated near Bhilar estate.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: April-May.

LOCAL NAME: Bakain nim.

Toona Roem.

1. Toona ciliata Roem. Syn. Hesp. 139, +1846;
Santapau, 45.
Cedrela toona Roxb. ex Rotll. & Willd. in

Ges. Naturl. Fr. Neue Schr. 2: 198, 1803;
Graham, 246; Dalz. & Gibs. 38; Nairne,
54; Birdwood, 405; Cooke 1: 217 (230);
Talbot, 1: 249, tt. 148-9.

Planted at Bhilar in a private estate.

552

FLOWERS: January-April; -
FRUITS: March-May. 7 fo
LOCAL NAME: ‘Tooni, Thea” nim:

Turraea Linn,

1. Turraea villosa Benn. in Benn. Br. ids Lent
Rar. 182, 1840; FBI 1: 542; Cooke, 1: 204
(216); Talbot 1: 224, t. 124; Santapau, 42.

T. virens Graham Cat. Bombay Pl. 1839

(non Linn., 1771); Dalz. & Gibs. 36; Nairne,

53.

A shrub reported by several collectors but
it is not seen on the plateau except. at lower
altitudes in Koyna valley. | |

FLOWERS: May-June.

FRUITS: J une-December. . Ae eben

LOCAL NAME: Kapur Bhende Pandan re

OPILIACEAE |
Cansjera Juss.

Ibs Caen rheedii Gmel. Syst. 2: 280, 1791:
FBI: 1:7582; Cooke, 1:°223 (237); stalhoks Ie
262, t. 155; Sautapau, 47.

Climbing scandent. shrub found on “Tower
ghat slopes and in valleys. -: his

FLOWERS: October-December.

FRUITS: November-March.. .-

LOCAL NAME: Taroli. |

CELASTRACEAE.

1. Armed shrubs or small trees......... - -Mayienas
1. Unarmed shrubby climbers...........; » Celastrus

Celastrus Linn.

1. Celastrus paniculata Willd. Sp. Pl. 1: 1125,
1798; Graham, 38; Dalz. & Gibs. 47; FBI 1:
617; Nairne, 57; Birdwood, 405; Cooke, 1:
231 (245); Talbot, 1: 276, t. 163; ae
48.

A straggling climber frequently found « on ‘the
Kelghar Ghat, on Satara Road. ;

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

_ FLOWERS: December-March.
_ FRUITS: March-September.
_ LOCAL NAME: Kangni.

Maytenus Molina

1. Maytenus wightiana Babu, Bull. Bot. Surv.
India, 10: 349, 1969.

- Gymnosporia rothiana (Wight. & Arn.)

Laws, in FBI 1: 619, 1875; Nairne, 57;

Birdwood, 405; Cooke, 1: 232 (246); Tal-

Dots 1s 2782 t: 164:

- Celastrus rothiana Wight & Arn. Prodr.
~ 159, 1834. (non Schultes, 1820); Dalz. &
~ Gibs. 47 & 318.

Celastrus emarginata Graham, Cat. Boney

pl. 39, 1839.

Maytenus rothiana (Walp.) Ramam. in fil.
Hassan Dist. 320, 1976.

Common small tree in the forest areas. At-
tractive when in beautiful red coloured fruits.
Generally emarginate, acute or obtuse leaves
are seen on one and the same twig.
--Ramamoorthy (l.c.) makes a new combina-
tion based on Walper’s name stating an exam-
ple under article 72 of LC.B.N. But he has
misinterpretated article 72 and the example
used: under that article. The article and exam-
ple cited under the article are applicable only
to the names which have been intentionally
published as nomen novum only. Walper did
not publish a new name but he clearly made
a new combination in the new genus. Combi-
nations based on illegitimate names have to be
rejected.

Chinaman’ § falls, Yenna Lake, eingion
pt., Lingmala, Lodwick pt.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: March-November.

LOCAL NAME: Aukili.

RHAMNACEAE
1, Winammedtashruibs. cai, erat ss sae s sols 0's ape z
Oey bree: eurubs 2 ee Rhamnus
2)..Climbins ‘shrabs 25160 ey oP. Ventilago

1. Armed shrubs
3. Leaves hairy, 3-nerved Zizyphus
3. Leaves glabrous, smooth; with single main

nerve Scutia

Ce ry

Rhamnus Linn.

1. Rhamnus wightii Wight & Arn. Prodr. 164,
1834; Dalz. & Gibs. 50: FBI 1: 639; Nairne,
61; Cooke, 1: 244( 259); Talbot, 1: 300.
A rare glabrous shrub 2-3 m tall, seen only
at Kate’s point on very precipitous rocks.
FLOWERS & FRUITS: January-April.

Scutia Commers
1. Scutia myrtina (Burm. f.) Kurz., J. Asiat.
Soc. Bengal, 44: 168, 1875; Santapau, 52.

Rhamnus myrtinus Burm. f., Fl. Ind. 60,

1768.

Scutia indica Brongn. in Ann. Soc. Nat.

Ser. 1, 10; 363, 1827; Graham, 39; Dalz. &

Gibs. 50: FBI 1: 640; Lisboa 211; Nairne,

60; Birdwood, 406; Cooke, 1: 244 (260):

Talbot, 1: 302, t. 179.

Rhamnus circumscissus Linn. f. Suppl. 152,

1781.

Very common straggling armed shrub with
shining leaves and curved spines, on forest
fringes. It is popularly called ‘wait a bit’ plant
on account of its spines which catch clothes
of hurrying visitors who walk close to this
species.

Madhu Kosh, Rippon Hotel,
falls, Lodwick point, Yenna lake.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: March-December.

LOCAL NAME: Chimat.

Chinaman’s

Ventilago -Gaertn.

1. Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. in Hook. Kew
J. Bot. 3: 36, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs. 48: FBI
1: 631; Nairne 59; Birdwood, 406; Cooke,
1: 239 (254); Talbot, 1: 293; Santapau, 49.
‘Straggling unarmed climber scandent over
forest trees. Flowers green. Rare on the pla-
teau, Fitzgerald Ghat.

553

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

- FLOWERS: December-February.
LOCAL NAME: ‘Toran.

Zizyphus Juss.
1. Zizyphus rugosa Encycl. 3: 319, 1789;
Graham, 30; Dalz. & Gibs. 49: FBI 1: 636;
Lisboa, 211; Nairne 60; Birdwood, 406; Cooke,
1: 243 (258); Talbot, 1: 298, t. 177, Sedg-

wick, in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 45: 74, |

1919; Santapau, 51.

A prickly rambling shrub, with very long
terminal inflorescence. Common all over espe-
cially in the open forests.

Falkland point, Lodwick point, Chinaman’s
point, Fitzgerald Ghat.

FLOWERS: December-March.
~ FRUITS: March-April.

LOCAL NAME: Toren.

AMPELIDACEAE
Cissus Linn.

Ei eaves simple <2o eee irs nt Oe be he 2
2. Erect shrubs, tendrils nil...... C. woodrowii
2. Scandent shrubs, tendrils leaf opposed...... 3

3. Leaves glabrous variegated... C. discolor
3. Leaves tomentose............. C. repanda
tf. "Leaves S-foliate’™. (eer see oar C. elongata

1. Cissus woodrowii (Stapf) Santapau, Kew
Bull. 1948: 276, 1948; Santapau, 53.
_ Vitis woodrowii Stapf ex Cooke Fl. Bombay

Pres. 1: 248, 1902.

C. vitiginea Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI. 40,

1861 (non Roxb.)

A shrub 1.5-2 metres tall. Very common on
exposed hill slopes along Kelghar ghat on
Satara Road.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: June.

LOCAL NAME: Girnul.

2. Cissus discolor Blume, Bijdr. 181, 1825;
Dalz. & Gibs. 40; Santapau, 52.
Vitis discolor Dalz. in Hook. Kew J. Bot.
2: 39, 1850; FBI 1: 647; Nairne, 63; Bird-
wood, 906; Cooke, 1: 250 (266); Talbot,
1: 309.

554

A scandent climber with leaves which are
green on the dorsal surface and metallic red
on the ventral surface. Frequent along the
Fitzgerald Ghat.

FLOWERS: August-October.

LOCAL NAME: Telicha Vel.

3. Cissus repanda Vahl Symb. 3: 18, 1794;
Graham, 32; Dalz. & Gibs. 39; Santapau, 53.
Vitis repanda Wight & Arn. Prod. 125, 1824;
FBI 1: 271; Nairne, 62; Cooke, 1: 215

(267); Talbot, 1: 312, tt. 184-5.

Young foliage of this species is brightly
coloured. This species is collected from Fitz-
gerald Ghat only.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: April-June.

LOCAL NAME: Gendal.

4. Cissus elongata Roxb. FI. Ind. 1: 411, 1820;
Santapau, 53.

Vitis elongata Wall. ex Wight & Arn. Prodr.

128, 1824; FBI 1: 658; Cooke, 1: 265 (273);

Talbot, 1: 320, t. 190.

A glabrous climber very common all over
Mahabaleshwar among shrubs and_ bushes.
This is the commonest species of this area. Size
and margins of the leaves are very variable. |

FLOWERS: May-June; FRUITS: August-

October.

Pratapsingh Park, Tiger’s Path, Kate’s point,
Wilson point, Fitzgerald Ghat.

Vitis Linn.
1. Vitis vinifera Linn. Sp. Pl. 202, 1753; FBI
L692:

A woody climber with bifid tendrils. Culti-
vated for its edible fruits in Dr. Hakim’s estate
at Bhilar.

FLOWERS: December: FRUITS: March.

LEEACEAE
Leea Linn.

1. Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merrill, in Phil. J.
Sci. Bot. 14: 245, 1919; Santapau, 55.

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

Staphylea indica Burm. f. Fl. Ind. 75, t. 24,
f. 2, 1768.

~ Aquilicia sania Linn. Mant. 2:
1771.
Leea staphylea Roxb. Fl. Ind. 1: 658, 1832;
Graham, 33; Dalz. & Gibs. 41.

211,

L. sambucina Willd. Sp. Pl. 1: 1177; FBI
1: 666 (p.p.); Nairne, 64; Cooke, 1: 260
(277); Talbot, 1: 327, t. 194.
A frequent shrub on Fitzgerald Ghat.
FLOWERS: March-June; FRUITS: May-

_ December.

’ LOCAL NAME: Dinda.

SAPINDACEAE
1. Climbers or scandent shrubs....... Allophyllus

He PRRCES OP ey i ne. bee eee sees

2. Fruit when a ate
Dimocar pus
2. Fruit when ripe + 3-4 cm. long...... Litchi

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Allophyllus Linn.

1. Allophyllus serratus (Roxb.) Radlk. in
Pfreich. 98: 562, 1921; Santapau, 56.
Ornitrophe serrata Roxb. Pl. Corom. 1: 44,
t. 61, 1795.
_Schmidelia cobbe Graham, Cat. Bombay pl.
29, 1839.
Cardiospermum schmiedelia Dalz. & Gibs.
Bombay Fl. 34, 1861.
A. cobbe Hiern., in Fl. Br. Ind. 1: 7, 674,
1875 (p.p.); Lisboa, 211; Nairne, 65; Bird-
wood, 406: Cooke, 1: 265 (282); Talbot,
. 1: 334, t. 197.
A villous, trifoliate, scandent shrub, often
climbing on medium size trees. Common all
over Mahabaleshwar. Flowers white, profusely
produced in pendulous spikes during late sum-
mer and last till early monsoon.
Petit Road, Lodwick point, Kelgar Ghat,
Tiger’s path.

DIMOCARPUS Loureiro

1. Dimocarpus longan Lour., Fl. Cochinch.
233, 1790; Leenhouts, Blumea, 19: 122, 1971,
Nephelium longana (Lamk.) Camb. in Mem.
Mus. Par. 18: 30, 1829; Graham, 29: Dalz.

& Gibs. 35; FBI 1: 688; Birdwood, 406;
Nairne, 66; Cooke, 1: 267 (285); Talbot,
12338; & 200:

A handsome tree, 10-15 m tall with pinnate
leaves. Common on Fitzgerald Ghat.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: April-May.

LOCAL NAME: Wumb.

Litchi Sonner.

1. Litchi chinensis Sonner. Voy. Ind. 3: 255,
1782; Benthal, in Trees of Calcutta, 124.
Nephelium litchi Camb. in Mem. Mus. Par.
18: 30, 1829; Nairne, 66.
Dimocarpus litchi Lour. FI. Cochinch., 233,
1790.
A small tree with paripinnate leaves and 4.
12 leaflets in each leaf. Fruits red or pink when
ripe. Cultivated for its edible delicious fruits,
at Bhilar and on sides of Yenna river.
_ FLOWERS & FRUITS: May.

Turpinia Vent.

1. Turpinia pomifera DC. Prodr. 2: 3, 1825,
Birdwood, 11, 1897.

This species is reported here on authority
of Birdwood. :

ANACARDIACEAE -

Mangifera Linn.

1. Mangifera indica Linn. Sp. Pl. 200, 1753;
Lisboa, 211; Birdwood, 406; Nairne, 67;
Cooke, 1: 273 (291); Talbot, 1: 348; Santapau
58.

Occasionally found on the plateau, where it
does not bear fruits. Trees in the valleys are
taller but bear inferior quality fruits.

555

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

FLOWERS: February-March; FRUITS: May-

June.

LOCAL NAME: Amba.

Distribution: _Chinaman’s
point, Fitzgerald Ghat.

falls, Lodwick

MorINGACEAE
Moringa Lamk.

1. Moringa oleifera Lamk., Encycl. Meth.
Bot. 1: 398, 1785.
M. pterigosperma Gaertner, Fruct. 2: 314,
1791; Nairne, 70; FBI 2: 45; Cooke, 1:
282 (301).
A cultivated medium-size tree. Pods and
leaves used for vegetables and curries.
FLOWERS: January-April.
LOCAL NAME: Shevga.

FABACEAE

b. Rods) Jomted in 5 iy set cee nol one cau Z
2. Stamens 5S + 5 in two rows........ Smithia
2. Stamens 10, united or 9 + 1.............. 3
3. Leaves pinnate ................ . Zornia
3. Leaves simple or imparipinnate........ 4
4. Pods turgid .............. Alysicar pus
4 Pods flat ei 0 eae sek Desmodium
1. Pods‘ not jomted) oo 2. ees hae 5
>. Anthers,/ spiculate’ pact nca ny: Indigofera
SsAnthers Obtuses 8 soe ee ees wee 6
6,2. Leafletsw toothed i ge SEE. baie: Cicer
6. Leaflets (entire: 2.2 fee Se ee a
7. Style bearded below the stigma...... 8
8. Main rachis or entire leaflets modi-
fied into tendrils .......... Pisum

8. Main rachis not modified into
tendrils Oe oe 9
9. Leaves trifoliate .......... 10
10. Stigma oblique ........ 11
ii Keel spiral) .2).0 0 toes
pail yi Sas Phaseolus
11. Keel not spiral ......
wis ESOMOIY Zanes os Vigna

10. Stigma not oblique
EP a rng Ge 9 8, Spenostylis

9. Leaves imparipinnate consisting
more than 3 leaflets..........

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556

7. Style not bearded below the. stigma

BO RNa eter runes Ni AIG (12
12. Leaves simple or imparipinnate
SEAS aSlsibieg: Ge Se OE AC Me sc 13

13. Anthers not uniform...... 14
14. Flowers yellow .........

Ms: oe Crotalaria

14. Flowers blue or purple

sae ais Maen SOI RL ne Mucuna

13. Anthers uniform .......... 15

15. Leaflets always alternate
Hd. Saks ts oae Dalbergia
15. Leaflets opposite
16. Pods one seeded....

ative ee eet 17

es Pongamia
16. Pods many — seeded
Pea eM eae CE es Hs 18

18. Leaves gland-
dotted: 19
19. Pods turgid....... Flemingia
19. Pods compeassed.... Atylosia
18. Leaves not gland-dotted
20. Leaves simple

21. Flowers yellow .....-
BOON A Ree Dumasia
21. Flowers red or pur-
ple. oe) yhoo eas. 22,
22. Climbers

Erythrina
Derris

Smithia Ait.

1, Calyx rigid with parallel veins.............. 2:
24; Flowers “purple 34). We S. purpurea
2¥eilowers | yellow. c3 silo teres ae eee es 3

3. Stems with dense spreading bristles....

BA 5 hae the ame ata ohaeehe Beata cea §. setulosa

3. Stems glabrescent

4, Leaves 6-20 mm long, flowers conjested

at the nodes a5) see ce S. conferta

4. Leaves 25-35 mm long, flowers in lax

TACEMIES' cee. ce S. sensitiva
1. Calyx membranaceous; veins anastomosing ....5

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR |...

-5. Flowers in globose terminal heads........,. i$
BPS RUNES ONS shea auclens ssee wicpe ales weak ee oe pycnantha
5. Flowers in racemes

G Bracicoles’ equal im length...) ..°.. 2... 7
7. Leaflets 2 pairs ..........S. bigemina
Ws Meaflets) 3-4). pairsi 2 . 62s. 1 S. blanda

6. Bracteoles unequal in length. . aeure ne hee
S. agharkari
1. Smithia purpurea Hook. Bot. Mag. t. 4283,
1847; Dalz. & Gibs. 64: Birdwood, 407; F.B.I.

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2: 149; Nairne 83; Cooke, 1: 337 (359); San-

tapau, 68.

This is the only purple flowered smithia

found at Mahabaleshwar or rather in Western
India. Frequently seen on rocky slopes along
the Yenna lake.
FLOWERS & FRUITS: 4September: December.
LOCAL NAME: Berki.

2. Smithia setulosa Dalz. in Kew J. Bot. 3:
208, 1851; FBI 2: 149; Dalz. & Gibs. 63; Bird-
wood, 407; Nairne 82; Cooke, 1: 337 (359);
Santapau, 68.

An erect herb, common in open pisces This
species is easily identified by large flowers and
prominent bristly hairs on the stem.

FLOWERS : September-October;

FRUITS: October-November.

3. Smithia conferta Sm. in Rees, Cycl. 33,
no. 2; 1819; Cooke, 1: 336 (358); Santapau,
67.

S. geminiflora Roth, Nov. Pl. sp. 352, 1821.

S. geminiflora var. conferta Baker, in FBI

2: 149, 1876.

Common in marshy ground. Flowers yellow
to saffron coloured.

~ Wilson: point; LLingmala; Near Rippon Hotel.

FLOWERS: September-December;

FRUITS: October-February.

4. Smithia sensitiva Ait. Hort. Kew 3: 496,
1789: Graham, 48; Dalz. & Gibs. 63; FBI 2:
148; Nairne, 82 (p.p.); Cooke, 1: 335 (357):
Santapau 67.

9

Rare species at Mahabaleshwar, though the
commonest Smithia down in Konkan. Only one
specimen is collected so Chinaman’s S falls
area.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: August- October.

5. Smithia pycnantha Benth. ex Baker, in. “FL
Brit. Ind. 2: 150, 1876; Nairne, 82; Cooke 1:
338 (360); Santapau, .68.

This species closely resembles S. bigemina,
but differs from it in pene, globose terminal
heads of flowers. .

. FLOWERS & FRUITS: Sep nag October,

6. Smithia bigemina Dalz., in Kew -J. Bot.
3: 208, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs. 64; FBI 2: 149;
Nairne 83; Cooke, 1: 338 (360); cela
68.

Gregarious species forming saiese carpets of
yellow flowers, on open rocky grounds and in
rice-fields. The standard petal” is streaked with
two prominent red lines.

Dhobi falls, Kate’s point, Lodwick point.

FLOWERS: June-October; :

FRUITS: September-January.

7. Smithia blanda var. racemosa Baker, in FI.
Brit. Ind. 2: 151, 1876; Birdwood, 407; Cooke,
1: 338 (361); Santapau, 69.
S. racemosa Heyne ex Dalz. & Gibs. Se
Fl. .63, 1861.
135,

S. hirsuta Dalz. in Hook. J. Bot. 3:
1851; Dalz. & Gibs. 63.
S. humilis Benth. ex Cooke, FI. Pres. Bom-

bay; 1: 339, -1901. |

Quite frequent in rocky soils and on peathen
embankments along the road sides. Collected
from Kate’s point. :

FLOWERS: September; FRUITS: October.

LOCAL NAME: Mothi Berki. :
8. Smithia agharkari Hemadri, in Indian
Forester 97: 67, 1971.

An erect annual herb 9-20 cm. tall. Stems

dichotomously branched. Leaves paripinnately

557:

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

compound. Inflorescence of terminal and axil-
lary simple racemes. Bracteoles greenish, in
unequal pairs. Fruits 3-4 mm. in diameter.
A rare herb among the grasses on open
plateaus.
Wilson Point.
FLOWERS & FRUITS: September-October.

Zornia Gmel.

1. Zornia gibbosa Span. in Saale -2: 192,
1841; Santapau, 57.
Z. diphylla auct. plur. (non Pers, 1807);
Baker, in FBI 2: 147, 1876; Nairne, 81;
Cooke, 1: 334; Santapau, 66.
Z. angustifolia Graham, Cat. Bombay pl. 48,
1839 (non Smith).
A rare species in waste grasslands and fal-
low land.
FLOWERS: August-October.
FRUITS: October.

Specimen Collected: Laxman (Api. Res.

Centre) — s.n. ;
Alysicarpus Neck

1’ ALeaves conbicular: 30.6 ok ee A. beddomei

1. Leaves elliptic, oblong or ovate.............. 2
2. Calyx 3-4 mm long, pods 4-6 jointed......

AVS TTTOISE, POG d tht ress chstotaceton Grae eae A. parviflorus
2. Calyx 7-12 mm long; pods 2-4 jointed...... 3

3. Inflorescence 4-7 cm long....A. racemosus

3. Inflorescence 13-27 cm long............

A. belgaumensis

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1. Alysicarpus beddomei Schindler, in Fedde
Repert. Beih. 49: 244, 1928.

A. rotundifolius Prain, in J. Asiat. Soc. Bom-

bay, 66: 385, 1897.

Desmodium rotundifolium Baker, in FBI 2:
172, 1876; Cooke, 1: 357 (381); Santapau,
133: |

Very common on grassy hill slopes all over.

Fitzgerald Ghat, Lingmala, Bhilar.

_ FLOWERS & FRUITS: October-November.

358:

2. Alysicarpus parviflorus Dalz. in Hook. Kew
Hai 74 bs oe FS

Desmodium parviflorum (Dalz.) Baker, in

FBI 2: 172. 1876; Cooke, 1: 358 (381);

Santapau, 74, (non Mart. Galeott. 1843).

D. alysicarpoides K. v. Meeuwen, in Rein-

wardtia, 6: 246: 1962.

The species approaches Desmodium and Dr.
T. Cooke is of the opinion that this is a link
species between Alysicarpus and Desmodium.
We have not seen specimen of this species from
Mahabaleshwar. Lee, in Bombay Gazetteer,
vol. 19 reports it from Mahabaleshwar.

3. Alysicarpus racemosus Benth., in Linnaea
24: 642, 1851.

A. belgaumensis var. racemosus Baker, in

FBI 2: 160, 1876; Cooke, 1: 330 (373).

Found mixed with A. belgaumensis but much
less frequent on grassy slopes. Flower colours
vary from white to blue.

Yenna lake, Lodwick point,

Bhilar.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: October.

Lingmala,

4. Alysicarpus belgaumensis Wight, Icon. t.
92, 1838; Dalz. & Gibs. 65; FBI 2: 160; Cooke
1: 349 (372); Santapau, 70.

Abundant in open places during monsoon
and post-monsoon periods, all over Mahaba-
leshwar. Flowers blue, or sometimes white.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: September-November.

LOCAL NAME: Dhampta.

Desmodium Desv.

1. Leaves unifoliate, petiole winged ............
shisite een ues o IN sat iaUo ieee ihe cee cu sucstial aan eRe Re D. triquetrum
1. Leaves usually trifoliate...............0000. z
2. Erect herbs D. laxiflorum

D. triflorum

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1. Desmodium laxiflorum DC. in Ann. Sci.
nat. (Paris) ser. 1, 4: 100, 1825; Prodr. 2:
335, 1825; FBI 2: 164; Cooke, 1: 353 (376);
Santapau, 71.

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

D. recurvatum Graham, ex Wight, Icon. t.

374, 1840.
Hedysarum recurvatum Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3:
358, 1832.
H. diffusum Roxb. lc. (non Willd., 1802).
Frequent on hill slopes along Fitzgerald
ghats.
FLOWERS & FRUITS: August-December.
2. Desmodium triflorum (Linn.) DC. Prodr.
2: 334, 1825; Graham, 49; Dalz. & Gibs. 67;
FBI 2: 173; Cooke, 1: 355; Santapau, 72.
Hadysarum triflorum Linn. Sp. Pl. 749,
1753.
Weed in cultivated fields and in waste-lands.
FLOWERS & FRUITS: August-December, some-
times in hot seasons.
LOCAL NAME: Ran Methi.
3. Desmodium triquetrum (Linn.) DC. Prodr.
2: 326, 1825; FBI 2: 163; Graham, 49; Dalz.
& Gibs. 66; Nairne 84; Cooke, 1: 355 (378);
Santapau, 72.
Hedysarum triquetrum Linn. Sp. Pl. 746,
1753.
At the foot of the Fitzgerald Ghat among
grass.
FLOWERS & FRUITS: August-December.

Indigofera Linn.

I. dalzellii
I. cassioides

NPeeeaves: SIMPIE: 8 eee aie os:
1. Leaves compound

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1. Indigofera dalzellii Cooke, FI.
Pres. 1: 311, 1902.
I. triquetra Dalz. in Hook. Kew J. Bot. 2:
36, 1850; (non May 1836); Dalz. & Gibs.
58; FBI 2: 93.
A prostrate herb among the grasses at
Bhilar.
FLOWERS: July-September.
_ FRUITS: October-November.

Bombay

2. Indigofera cassioides Roitl., ex DC. Prodr.
2: 225, 1825; Ali, in Bot. Notiser. 111; 569,
1958.

I. pulchella auct. (non Roxb., 1832); Dal-
zell & Gibson, Bombay FI. 60, 1861; Lis-
boa, 212; Birdwood, 407; Nairne, 79; Cooke,
1: 320 (341).

I. gibsonii Graham, Cat. Bombay | Pl. 46,

1839.

Common shrub along the edges of forests
and on exposed. slopes of ‘hills.. The stem is
often covered with galls with soft velvety
covering of a purple colour. |

Lingmala, Bhilar, ae Ghat, Kelgar

Ghat.

FLOWERS: October-January.

FRUITS: December-April.

LOCAL NAME: Narda.

Cicer Linn.

1. Cicer ariatinum Sp. Pl. 738, 1753; FBI 2:
176; Cooke, 1: 408; Santapau, 88.

Cultivated and mostly used for local sale
of raw green fruits. Cultivation begins ge
starting of hot season.

LOCAL NAME: Chana, Harbhara. |

Pisum Linn.

1. Pisum sativum Linn. Sp. Pl. 727, 1753.
Extensively cultivated at Mahabaleshwar for
its fruits which form an article of major trade
to the markets of Bombay and Pune.
FLOWERS: September-December.
FRUITS: October-December.
LOCAL NAME: Matar, Vatani.

Phaseolus Linn.

1. Stipules medifixed
2... Erect-plants, 60-210 .cm’-tall |... .25.72,. «3.4;
See ee a: bebe, Po. khandalensis

2. Prostrate or twining plants....... P. radiatus

1. Stipules basifixed P. lunulatus

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1. Phaseolus khandalensis Santapau, in Kew
Bull. 276, 1948; Santapau, 68.

559

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

P. grandis Dalz. in Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay
Fl. 72, 1861; FBI 2: 202; Nairne, 89; Cooke,
1: 375 (400); (non Wall. 1832, nec Benth.
1844).
_A rare species. The pods are eaten by local
people.
_ FLOWERS: September-October.
FRUITS: October-November.

2. Phaseolus radiatus Linn. Sp. Pl. 725, 1753;
Santapau, 69.
P. sublobatus Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3: 288, 1832;
Cooke, 1: 373 (402).
P. trinervius Heyne ex Graham, Cat. Bom-
bay Pl. 51, 1839; Dalz. & Gibs. 71; FBI 2:
203; Birdwood, 407; Nairne, 89.
Cultivated; the source of the pulse, Mung,
_of commerce.
~ FLOWERS: September-October.
FRUITS: October-December.

3. Phaseolus lunulatus Linn. Sp. Pl. 724, 1753;
Graham, 51; FBI 2: 200; Cooke, 1: 377 (402).
Lima bean of commerce. Cultivated at Chi-
naman’s falls.
FLOWERS & FRUITS: October-March.

Vigna Savi

1. Vigna vexillata (Linn.) A. Rich. in Sagra,
Hist. Cuba, Bot. 440, 1845; FBI 2: 206; Bird-
wood, 407; Nairne, 89.
Phaseolus vexillatus Linn., Sp. Pl. 724, 1753.
V. capensis Walp., in Linnaea, 13: 533,
1839; Cooks, 1: 379 (404); Santapau, 80.
Common. in undergrowth, especially notice-
able during the middle of the monsoon season.
Kate’s point, Chinaman’s falls, Wilson point,
Dhobi’s falls, Lingmala.
FLOWERS: August-October.
FRUITS: October-November.
LOCAL NAME: Halunda.

560

Sphenostylis E. May

1. Sphenostylis bracteata (Baker) Gillet, in
Kew Bull. 20: 103; 1966, Santapau, 328.
Dolichos bracteatus Baker, in FBI 2: 210,
1876; Cooke, 381 (406). |
D. ghaticus Sant. & Panth. in J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 502, 1956. |
Common and prominent during monsoon
along the Fitzgerald Ghat, climbing on bushes.
of the forest edges.
FLOWERS: August-September;
FRUITS: September-October.

Tephrosia Pets.

1. Tephrosia tinctoria Pers. Syn. 2: 329, 1807;
FBI 2: 111; Cooke, 1: 324 (345); Santapau,
65.

T. tinctoria var. intermedia Baker, in FBI

2: 112.1876: Cooke, 1: 324

Frequent at Bhilar in grasslands and in the
woods between Mahabaleshwar and Panch-
gani.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: October-December.

LOCAL NAME: Gull.

Crotalaria Linn.

1. Pods glabrous .
2. Stipules present
3. Stem terete, not striate or fluted........ .

5 RIS regions aR eet Acne Moen C. mysorensis

3. Stem fluted and subglabrous

let ies NeafeT a Torde ms tate a eC oe al aise Vey Se ance aera ne C. retusa

2. Stipules absent 1.2). See Meee ee ee 4
4. Pods distinctly exerted. C1) (okra oe <>
5. Prostrate or erect herbs............ 6

6. Corolla) exerted) 22.5405. C. filipes

6. Corolla not exerted...... C. vestita

5. Shrubs or undershrubs....... C. albida

4. Pods included or scarcely exerted........
eae Crate eK a DN Aner 8 sate Natt C. nana

b:-Pods ; silky “or hairy’... 2-229 ae Fore eee 7
7. Erect or trailing herbs.......... C. triquetra
7. Shrubs or undershrubs............ C. juncea

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

1. Crotalaria mysorensis Roth, Nov. Pl. Sp.
338, 1821; FBI 2; 70; Cooke, 1: 294 (314);
Santapau, 61.

Frequent in exposed situations on the Fitz-
gerald Ghat and on way to Panchgani. Flowers
yellow. The whole plant is covered with brow-
nish shining tomentum.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: OcioberiNovenber

2. Crotalaria retusa Linn. Sp. Pl. 715, 1753;
FBI 2: 575; Birdwood, 407; Nairne 75; Cooke,
1: 299 (318); Santapau, 62.

C. leschenaultii Graham Cat. 44, 1839 (non

DC. 1824); Dalz. & Gibs. 54; Lisboa, 211;

Birdwood, 407.

The commonest and most showy species be-
longing to the genus at Mahabaleshwar.
Flowers bright yellow.

Lodwick point, Madhu Kosh, Lingmala,
Bhilar, Chinaman’s falls.

FLOWERS: September-December.

3. Crotalaria filipes Benth. in Hook. London
J. Bot. 2: 475, 1843; Dalz. & Gibs. 56: FBI
2: 66; Cooke, 1: 292 (312); Santapau, 60.

A spreading herb producing tiny multicolour-
ed flowers. Usually found mixed among the
grasses in open grasslands.

FLOWERS: September-December.

FRUITS: December-February.

in Fl. Br. Ind.
Cooke 1: 293

4. Crotalaria vestita Baker,
2: 67, 1876; Birdwood, 407;
(313); Santapau, 61.
Occasional among the grasses.
from Elephinstone point.
FLOWERS & FRUITS: October-January.

Collected

5. Crotalaria albida Heyne ex Roth., Nov.
Pi Sp: 333, 182) BE 2. Fi. Cooke I: 295
(315): Santapau, 62.

C. epunctata Dalz. in Kew J. Bot. 3: 210,
1851, Dalz. & Gibs. 56.
_ Frequently seen among the undergrowth of
forest along Fitzgerald Ghat.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: October-February.

LOCAL NAME: Ban Methi.

6. Crotalaria nana Burm. f. Fl. Ind. 156, t.
48, f. 2, 1768; Dalz. & Gibs. 56; Birdwood,
407; Cooks, 1: 296 (315); Santapau, 62.

C. umbellata Wight ex Graham Cat. Bom-

bay pl. 45, 1839; Dalz. & Gibs. 56.

Found on the grassy slopes of higher eleva-
tions. In vegetative conditions it resembles
C. mysorensis.

Lingmala, Canaught peak, Bhilar. ©

FLOWERS & FRUITS: September-October.

7. Crotalaria triquetra Dalz. in Hook. Kew.

J. Bot. 2: 34, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs. 56; Bird-
wood, 407; Cooke, 1: 295 (314); Santapau,
61.

Stems and branches triquetrous. Frequently
seen among the grasses between Mahabalesh-
war and Panchgani.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: December at times BP

to April.

LOCAL NAME: Ghati.

8. Crotalaria juncea Linn. Sp. Pl. 714, 1753;
Dalz. & Gibs. 54; FBI 2: 79; Nairne 76; Cooke
1: 301 (320); Santapau, 63.

Frequently seen growing among the grasses.
The shining golden silky hairs aid the identi-
fication of this species. Cultivated for fibre
and for green manure. a

FLOWERS: October-December;

FRUITS: January-February.

LOCAL NAME: Sunn.

Mucuna Adans.

1. Pods obliquely plaited, one seeded............
M. monosperma

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. Pods not laid 4-6 seeded......... M. prurita

1. Mucuna monosperma DC. Prodr. 2: 406,
1825; Dalz. & Gibs. 70; FBI 2: 185; Nairne
87; Cooke, 1: 364 (388).

In dense jungle of Fitzgerald Ghat, climbing
over small trees. The fruits are covered pro-

561

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

fusely with golden to reddish stinging hairs.
The fruit surface is reticulately plaited or with
ridges.

FLOWERS: November-December.

FRUITS: December.

LOCAL NAMES: Mothi Kuvli, Iona garvi.

2. Mucuna prurita Hook., Bot. Misc. 2: 384,
1830; Dalz. & Gibs. 70; Santapau, 74.
M. pruriens auct. (non DC. 1825) Baker,
Fl. Brit. Ind. 2: 187, 1876; Nairne 87;
Cooke, 1: 365 (389).
Found only at the foot of Fitzgerald Ghat.
FLOWERS & FRUITS: August-December.
LOCAL NAME: Kavach, Kuili.

Dalbergia Linn.

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aes cape in Semres SePA ry oer ot oe yin, D. sympathetica
1. Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. Pl. Cor. 2: 7, t.
113, 1798; Graham, 55; Dalz. & Gibs. 77;
FBI 2: 231; Birdwood, 407; Nairne, 92; Cooke,
1: 396 (422); Santapau, 85.

A rare tree at Lingmala.

FLOWERS: October-April.

FRUITS: March-May.

2. Dalbergia sympathetica Nimmo ex Grah.,
Cat. Bombay Pl. 55, 1839; Dalz. & Gibs. 78;
FBI 2: 234; Birdwood, 407; Nairne 92; Cooke,
1: 398 (424); Santapau, 85.

Frequent near the foot of Fitzgerald Ghat.

FLOWERS: November-January.

FRUITS: December-March.

LOCAL NAME: Pudgul.

Paracalyx Ali

1. Paracalyx scariosa (Roxb.) Ali, in Univer.
Stud. Karachi 5 (3): 95, 1968.
Cylista scariosa Roxb., Corom. Pl. 5 (1):
64, t. 92, 1795; Graham, 54; Dalz. & Gibs.
74; FBI 2: 219; Birdwood, 407; Nairne, 91;
Cooke, 1: 386 (412); Santapau, 84.

562

Frequent on the hill-slopes and along the
Fitzgerald Ghat.

FLOWERS: November-February.

FRUITS: January-April.

Pongamia Vent.

1. Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Pierre, FI. For.

Cochinch. sub. t. 385, 1899; Méerr. Inter.

Rumph. Amboin. 271, 1917; Santapau, 86.
Cytisus pinnatus Linn. Sp. Pl. 741, 1753.
P. glabra Vent. Jard. Mal. 1: 28, t. 28, 1803;
Graham, 53; Dalz. & Gibs. 77; FBI 2: 240;
Lisboa, 212; Birdwood, 407; Cooke, 1:
Nairne 92; 402 (429).
Introduced tree at Mahabaleshwar, but it is
not well established in this area.
FLOWERS: June-September and January-
April.
FRUITS:
May.
LOCAL NAME: Karanj.

September-November and March-

Flemingia Ait. (nom. cons.)

1. Shrubs or undershrubs........... F. strobilifera
1. iArailing sherbs) S2./4c:.588 coos F. neilgheriensis

1. Flemingia strobilifera (Linn.) R. Br. ex
Ait., Hort. Kew. 2; 4: 350, 1812; Graham,
51; Dalz. & Gibs. 75; FBI 2: 227 (excl. vars.);
Birdwood, 407; Cooke, 1: 390 (416).
Hedysarum strobiliferum Linn., Sp. Pl. 764,
1753.
Maughania strobilifera (Linn.) St. Hill ex
Li, in Arn. J. Bot. 31: 227, 1944; Mukher-
jee. J. Bot. Soc. Bengal, 6: 10, 1952; Santa-
pau, 84.
Usually common in shady undergrowth of
the forests.
FLOWERS & FRUITS: December-April.

2. Flemingia neilgheriensis Wight ex Cooke,
Fl. Bombay Pres. 1:393, 1902.
Maughania neilgheriensis (Benth.) H.L. Li,
in J. Bot. 31 (4): 227, 1944.

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

F. vestita var. neilgheriensis Benth. ex Ba-

ker, in FI. Brit. India, 2: 230, 1876.

Rather rare in rocky ground near the park
and on slopes near the lake.

Atylosia Wight & Arn.

1. Leaves obovate A. lineata
1. Leaves linear-oblanceolate............ A. sericea

1. Atylosia lineata Wight & Arn. Prodr. 258,
1834; FBI 2: 213; Lisboa, 212; Birdwood,
407; Nairne 90; Cooke, 1: 382 (408); Santa-
pau, 83.

A. lawii Wight, Icon. t. 93, 2838; Graham,

53; Dalz. & Gibs. 74: Lisboa, 212.

Fairly common on open slopes along Ling-
mala and on way to Panchgani.

Distribution: Bhilar, Lingmala.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: January-May.

2. Atylosia sericea Benth. ex Baker, in FI.
Brit. Ind. 2: 213, 1876; Birdwood, 407; Cooke,
1: 383 (408); Santapau, 83.

A gregarious shrub growing on open grass-
lands between Mahabaleshwar and Panchgani
and also at Lingmala.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: October-April.

Spec. seen: L. J. Sedgwick—4744.

Nogra Merr.

1. Nogra simplicifolia (Dalz.) comb. nov.
Galactia simplicifolia Dalz., In Kew J. Bot.
3: 209, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs. 69.

Grona dalzellii Baker, in Fl. Brit. Ind. 2:

191, 1876; Cooke, 1: 368 (392).

A rare species found among the forest under-
growth.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: September-October. |

Dumasia DC.

1. Dumasia villosa DC., Mem. Legum. 257,
t. 44, 1825; FBI 2: 183; Birdwood, 407; Cooke,
1: 361.

D. congesta Graham ex Wight & Arn.,

Prodr. 206, 1840.

Rather rare species occasionally found on
exposed rocky grounds or in grasslands. —

Canavalia DC.

1. Canavalia microcarpa (DC.) Piper, in Proc.
Bot. Soc. Wash. 30: 177, 1917; Chatterjee,
in J. Ind. Bot. Soc. 28: 92, 1949.

Lablab microcarpus DC. Prodr. 2: 402,

1825.

C. turgida Graham ex Mig. FI. Ind. Bot. 1:

2Ide Io

C. enciformis Baker var. turgida Baker, FBI

2: 196, 1876; Birdwood, 407.

This species has been reported by Wood-
row from Western scrap of Mahabaleshwar,
under C. stocksii Dalz. (J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 11: 424, 1897). D. Chatterjee does not
recognise this species and prefers to keep it
merged under common Canavalia found in
Western India, which is mentioned above.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: October.

Erythrina Linn.

1. Erythrina stricta Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3: 251,
1832; Graham, 54; Dalz. & Gibs. 70; FBI 2:
189; Cooke, 367 (391); Santapau, 75.
Micropteryx stricta Walp. in Linnaea 13:
740, 1839.
There are a few trees along Fitzgerald Ghat.
FLOWERS: February-May.
FRUITS: June-July.
LOCAL NAME: Pangara.

Derris Lout.

1. Derris scandens (Roxb.) Benth. in J. Linn.
Soc. 4: suppl. 103, 1860; FBI 2: 240; Nairne,
93; Cooke, 1: 404 (430); Santapau, 87.
Dalbergia scandens Roxb. Cor. Pl. 2: t. 102,
1798; Graham, 55.
Brachypterum scandens Benth. in Ann.
Wien. Mus. 2: 101, 1840; Dalz. & Gibs. 76.

563

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

. Commonly found near the banks of water
springs or near marshy places, in bloom at the
beginning of the monsoon.

FLOWERS: June-August.

FRUITS: July-December.

LOCAL NAME: Mothi Sirili.

Cea ;

1. Leaves simply pinnate. 00.0 .0000. 124.2%. 2,
2. Corolla with 5 perfect. eit Be Cassia
2 Petals: O° a es I ee Saraca

1. Leaves bipinnate or unifoliate and bilobed....
PID va eae ee DE RS Rs hue “Oho nese seas asus teracunete 3
3"Prickly~ straggler 7.2.0) he Wagatea
3.2 neces Mi Vy LG) SOE, SUES Ae Bauhinia

Cassia Linn.

1. Cassia fistula Linn. Sp. Pl. 377, 1753; Gra-
ham, 62; Dalz. & Gibs. 80; Birdwood, 408;
Woodrow, 11: 427; Nairne, 96; Cooke, 1: 417
(444); Santapau, 90.

C. rhombifolia Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2: 334, 1832;

Wight, Icon. t. 269.

Not a common tree. Often seen in the val-
leys near human habitation and along the
sides of streams. In hot season the tree
becomes leafless and bears bright yellow
flowers in drooping racemes which make it
very conspicuous and attractive.

FLOWERS: March-June.

FRUITS: All round the year.

- LOCAL NAME: Bahava.

Saraca Linn.

Saraca asoka (Roxb.) De Wilde, Blumea 15:

393, 1968.
Jonesia asoca Roxb. in As. Res. 4: 355,
1795; Graham, Cat. Bombay Pl. 62, 1839.
Dalz. & Gibs. 82; Wight, Icon. t. 206, 1839.
Saraca indica (non Linn. Mant. 1: 98; 1767)
auct., Bedd., Fl. Sylv. t. 57, 1870; FBI 2:
271; Nairne, 98; Cooke, 1: 429 ee San-
tapau, 92.

564

Cultivated at Dr. Hakim’s
This is a very beautiful tree.

FLOWERS: March-June.

FRUITS: June-September.

Bhilar estate.

Wagatea Dalz.

1. Wagatea spicata Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot.
3: 89, 1851; Dalz. & Gibs. 80; FBI 2: 261;
Birdwood, 408; Woodrow, 11: 427; Nairne,
96; Cooke, 1: 416 (443); Santapau, 90.

C. digyna Graham cat. 60, 1839 (non Rott.

1803).

Armed woody climber, common on the
Fitzgerald Ghat, between 6th and 7th mile-
stones. Very attractive when in bloom with
yellowish red flowers grouped in conelike
spikes.

FLOWERS: December-January.

LOCAL NAME: Wagati.

Bauhinia Linn.

1. Leaves less than 3 cm.
1. Leaves more than 3 cm.

gates Hain tis B. galpinii
B. racemosa

1. Bauhinia galpinii N. E. Brown, in Garden
Chron. 9: 748; 1891.
A shrub with small leaves.
Bhilar.
FLOWERS & FRUITS: March-June.

Cultivated at

2. Bauhinia racemosa Lamk. Encycl. 1: 390,
1783; Graham, 64; Dalz. & Gibs. 82; FBI 2:
276; Birdwood, 408; Woodrow, 11: 428; Nair-
ne, 99; Cooke, 1: 431 (459); Santapau, 92.
Not. common. Few trees are found near Bhi-
lar, between Mahabaleshwar and Panchgani.
FLOWERS: March-June.
FRUITS: November.
LOCAL NAME: Apta.
LOCAL USE: Leaves used locally as bidi
wrappers. £06

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

WY MIMOSACEAE

I Stamens« definite’ 5-10.02 35.67.22... Mimosa

al’, Stamens:indefinite <' e322 es Peete 8 2
DigStamens, freer Pe, OEM ee se Acacia
2..Stamens monadelphous ........... Albizzia

Mimosa Linn.

1. Mimosa hamata Willd. Sp. Pl. 4: 1033,
1805: Nairne, 102; Cooke, 1: 442 (471); San-
tapau, 83.

This species has been included here on the
basis of single collection of H. M. Chibber,
on 17th March, 1908. It has not been located
by anybody else.

Acacia Willd.

1. Erect'-trees. or shrubs... ...5.....
1. Climbing shrubs
2. Leaflets 12-30 pairs
3. Pods thick, wrinkled when dry........

SURE OSH hy AU ORs Ae Use ieee cee A. sinuata

3. Pods thin, not wrinkled when dry......

ie Mare CMe arte rese Ge Rr AOS Oe A. torta

2. Leaflets 40-50 pairs........5054. A. pennata

1. Acacia sinuata (Lour.) Merr. in Trans.
Amer. Phil. Soc. N.S. 24: 186, 1935.

Mimosa sinuata Lour., El. Cochinch. 653,

1790.

M. concinna Willd., Sp. Pl. 4: 1039, 1805.

A. concinnum (Willd.) DC., Prodr. 2: 464,

1825; Graham, 59; Dalz. & Gibson, 87; FBI

2: 296; Birdwood, 408; Nairne, 104; Cooke,

T. 1: 450; Santapau, 96.

Acland in his manuscripts has noted this
species from Chinaman’s falls. This straggling
climber is commonly met with on the lower
ghats.

FLOWERS: March-July.

FRUITS: Most of the year.

LOCAL NAME: Chikakhai.

2. Acacia latronum Willd. Sp. Pl. 4: 1077,
1805; Graham, 58: Dalz. & Gibs. 87; FBI
2: 296; Woodrow, 11: 492; Nairne, 103;
Cooke, 1: 449 (478).

Included here on the basis of specimen col-
lected by H. M. Chibber (deposited at B.S.I.).
3. Acacia pennata Willd. Sp. Pl. 4:. 1090,
1805; Nairne, 104; Cooke, 1: 451 (480); Tal-
bot, 1: 494.

Rather rare species, occurs along the Fitz-
gerald Ghat.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: June-August.

4. Acacia torta (Roxb.) Craib. in Kew Bull.
410, 1915; Santapau, 97.

Mimosa torta Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2: 566, 1832.

A. caesia Wight & Arn. Prodr. 278, 1834

(non Willd. 1805).

This is the commonest Acacia at Mahaba-
leshwar and has been identified as A. intsia,
in some of the previous works.

Lingmala, Bhilar, Chinaman’s falls, Fitzge-
rald Ghat.

FLOWERS: April-November.

FRUITS: April-January.

LOCAL NAME: Chilari.

Albizzia Durazz

—

. Pinnae 6-20 pairs, leaflets less than 1 cm, in

breadthiyie. ies) eee oo alee: is A. chinensis
1. Pinnae 2-6 pairs, leaflets exceeding 1 cm. in
reagent es A. lucida

1.. Albizzia chinensis (Osb.) Merrill, in Am.
J. Bot. 3: 575, 1916; Santapau, 98.
Mimosa chinensis Osbeck, Dag. Ostind.
Resa) 2335, li
M. stipulata Roxb. Hort. Beng. 40, 1814
(nom. nud.).
Acacia stipulata (Roxb.) DC. Prodr. 2: 469,
1825.
Albizzia stipulata Boivin, in Encycl. 19 Siecl.
2: 33, 1838; Dalz. & Gibs. 88; FBI 2: 300;
Nairne, 105; Cooke, 1: 453 (483), Talbot
1: 499. |
Small tree found frequently on Fitzgerald
Ghat.

565

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

FLOWERS: April-June.
2. Albizzia lucida (Roxb.) Benth. in Hook.
Lond. J. Bot. 3: 86, 1844; FBI 2: 299; Cooke,
1: 455 (484); Santapau, 98.

Mimosa lucida Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2: 544, 1832.

Introduced tree frequently seen at Lingmala.
Dr. J. C. Lisboa (p. 212) has reported A.
odoratissima, from Mahabaleshwar. In our
opinion imperfect specimen of this species has
led to this misidentification, as that species
does not occur in this locality.

FLOWERS & FRUITS: April.

Spec. seen: Santapau—12509.

ROSACEAE

1. Ovary superior; ripe carpels not enclosed in the
Calyxuctu bests a ees lene chee ete oe eae Zz
2. Carpels solitary Prunus

2. Carpels (many ic a anaes eee ee 3
3. Ovules 2, pendulous; calyx ebracteate;
prickly “shrubs. cca 5.jch ec ee ta Rubus

3. Ovules solitary, erect; calyx bracteolate;
herbaceous plants 35)... 0... Fragaria

1. Ovary inferior; the ripe carpels enclosed in the
calyx ‘tube. Sen ee SG ore ca ess coe 4
4. Prickly shrubs with compound leaves and

adnate stipules i275. k. GMsee. Wee, cee Rosa
4. Unarmed trees or shrubs with simple leaves
and lateral stipules Pyrus

© ee © © © © © © © © © 8 8 8

Prunus Linn.

1. Calyx 5-lobed
2. Flowers peduncled; pericarp 2- valved......
EC sk a Ae RE ed GST a as P. amygdalus

2. Flowers sessile; pericarp indehiscent........

Gis ueauele ie Velen tyene eae Meare Hen eae Petes seas P. persica

1 Calyx 8-12 Mobed! Ac. eye eee P. ceylanica

1. Prunus amygdalus Stock. Bot. Nat. Med.
3: 101, 1812. | io

Rarely cultivated in gardens, but does not
fruit well.

FLOWERS: October-November.

LOCAL NAME: Badam.

2. Prunus ceylanica Miq. Fl. Ind. Bot. 1: 366,
1856.

566

Pygeum ceylanicum Bedd. Fl. Sylv. t. 59,

1870.

- P. wighteanum Blume, in Flora, 41: 256,

1858.

Pygeum gardneri Hook. f. in FBI. 2: 321,

1878; Nairne, 106; Cooke, 647; Birdwood,

13; Cooke 1: 458 (488); Talbot, 1: 505,

tt. 286-7; Puri & Mahajan, 122; Santapau,

399 & 306.

Pygeum acuminatum Graham, Cat. Bombay

Pl. 1839 (non Colabr. 1819); Wight, Icon.

i: 993:

Pygeum zeylanicum Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay

Pl. 89, 1861; (excl. syn.; non Gaertn. 1788);

Wee; 19:

A common middle size tree + 15 m tall.
According to the local people the bark of this
tree causes itching and produces blisters on
human body if used as fire wood.

FLOWERS: November.

FRUITS: January-February.

LOCAL NAMES: Daka, Kaula, Kogal.

3. Prunus persica (Linn.) Stockes, Bot. Mat.
Med. 3: 100, 1812; Benth. & Hook., Gen.
Plant. 1: 609, 1865; Birdwood, 13.
Amygdalus persica Linn. Sp. Pl. 472, 1753.
This species is cultivated at Mahabaleshwar.
The fruit is used for preparation of Jam and
Stew.
FLOWERS: October-November.
LOCAL NAME: Alu.

Rubus Linn.

1: ‘eaves. simple. Woo inox ee R. moluccanus
1. Leaves compound R. niveus

eececsveeweeee ee ee © & © @

1. Rubus moluccanus Linn. Sp. Pl. 1197, 1753;
Nairne, 106; Cooke, 1: 459 (488); Puri & Ma-
hajan, 122.
R. rugosus Sm. in Res. Cyclop, 30: no. 34,
1819; Graham, 64: Wight, Icon. t. 225;
Cooke, 649; Birdwood, 13.

FLORA OF MAHABALESHWAR

This species is confined to the ravines below
old temple.

FLOWERS: May. |

LOCAL NAME: Indian Black berry. (Bird-

wood).

2. Rubus nivens Thunb. Dissert. 9. f. 3, 1781
(non Wall. ex G. Don, 1831).

R. lasiocarpus Sm., in Rees. Cyclop. 30:

no. 6, 1819; Graham, 64; Wight, Icon. t.

232; Lisboa, 213; Nairne, 106; Cooke, 649

& 1: 460 (489); Birdwood, 13; Puri & Ma-

hajan, 122.

This species is now extensively cultivated
in gardens especially near Yenna Lake. Fruits
used for preparation of Jam.

FLOWERS: November.

COMMON NAME: Mahabaleshwar Raspberry.

Fragaria Linn.

1. Fragaria vesca Linn. sp. Pl. 494, 1753.
Birdwood, 13; Cooke, 462 (492); Puri & Ma-
hajan, 123. 7

F. elatior Graham, Cat. Bombay PI. 64,

1839. (non W. & A. 1834), Nairne, 106.

Very extensively cultivated especially along
the banks of Yenna River. Fruits are used for
Jam.

FLOWERS: March-June.

COMMON NAME: Strawberry.

Rosa Linn.

1. Rosa multiflora Thunb. Fl. Jap. 214, 1784;
Bot. Mag. t. 1059; Birdwood, 13.

An introduced species of wild rose. Quite
common below Yenna lake and on sides of
Yenna river.

FLOWERS: Throughout the year.

LOCAL NAME: Junglee gulab.

Pyrus Linn.
1. Flowers fascicled or subumbellate.............
De va May Mace iliac cele ei a TALEO IN Chae sos P. malus
1. Flowers in few flowered corymbs............
De i AGU nee a MM ame ase Se ANN SRR, P. communis

1. Pyrus communis Linn. Sp. Pl. 479, 1753;
Cooke, 1: 462 (492); Puri & Mahajan, 123.

This species occurs in cultivation below
forest officer’s bunglow, near Lingmala, but the
fruit size and quality is not good and is of
little value.

FLOWERS: March-April.

COMMON NAME: Pear.

2. Pyrus malus Linn. Sp. Pl. 479, 1753.

A rarely cultivated tree. Does not bear
fruits.

FLOWERS: March-April.

COMMON NAME: Apple.

CRASSULACEAE
Kalanchoe Adans.

1. Corolla reddish purple; with
triangular lobes K. pinnata
1. Corolla white; calyx glandular hairy, with lan-
ceolate lobes K. olivacea

calyx glabrous,

eo eee © © © © © © © © © © © 0 8 Oo 8

1. Kalanchoe pinnata (Lamk.) Pers. Syn. 446,
1805; Santapau, 88.
Cotyledon pinnatum Lamk. Encycl. 2: 141,
1786.
Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lamk.) Oken. Allg.
Naturgesh. 3: 1966, 1841; Santapau, 293.
B. calycinum Salisb. Par. London, t. 3, 1805
& Bot. Mag. t. 1409, 1811; FBI 2: 413;
Graham, 82; Cooke, 1: 465 (494).
Quite frequently seen along the edges of
forest and on sides of streams.
FLOWERS: January.
LOCAL NAMES: Ahiravana-Mahiravana, Za-
khamhayat, Panphuti, Ghai-pat, phanphul. . .

2. Kalanchoe olivacea Dalz. in Dalz. & Gibs.
Bombay FI. 313, 1861. |

A rare species on way to Panchgani. Flowers
white with a pink tinge on rocky ledges.

FLOWERS: October-December.

(To be continued)

567

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF HOMALIUM JACQ. ee
FROM BURMA?

M. P. Nayar AND G. S. Gir?
(With a text-figure)

A new species of Homalium from Burma is described and illustrated and a key is
presented for the Sect. Pierrae of the genus Homalium.

Homalium burmanicum sp. nov.

Affinis H. grandiflorae, sed foliis lanceolatis,
apice foliorum gradatim acuminatis, floribus
longe pedicellatis, pedicellis 10-13 (15) mm
longis, filamentis staminorum glabris differt.

Arbor. Ramuli teretes, glabri. Folia alterna,
8-13 cm longa, 3-4 cm lata, lanceolata, ad
basin subcuneata vel subrotundata apice gra-
datim acuminata, margine integera, 20-22 ner-
via, venulis transversis conspicuis, reticulatis,
supra et subtusque glabra, nitida, coriacea;
petiolus 10-12 mm longus, glaber. Inflorescen-
tia, axillares vel terminales, lax: racemosa 14-
15 cm longa, dense brunneo-tomentosa. Flores
6-meri, majusculi, albi (teste collectore); brac-
teae parvae, deciduae; pedicellus 10-13-(15) mm
longus, supra ad medium articulatus, brunneo-
tomentosus. Calycis tubus obconicus, 6-lobatus,
lobis 8-10 mm longis, 4-4.5 mm latis, ovato-
lanceolatus, apice acutis, graciliter venatis,
dense tomentosis. Petala 6, 8-9 mm _ longa,
3-3.5 mm lata, ovatolanceolata, apice acuta,
puberula. Stamina 60-72, 10-12 singlo petalo
opposita, filamentis glabris 6-7 mm longis, an-
theris 0.5 mm longis. Discus glanduliferus,

1 Accepted December 1979.
2Central National Herbarium, Botanic Garden
P.O., Howrah-711 103.

568

glandulis 6, bilobis tomentosis, intra sepalum
ornatis. Ovarium 5 mm longum, dense tomen-
tosum, 6-8 carinatum, styli 6-8, liberi; stigmate
inconspicuo.

Typus: Burma, Tenasserim, Forest Dept.
No. 784 (Holotypus CAL).

Trees. Branches terete, glabrous. Leaves
alternate, 8-13 x 3-4 cm, lanceolate, base sub-
rotundate or sub-cuneate, apex gradually acu-
minate, margin entire, 20-22 nerved, transverse
veins conspicuous, reticulate, glabrous, shining;

etiole 10-12 mm long, glabrous; Inflorescence,
axillary or terminal, laxely racemose, 14-15

cm long, densely brownish tomentose. Flowers

6-merous, white (ex collector); pedicel 10-13-
(15) mm long, brownish tomentose, jointed
above the middle; bracts small, deciduous.
Calyx tube obconical, 6-lobed, sepals 8-10 mm
x 4-4.5 mm, ovate-lanceolate, apex acute, fine-
ly veined, densely tomentose. Petal 6, 8-9 mm x
3-3.5 mm, ovate-lanceolate, apex acute, pube-
rulous. Stamens 60-72, 10-12 opposite to each
petal, filaments glabrous, 6-7 mm long, anther
0.5 mm long. Disc glands 6, bilobed tomentose,
opposite to the sepals. Ovary 5 mm long, den-
sely tomentose, 6-8 ridged; styles 6-8, free;
stigma inconspicuous.
Distribution: BURMA: Tenasserim, Forest Dept.
No. 784 (Type, CAL); Tavoy, Seimgyi
955 (CAL).

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1: Homalium burmanicum sp. nov.
A. Natural size of the plant; B. Flower; C. 2 petals and a sepal showing attachment
of stamens and gland; D, and D,. Stamens; E. Gynoecium; F. Cross section of Ovary.

569

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

This species is closely allied to H. grandi-
florum Benth., but differs in having lanceolate
leaves with acuminate apex and subcuneate
base, long pedicellate flowers, pedicel 10-13-
(15) mm long and glabrous staminal filaments.
In. H. grandiflorum, the leaves are ovate-elli-
ptic to elliptic-oblong, abruptly acute or ob-
tuse apex, rounded base, shortly pedicellate
flowers, pedicels 2-3 mm long and pilose sta-
minal filaments.

The species belongs to the Sect. Pierrae and
can be distinguished from other species of the
Sect. Pierrae of genus Homalium by the fol-
lowing key:

1. Bracts fan shaped broadly rounded with mu-
cronate apex, persistent........ H. dictyoneuron

1. Bracts ovate, apex obtuse, deciduous:
2. Flowers subsessile to sessile during anthesis,

in fruit pedicel 1 mm long. Inflorescence
condensed H. gitingense
2. Flowers pedicellate. Inflorescence lax:
3. Pedicel 2-3 mm during anthesis, in fruit
pedicel 2-8 mm long.

4. Leaves = ovate elliptic to elliptic-
oblong, abruptly acute or obtuse at the
apex H. grandiflorum

4. Leaves lanceolate or oblong-ovate gra-
dually narrowed at the apex........

H. minhassae
3. Pedicel 10-13 mm long during anthesis, in

fruit pedicel 12-16 mm long............
H. burmanicum

eoeeee ee ee © © © © © 8 oe 8 8 8 8 ee

eceeereoce eee eee eee ee e'e © © ©

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to thank Director, Botanical Sur-
vey of India for all facilities.

A NEW HOMALIUM JACQ. (FLACOURTIACEAE) FROM
SOUTH INDIA?

A. N. HENRY AND M. S. SWAMINATHAN?
(With three text-figures)

Homalium jainii sp. nov.

Pertinet ad Homalium sect. Pierrea (Hance)
Warb. H. grandiflorum Benth. affinis sed foliis
anguste oblongis vel elliptico—lanceatis, grada-
tim verrus apicem acuminatis differt. Etiam
H. minahassae Koord. affinis at foliis multo
minoribus, anguste oblongis vel elliptico—lan-
ceatis differt.

Holotypus (Henry 68929, CAL) et isotypi
(Henry 68929, MH—acc. no. 107307—107316)
in silvis semper virentibus in ditione Kanniya-
kumari in statu Tamilnaduensi, India die
5-10-1980 ad altitudinem c. 1000 m lecti sunt.

1 Accepted May 1981.
2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore.

570

Falls within Homalium sect. Pierrea (Hance)
Warb., and allied to Homalium grandiflorum
Benth. but differs in leaves being narrowly
oblong to elliptic—lanceate and gradually
acuminate at apex; also allied to Homalium
minahassae Koord. but differs in having much
smaller and narrowly oblong to elliptic-lanceate
leaves.

Trees up to 30 m tall; branches glabrous.
Leaves 4-11 1.5-4.5 cm, alternate, narrowly
oblong to elliptic—lanceate, somewhat coria-
ceous, glabrous, shining, subentire, gradually
acuminate at apex, narrowed into the petiole
or obtuse at base; nerves 7-9 pairs, veins dis-
tinctly reticulate on both sides; petioles 6-12
mm long, grooved. Flowers 10-12 mm across,
greenish yellow, 6-9-merous, scattered in shortly

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ae
L Wey ts
Wires
Ses

Bs

apie

Ay,
wee

NES
wNG
RES

a :. cal

rae Ny eon SNE ON
ay ae,

Figs. 1-3.
1. Flowering twig. 2. Flower. 3. Part of Flower.

grey-tomentose simple racemes up to 20
cm long; pedicels up to 10 mm _ long, articu-
lated; bracts c. 4X2 mm, ovate-oblong, sub-
acute, grey-tomentose, caducous. Calyx-tube
c. 4 mm long, obconic, grey-tomentose;
sepals 5-8 x 1.5-3 mm, oblong to spathulate,
obtuse at apex, nerved, tomentose, accrescent.
Petals 4-7 x 1.5-3 mm, _ triangular-oblong,
similar to the sepals but remaining shorter, to-

Homalium jainii sp. nov.

mentose, connivent after anthesis. Disc-glands
obovate, slightly lobed, opposite each sepal,
velvety. Stamens in fascicles of 6-7 before each
petal: 3 between the disc-glands and the rest
inserted on the base of petals above the level
of disc-glands; filaments 4-5 mm long, sparse-
ly pilose. Ovary tomentose; styles 6-9. (Figs.
1-3).

Holotype (Henry 68929, CAL) and isotypes

371

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

(Henry 68929, MH—acc. no. 107307-107316)
were collected in the dense evergreen forests on
the way to Muthukuzhivayal from Balamore
in Kanniyakumari District, Tamil Nadu, India
at an altitude of about 1000 m on 5-10-1980.

Rare in dense evergreen forest, up to 1000

m; also noticed along streams and river-beds

in rocky places.

Our observations reveal that this tree flowers
very rarely. It is of interest to note that its
allied species—Homalium grandiflorum Benth.
distributed in Indo-China, Thailand, Lower
Burma, Malay Peninsula and Borneo is also
reported to flower once in 25 years only.

Homalium sect. Pierrea (Hance) Warb. was
so far represented by five species distributed
mostly in Philippines, Thailand, Indo-China,
Lower Burma, Malay Peninsula, Java, Borneo
and Celebes. Hence the discovery of H. jainii
Henry & Swamin. in the Western Ghats of
Peninsular India extends the. distribution of

sect. Pierrea to the mainland of India which
is of phytogeographical interest.

We are pleased to dedicate this species to
Dr. S. K. Jain, Director, Botanical Survey of
India, Howrah for his significant contributions
to Indian Botany.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Dr. H. Sleumer, Rijk-
sherbarium, Leiden for his valuable opinion
on the specimen and for kindly sending his
unpublished, abbreviated key to species of
Homalium sect. Pierrea; Rev. C. J. Saldanha
for rendering the latin translation; Mr. M.
Chandrabose, Systematic Botanist, for the
drawing and heipful comments; Dr. J. L. Ellis,
Systematic Botanist for kindly verifying the
sheets of Homalium spp. in CAL; and Dr. N.
C. Nair, Joint Director for facilities and en-
couragement.

DRIMIA RAZII SP. NOV. (LILIACEAE) FROM MAHARASHTRA,
INDIA?

M. Y. ANSARI?
(With eight text-figures)

Following Jessop [in Journ. S. Afr. Bot.
43(4): 265-319. 1977], Ansari et Raghavan
[in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77(1): 172.
1980] have suggested new combinations for
the three Indian species of the genus Urginea
Steinh., under the genus Drimia Jacq. ex Willd.
A new species is being described here:

Drimia razii sp. nov.

Drimia polyanthae (Blatt. et McC.) Ansari
et Raghavan affinis in racemo pedicello et
capsula sed differt foliis perangustis, carnosis,

1 Accepted April 1981.
2 Botanical Survey of India,
Pune-411 001.

Western Circle,

S72-

erectisque, scapo perbrevi, lobis perianthii lon-
gioribus, obscure brunneolis, stylo gracili, cap-
sula oligosperma. Differt a D. congesta (Wt.)
Ans. et Ragh. in foliis, scapis bracteisque, lobis
perianthii longioribus, filamentis quam antheris
longioribus.

Holotypus (Ansari 104878A) et isotypi
(Ansari 104878 B-F) lecti ad Dive ghat in
dist. Pune, ditione Maharashtra die 15-iii-1970;
holotypus positus in CAL; isotypi 104878 B &
C in BSI; D in CAL; E in K; F in BLAT. ~

Drimia razii sp. nov.

Similar to Drimia polyantha (Blatt. et McC.)-
Ansari et Raghavan in its raceme, pedicels

10

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

cm

Figs. 1-8: Drimia razii sp. nov.
1. Plant with a bulb, scape and inflorescence; 2. Flower; 3. Outer and inner (3a, 3b)
perianth lobes; 4. Stamen; 5. Ovary with style and stigma; 6. Capsule with pedicel;
7. Seed; 8. An oblique view of a leaf.

53

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

and capsules, but differs in its leaves being
very narrow, fleshy, erect; scape very short;
perianth lobes longer, dull-brownish; _ style
slender; capsule few seeded. Also differs from
D. congesta (Wt.) Ans. et Ragh. in its leaves,
scapes and bracts; perianth lobes longer; fila-
ments longer than anthers.

The holotype (Ansari 104878A) and _iso-
types (Ansari 104878 B-F) were collected at
Dive ghat (near Pune) in Pune Dist., Maha-
rashtra on 15-iii-1970. The holotype is depo-
sited at CAL; isotypes 104878 B & C at BSI;
D in CAL; E in K; F in BLAT.

Bulbous herbs, scapigerous, hysteranthus;
bulbs 5-7 X3.5-4.0 cm, ovate or subglobose.
Leaves (after flowering) 20-25 x 0.2-0.3 cm,
erect or ascending, narrowly linear, fleshy,
grooved above, broadest at base, acute at apex,
glabrous. Scapes up to 15 cm long, slender,
terete, shorter than the leaves. Inflorescence 10-
15 cm long, dense raceme, 10-25-flowered.
Flowers ascending, with perianth lobes reflex-
ed when fully opened, dull brownish; bracts
1.5 x 1.0 mm, spurred, evanescent (falling off
after flowers open); pedicels 5-8 mm long,
glabrous. Perianth 6, in two whorls of 3 each
and each lobe 8-9 x 2.5-3.0 mm, elliptic-
oblong or oblong, 2-nerved, the outer perianth
broader with the tip acute than the inner with
the tip broadly obtuse, both shortly bearded
at apex. Stamens 5.5-7.0 mm long, free, oppo-
site each perianth lobes; filaments 4-5 mm long,
broadening in the middle or towards base,
tapering above, glabrous; anthers 1.5-2.0 mm
long, ovate-oblong, longitudinally dehiscing.

574

Pistil syncarpous, carpels 3, ovary 2.5-3.0 x 2
mm, ovate, sessile, superior, style 3-4 mm long,
elongated, narrowed at base, broadening up-
ward, stigma trilobed, obconic, tips minutely
bearded. Capsule 8-10 x 5-6 mm, ovate or elli-
ptic-ovate, trilocular, 5-6 seeded; seeds 6-7 x 4
mm, broadly ovate or subglobose, winged,
black.

Fls: March-April. Frts.: April.

This species grows on exposed rocky areas
and gravelly slopes on top of Dive ghat, situat-
ed between Pune and Saswad. The leaves ap-
pear during monsoon after the flowering is over
in dry season. It is so far endemic to Maha-
rashtra.

Etymology:

This species is named in honour of Prof. Dr.
B. A. Razi, Ex-Head, Department of Botany,
University of Mysore, Karnataka who has been
closely associated with the study of the Flora
of Western & Southern India, particularly the
Flora of Pune district.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to the Director, Botanical
Survey of India, Howrah, and Deputy Director,
Western Circle, Botanical Survey of India.
Pune for their keen interest in the present
studies. I am also indebted to Dr. D. B. Deb,
Deputy Director, Indian Botanic Garden,
Howrah for kindly confirming the species as
new and to Dr. N. C. Majumdar, Systematic
Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah
for kindly providing the Latin diagnosis.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF DENDROBIUM SW. (ORCHIDACEAE) FROM
SOUTH INDIA?

M. CHANDRABOSE, V. CHANDRASEKARAN AND N. C. Narr?

(With ten text-figures)

Dendrobium anamalayanum sp. nov.

Affinis ad D. nanum Hook. f. tamen differt
labello non unguiculato, late obovato, lobo me-
diano rhomboideo-ovato, lobis lateralibus dis-
tinctis et disco 3- dendtato apice.

Holotypus Chandrabose 57259 (CAL) et
isotypi Chandrabose 57259 (MH. Acc.
No. 101248, 101249, 107842, 107843) lecti
apud Kavarkal, Anamalai, Dist. Coimbatore in
statu Tamil Nadu die 22-7-1978; et paratypi
Chandrabose 69048 (MH. Acc. No. 107844,
107845, 107846) lecti apud Konalar, Anamalai,
Dist. Coimbatore in statu Tamil Nadu die
16-11-1980.

Dendrobium anamalayanum sp. nov.

Allied to Dendrobium nanum Hook. f. but
differs in having the lip not clawed, broadly
obovate, mid-lobe rhomboid-ovate, side-lobes
distinct and disc 3- toothed at apex.

Herbs; pseudobulbs 2-3x1.5-2 cm, green-
ish pink, ovoid, covered with membranous
sheaths. Leaves 2-7.2 x 0.6-2 cm, elliptic-oblong
or elliptic-lanceolate, glabrous, acute, sheath-
ing at base. Scape up to 12 cm long, 5- many
flowered. Flowers + 16 mm across, white
with pink tinge; bracts 6-9 1.5 mm, lanceo-
late, 5-nerved, glabrous; pedicels with ovary
up to 1.1 cm long, faintly grooved above. Dor-
sal sepal + 1.1 x 0.4 cm, obliquely oblong
or oblong-obovate, obtuse at apex: lateral

1 Accepted May 1981.
2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-3.

sepals + 1.1 x 0.4 cm, falcately oblong-lanceo-
late, subacute, united to form a mentum. Late-
ral petals + 1.2 x 0.4 cm, oblanceolate, obtuse
at apex. Lip + 9x9 mm, broadly obovate in
outline, 3-lobed with broad sinuses in between
the lobes; side-lobes distinct, tooth-like; mid-
lobe + 6 mm broad, rhomboid-ovate, distant-
ly serrulate; disc fleshy, broadened and 3-
toothed at apex. Column shori, foot long;
anther = 1 x 1.5 mm, 2-loculed; pollinia four,
= 1 mm long, oblong, compressed. Capsules
= 2 x 1.1 cm, ellipsoid, obtusely trigonous,
obscurely ribbed. (Figs. 1-10).

The holotype Chandrabose 57259 (CAL)
and isotypes Chandrabose 57259 (MH. Acc.
No. 101248, 101249, 107842, 107843) were
collected in Kavarakal, Anamalai, Coimbatore
District, Tamil Nadu on 22-7-1978; and para-
types Chandrabose 69048 (MH. Acc. No.
107844, 107845, 107846) were collected in
Konalar, Anamalai, Coimbatore District, Ta-
mil Nadu on 16-11-1980.

A common epiphyte on trees in the ever-
green forests and sholas at an altitude ranging
from 1450 to 1975 m. The gregarious flower-
ing of the plants with their white flowers is
an eye-catching and attractive sight throughout
the forest.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our sincere thanks are due to Dr. G. Seiden-
faden, Botanical Museum and Herbarium,
Denmark for helpful suggestion and to Rev.
Fr. K. M. Matthew, S.J., Rapinat Herbarium,
St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirapalli for render-
ing latin translation.

575

‘JURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Figs. 1-10: Dendrobium anamalayanum sp. nov.
1. A plant; 2. Bract; 3. Flower; 4. Dorsal sepal; 5. Lateral sepals with column;
6. Lateral petals; 7. Lip; 8. Anther; 9. Pollinia; 10. Capsule.
(For description see p. 575).

576

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

DIMERIA COPEANA, A NEW GRASS FROM KERALA, INDIA’

P. V. SREEKUMAR, V. J. NAIR AND N. C. NAIR?
(With nine text-figures)

Dimeria copeana sp. nov.

Affinis Dimeria trimenii Hook. f.; differt
in foliis latioribus, ligulis apicibus fimbriatis,
racemis longioribus rachidibus perangustis
trigonis scabrimarginatis, lemmatibus flosculo-
rum inferorum margine ciliis et aristis longiori-
bus.

more or less zig-zag, obscurely winged, scabrid
on the margins. Spikelets 3.5-4.5 mm long, 2
flowered, oblanceolate, firmly compressed, ad-
pressed to the rachis, sparsely hairy. Callus
0.25-0.5 mm long, hairy. Lower glumes 3-4
mm long, oblong, acute, coriaceous, scabrid.
Upper glumes 4-4.5 mm long, elliptic, acute,

Holotypus: Alleppey Dist., Thrikkunna- straight on the back and slightly curved to-
puzha, 13-3-1980, P. V. Sreekumar 66736 wards the tip, scabrid, margins hyaline, villous.
(CAL), isotypi in K et MH. Lower floret empty, lemma c. 2.50.6 mm,

ee OO

Dimeria trimenii Hook. f.

—

. Leaf blades up to 15 cm long, = 0.5 mm, boad,
villous on both surfaces

. Sheaths longer than the internodes

. Ligules rounded at apex

. Racemes up to 6.5 cm long

Rhachis of the racemes flat, 1-1.5 mm wide

. Margins of rhachis thickly pilose

Spikelets oblong-acute, densely hairy

. Lower glumes densely hairy

. Upper glumes densely hairy, margins ciliate

. Margins of the lemmas of the lower florets
entire

. Awns up to 8 mm long

SMO AANADA NA WN

—

—s
=

TABLE

Dimeria copeana sp. nov.

te

Blades 20-40 cm long, 1-2 mm broad, villous only
on upper surface

Sheaths shorter than the internodes

Ligules fimbriate at apex

Racemes 8-10 cm long

Rhachis trigonous, at the most 0.5 mm wide
Margins scabrid

Spikelets oblanceolate, sparsely hairy

Lower glumes glabrous or scabrid

Upper glumes sparsely hairy, margins not ciliate
Margins of the lemmas of the lower florets long
ciliate

Awns 10-12 mm long

Tufted, stoloniferous, perennial. Culms 20-
45 cm, capillary. Nodes bearded. Leaves 20-
40 x 0.1-0.2 cm, linear, acuminate, sparsely
villous on upper surface. Sheaths shorter than
the internodes, glabrous or very sparsely vil-
lous at base. Ligule a small membrane, fim-
briate at apex. Racemes 2, 8-10 cm long, slen-

der. Rhachis 0.25-0.5 mm _ wide, trigonous,

1 Accepted May 1981.
2 Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore-641 003.

oblanceolate, acute, one nerved, hyaline, ciliate
on the margins above, epaleate. Upper floret
bisexual, lemma 3-3.5 mm long, epaleate, ob-
long, acute, shortly bifid at apex, hyaline, awns
8-10 mm long, slender with a dark column
and pale scabrid bristle. Stamens 2; anthers c.
2 mm long, narrow, linear; filaments short.
Ovary c. 0.3 mm long, ovate. Styles 2, each c.
0.4 mm long, slender. Stigma c. 10 mm long,
feathery. Grain c. 2.25 0.3 mm, oblong, acute
towards tip, compressed.

577

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Ci
Sas

Swe BVTE
SSSSSS
AWD

CO

corer
SS

SKRAERR SS

SK
: Co le

g

Figs. 1-9: Dimeria copeana sp. nov.
1. Habit; 2. Spikelet; 3. Lower glume; 4. Upper glume; 5. Lower lemma; 6. Upper
lemma; 7. Stamen; 8. Pistil; 9. Grain.

578

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Holotype: Alleppey Dist., Thrikkunna-
puzha, 13.3.1980, P.V. Sreekumar 66736
(CAL). Isotypes in K and MH.

This species is allied to Dimeria trimenit
Hook. f. but markedly differs from it in the
characters shown in the Table.

The species is named after Dr. T. A. Cope

of The Herbarium, Royal Botanical Garden,
Kew, without whose valuable opinion this work
would not have been possible.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENT

We thank Dr. R. Sundararaghavan, Re-
gional Botanist (Kew), for his help.

A NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF ALGA FROM KARNATAKA
(INDIA)?

S. P. HoSMANI? AND S. G. BHARATI?
(With a text-figure)

During an investigation of fresh water algae
of Karnatak State, the present taxon was col-
lected along with other algae at Haliyal (Kar-
war Road). This taxon does not bear any
resemblance to the genera Scenedesmus or
Oocystis and is, therefore, described as a new
genus and species.

Sceneoocystis Gen. nov.

Colonia e sex cellulis composita, plana libere
natans; cellulae rotundate, in duobus ordini-
bus dispositae, lateraliter se contingen tes, spa-
tiaperspicua inter cellulas praebentes. Cellulae
singulae duas vel tres incrassationes marginales
habentes; chloroplastus parietalis diffusus.

Sceneoocystis karnatakensis sp. nov.

Proprietas generalis proprietati generis simi-
lis. Colonia 120 p long, 72 » Ilat., cellulae 34-40
pL diam.

1 Accepted March 1981.

2 Present Address: Department of Post-graduate
Studies and Research in Botany, University of My-
sore, Manasa Gangotri, Mysore 570 006.

3 Department of Botany, Karnatak University,
Dharwar 580 003.

Habitatio. Stagnum parvum ad locum Haliyal
on Karwar Road dictum. Tempus collec-
tionis m. Feb., d. 13, 1966.

Specimen typicum in Departmento Botanico
Universitatis Karnatak, Dharwar-3, sub. num.
(82) 3 cum inconibus originalibus depositum.
Haec forma e genere Oocysti differt ut cellulae
in duobus ordinibus lineariter dispositae, nec-
non colonia intra membranum cellulae-matris
obsoletam non inclusa.

Haec forma Oocysti similis ut incrassationes
marginales quae nodulis polaribus generi Oo-
cysti propriis fortasse consimiles habet.

Generi Scenedesmo consimilis ut coloniam

Fig. 1.

Sceneoocystis karnatakensis sp. nov.

579

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

planum, cellulis binis, et spatiis inter duos cel-
lularum ordines habet.

Quamobrem forma ut genus novum con-
sideratur.

Colony of 6 cells, flat, free floating, cells
rounded, arranged in two rows and in lateral
contact, with distinct space between cells. In-
dividual cells have two to three marginal
thickenings. Chloroplast parietal, diffused.

Sceneoocystis karnatakensis sp. nov.

General characters are same as of the genus.
Colony, 120 p» long, 72 » broad, D. 34-40 un.
This form differs from the genus Oocystis in
having cells that are linearly arranged in two
rows and also that the colony is not enclosed
within the old mother cell wall.

It resembles Oocystis in having marginal
thickenings which may be similar to the polar
nodules common in the genus Oocystis. It re-
sembles the genus Scenedesmus in having a flat
colony with cells arranged in multiples of two,
and with gaps between the two rows of cells.

580

Habitat: From a small pond at Haliyal, on

Karwar road. 13-2-66.

The specimen is deposited in the Botany
Department, Karnatak University, Dharwar-3,
Under Coll. No. (82) 3. According to Prescott
(personal communication) one needs to deter-
mine the reproductive features in this form.
The number of pyrenoids are also not clearly
visible as the cells present a diffused appear-
ence. Tentatively, therefore the above new
name is given, as it may be altogether a new
genus in the Order Chlorococcales, and Family
Scenedesmaceae, Sub-family Scenedesmoideae.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Prof. G. W. Prescott for
kindly going through the iconographs and sug-
gestions on the new taxon and also to Miss
Hannah Croasdale for the Latin diagnosis.
Thanks are also due to Prof. M. S. Chenna-
veeriah, Head of the Department of Botany,
Karnatak University, Dharwar-3, for the faci-
lities afforded.

REVIEWS

STONES OF SILENCE. By George B. Schaller. Sketches by Jean Pruchnik
and photographs by George B. Schaller. pp. 292 (23 x 15 cm) with 14 colour
photographs, 6 maps and many illustrations in Black-and-White. New Delhi,
1980. Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Price Rs. 100/-.

George Schaller’s STONES OF SILENCE like
his other books, whether scientific treatise or
travelogue is eminently readable. The book
is the report of a scientific study and a per-
sonal pilgrimage to the “‘remote and passion-
less’? mountains of the Himalayas. A haunting
of the most desolate reaches of nature in
search of the “lonely world beyond the rid-
ges’’. For as Tagore said “‘The traveller has

to knock at every alien door to come to his

own and one has to wander through all the
outer worlds to reach the innermost shrine at
the end’’. It is in essence the story of his jour-
neys to the Himalayas to study the sheep and
goats and the “in between’ species like the
Tahr and Bharal. The Himalayas have the
largest number of sheep and goats, all living
at “the limit of existence’ in the high hills.
The scientific report on this study was pub-
lished under the tithe MOUNTAIN MONARCHS.

From the Hindu Kush to the Karakorams
and the Great Himalayan range further east
Schaller ranged in his quest. For as Schaller
says in the context of the endangered Kash-
mir Stag. ““The fact that a living being can
vanish from this earth solely because of man’s
improvidence and neglect is appalling, and the
utter finality of it touches the consciousness
of far too few. I have met many species with-
out a future, and each time had the forlorn
hope that somehow I might be able to extend
their existence for at least a few years. Pen
and camera are weapons against oblivion, they
can create an awareness for that which may

soon be lost forever, and if this book has a
main purpose, it is to induce others to care
for the dying mountain world of the Hima-
laya.”’

The book chronicles the extend to which
the Himalayas have been devasted but no spe-
cies or habitat is irrevocably lost, but the
future is bleak. I quote ““To me the most
startling discovery was the extent to which
the mountains have been devastated by man.
Forests have become timber and firewood,
slopes have turned into fields, grass has vani-
shed into livestock and wildlife into the bel-
lies of hunters. The future of some animals
and plants is now in jeopardy. However, the
earth is remarkably resilient, and habitats can
recover if species have not been exterminated.
Some day man may want to rebuild what he
has squandered, and to do that he must save
all species, he must maintain the genetic stock.
This can best be done in reserves where the
fauna and flora can prosper with little or no
interference from man. In the not too distant
future much of world’s biological endowment
may well be found in reserves, in islands of
habitat surrounded by biologically depleted
environments. However, species cannot always
be maintained in a reserve: it has been found
that the natural extinction rate in small, isolat-
ed habitats is remarkably high, that a Noah’s
Ark in which species are saved two by two
is not possible, for chance alone would elimi-
nate some. Large reserves are needed, espe-
cially for such animals as markhor, which

581

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

migrate seasonally, and for snow leopard,
which roam widely in search of prey’.

One more quotation from the book is neces-
sary and this is in the context of baiting for
tigers which inspite of carefully documented
scientific evidence that it does not affect the
behaviour of tigers is still officially frowned
on in India. |

The tiger according to Schaller is “Far from
being asocial, irascibly avoiding contact, tigers
may meet, sometimes casually on a trail, at
other times to share a kill. Solitary but not
asocial, the tigers are part of a small com-
munity in which all resident members know
each other and retain contact by roaring and
leaving their scent on bushes and tree trunks.
In India, where there are more tiger experts
than tigers, my interpretation of the cat’s so-
ciety was coolly received, a few dismissing
my observations and others accusing me of
creating an abnormal situation, of luring in
and concentrating tigers from far away by

tying out an inordinate number of buffalo
baits. In vain I pointed to my book THE DEER
AND THE TIGER which notes that only the same
few resident tigers came to kills and that far
from baiting profusely I used only sixteen
small buffalo over a period of sixteen months,
not enough to affect the habits of this tiger
population. Then in 1973 and 1974 Charles
McDougal, who has for years devoted himself
to tigers in the Chitawan National Park of
Nepal, also observed adults together at kills,
with, for example, an adult male, a young
male, and two tigresses sharing meat on occa-
sion. His well-documented book, THE FACE
OF THE TIGER, presents the best available ac-
count of the tiger’s social life.

A remarkably well documented and read-
able book offering one an overall view of the
conservation situation on the Himalayas and
an insight to a dedicated naturalist.

J. C. DANIEL

BIRDS OF AFRICA. A bird photographer in East Africa, John Karmali.
Foreword by Roger Tory Peterson. pp. 191 (33 x 25 cm) including 72 colour
plates and many black & white illustrations. London, 1980. Collins, St.

James’s Place.

There is no dearth of new books on birds
and most of them are illustrated with photo-
graphs in black-and-white and in colour. But
this is exceptional and outstanding for even
Roger Tory Peterson in his foreword, in addi-
tion to saying that “there is no part of the
world where the bird enthusiast or the bird
photographer can enjoy a happier or more
successful holiday than in East Africa’ pays
a handsome tribute to the author.

After the preface and introduction, both
well written, there follow 37 chapters on dif-
ferent groups of birds, e.g. Ostriches, Pelicans,
Cormorants, Darters, Flamingos, Ducks and

582

Geese, Game Birds etc. etc., all well illustrat-
ed in both colour and black-and-white.
Several species are endemic to Africa but
others occur in India too. The accompanying
text contains many items of information which
would be of interest to bird students in all
parts of the world. While the ostrich was ex-
terminated in Asia almost 200 years ago, its
destruction in Syria and Arabia is more recent
having no doubt been assisted by the rifle
and the jeep. Ostrich farming undertaken in
South Africa in the last century resulted in
over half a million birds being in captivity
at the turn of the century. Though the demand

REVIEWS

for ostrich feathers has decreased and lead to
a consequent drop in prices, ostrich farming
is still a profitable business though the num-
ber of birds in captivity is now under 50,000.
Ostrich skins are still used to make wallets
and handbags.

White pelicans show considerable differences
of colour between the sexes and their largest
colony is said to consist of 40,000 birds. The
bright colours of the bill, head and other un-
feathered parts of some of the storks and
other birds have been startlingly captured by
the camera and notes on the Greater and
Lesser Flamingos both of which nest in the
Rann in India contain items of interest which
draw attention to how much work remains to
be done in Indian conditions.

The Fulvous Tree Duck (Dendrocygna_ bi-
color) which is now one of the rarer ducks
in India, presumably takes the place of the
Lesser Whistling Teal in Africa and 1s quite
common. Similarly many of the notes on spe-
cies Closely related to those occurring in India
add to their interest and one cannot help draw-
ing attention to the picture of the Two-banded

Courser Rhinoptilus africanus which super-
ficially resembles Jerdon’s Courser which has
not been seen in India for 80 years. The colour
pattern is distinctive and it is hoped that some
naturalists will tour the area where it was found
and try and locate some birds. It is unlikely
that this species like the Pink-headed Duck
should have been shot out.

The barbets and hornbills include species
which live largely on the ground.

The chapters dealing with the passerines are
shorter and less comprehensive, but here also
there is much of interest and I can only leave
it to the reader to examine this excellent book
personally and to judge and learn for himself.

The author when passing through Bombay
in November 1980 spoke to members of the
Bombay Natural History Society on the Birds
of East Africa. The slides accompanying the
talk confirmed, if such confirmation was neces-
sary, that in addition to being an accomplished
bird photographer and naturalist he was also
an artist.

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

FRESH WATER ANIMALS OF INDIA—AN ECOLOGICAL APPROACH. By
G. T. Tonapi. pp. 341 (24 x 16 cm) with many illustrations. New Delhi,
1980. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Price Rs. 19.50.

To attempt to write a compact book dealing
with the vast and varied freshwater fauna of
a subcontinent like India is no mean task,
which must have daunted many a zoologist
till now. Indian zoologists are fortunate that
Professor G. T. Tonapi, Head of the Zoology
Department, University of Poone, has com-
pleted this Herculean task.

While zoologists would be disappointed if
they expect a treatise on the lines of the
famous U.S. work “Fresh Water Biology” by
W. T. Edmondson (more popularly known as

by Ward & Whipple), in that the present book
is not a guide to the identification of each and
every species of aquatic animal found in
Indian fresh waters, Professor Tonapi has gone
a step ahead by including, in his book, very
useful chapters on history of hydrobiology,
biotic features, ecological zones, and adapta-
tions. Although necessarily precise, the lucid
definitions in common usage by hydrobiologists
are thrown open to the college-level zoologist.
In today’s era where every other zoologist
tends to climb on the bandwagon of ‘ecology’,

583

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vel. 78

these chapters really do justice to Tonapi’s
use of the book’s subtitle—‘“‘an ecological ap-
proach’’. The endings to each chapter, in the
form of “In retrospect and prospect’ or “In
perspective’ offer concrete suggestions to
future workers on this field.

Although most useful to the graduate-level
collegian, the many neat drawings will also
help the field naturalist to be able to have a
fairly accurate guess at the identification of
specimens in the field. Although basically an
entomologist, Tonapi has not succumbed to
the temptation of giving undue weightage to
insects. He has fairly allotted adequate space
to the different phyla, albeit having to be
necessarily brief in such littlke known groups
as, say, Gasrotricha or Tardigrada.

Now for the minus points of the book.

By affecting to write in a mellifluous langu-
age, Tonapi is sure to lead the zoologist with
only a fair knowledge of English to a state of
confusion. I came across as many as three
instances on a single page (page 4):
“Knowledge of parasites using the aquatic me-
dia for their transactions into the hosts has
warned the dangers of eclipsing the knowledge
of fresh water animals.”

OR

““Lentic environments are developed due to
multiple effects of physical and biotic forces.”

OR

“This environment has different ecology in a
number of ways.”

Similarly, I had to read the first paragraph
of Tonapi’s Epilogue (on page 316) thrice
before I could gather its meaning. The sent-
ence reads: “The preceding account has ex-
posed and it has now become frank that only
an atomic fraction of a vast, unlimited unprob-
ed possibilities exist for making several multi-
directional thrusts to reap the benefits of fresh
water ecology.”

584

In a few cases, the author has lapsed into
downright ungrammatic English, e.g. ‘““The...
otter occurring throughout the country is
Lutra and which dominates the central India.”
(page 299).

There are also a few instances of simplistic
generalizations, or even incorrect statements.
Thus on page 15, Tonapi states, ‘““‘Pure water
bodies appear nearly black as they absorb all
light components of spectrum.” Or, on page 6,
“Trouts, planarians and insects larvae are
found in definite zones of water temperature
below and above 19°C’ (italics mine). Once
again, on page 5, there is the statement, “‘Bot-
tom contains soft quaking mud which supports
the floating surface vegetation.” (once again,
italics mine).

Editing of the book, especially towards the
end, is slipshod and many typographical mis-
takes have crept in. In only one chapter I could
find bangalensis (bottom of page 257), sethnai
Kulkarny (p. 258), C. Striatus (p. 259), Ior-
amy (p. 261), and Tetradon (p. 263), instead
of bengalensis, setnai Kulkarni, C. striatus,
goramy, and Tetrodon. Again, in the chapter
on Birds, “grebe’” has been thrice misspelt
on page 295 as “greeb”’, and ‘“‘sandpiper”
(page 297) as “‘snadpiper’’.

These are very minor errors. A rather grave
drawback is the absence of recent literature
quoted by Tonapi. Almost all the references,
except his own, are earlier to the 60’s; this
may have been because the manuscript was
prepared way back and then kept in “cold
storage’ until retrieved in the early 80’s.

One also wishes that Tonapi would have
stuck to the usage of line drawings throughout
the book. The eight photographic plates be-
tween pages 232 and 233 detract from the
value of the excellent line drawings else-
where.

In spite of these few lapses, Professor To-
napi deserves congratulations for fulfilling a

REVIEWS

long felt need by preparing this valuable book,
which is a “must” for all college libraries
throughout the country, and in the personal
collections of the zoologist or naturalist who
dabbles in hydrobiology. So its real failing
would then lie not with the author, but with
users who do not heed the author’s statement
that “‘this book does not help zoologists to
identify organisms’, or that “‘mere body of
facts does not constitute knowledge’. If the
book awakens enough interest in a naturalist
to go looking for the animals described there
in the lakes and streams nearby, or if it suffi-
ces the collegian to roughly identify a per-

plexing animal, the book will have accompli-
shed its mission. I especially appreciate the
author’s modesty, as the many humble state-
ments in his Prologue asking forgivance for
any shortcomings in the book will doubtless
take away any sting in a reviewer’s caustic
comments. After all, as Professor Tonapi,
quoting Don Carlos, so correctly emphasizes,
‘Nothing would ever be written if a man wait-
ed till he could write so well that a reviewer
could find no fault with it’’.

B. F. CHHAPGAR

585

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. DENSITY AND DIET-DEPENDENT GROWTH RATES OF
BANDICOTA BENGALENSIS UNDER LABORATORY
CONDITIONS

(With two text-figures)

Although growth and development patterns
of several species of rodents are known (ce.g.,
Calhoun 1963, Jackson and Barbehenn 1962,
Bentley and Taylor 1965, Spillett 1969), the
effects of population density and diet on
growth have not been recorded in terms of
ecological growth rates. A preliminary study
along these lines was carried out on the Indian
mole rat (Bandicota bengalensis Gray) under
laboratory conditions.

Pregnant females were captured in paddy
(rice) fields by excavating burrows. The
mothers and their litters (some of which were
born during transfer) were placed in indivi-
dual metal cages provided with nest boxes
containing bedding material. Sufficient quanti-
ties of “‘rat and mice’”’ feed (Hindustan Lever,
India) and water were always present. The
litter weight was taken (to the nearest 1 g)
one month after birth and thereafter every
ten days using a trible-beam balance. Thirty-
day-old litters were separated into four size
groups and fed on diets of rice (Oryza sativa)

or ragi (Eleusine coracana) for’ 70 days
(Fig. 1). Food eaten was expressed as grams
consumed per 100 g body weight. The instan-
taneous coefficient of growth (ICG) rate of
each litter was computed by slightly altering
the following formula (Odum 1971).
Nt—In No dN
r=In or ——
t N
where the average rate of weight gain per
organism per time replaced average weight of
change in number of organisms per time per
organism. The ICG rates at 21, 25, 30, 35, 40
and 45 days were plotted against litter density
(Fig 2).

The weights of the animals ranged from
16-22 g at the time of weaning (30 days) to
90-150 g at the end of experimental period
(100 days). These figures on animal weights
are quite close to Spillett’s observations (1969)
for this species.

The rates of solid food intake and growth
were maximum after weaning but with in-

TABLE 1

WEIGHTS OF MALE AND FEMALE BANDICOOT RATS SUPPLIED WITH DIFFERENT FOODS

Males

ieerales ‘aah
No. weight at40 weightat 80weight No. weight at weight at weight
days (g) days (g)_ gain ( ) 40 days (g) 80 days (g) gain
Group fed on rice 5 40 + 8 93 + 15 130 4 44 +. 6 77+ 4 80
Group fed on ragi 1 31 | 112 261 1 47 127 US)

Group fed on pellets — — —

586

135 400

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

40
P
ee
ba a
~N
=
2 3G
a
Z
Pasa)
=
S i
cS)
oe eo
(e) fl
°
~
i
Ee
5 10 |
“4
[a
ra)
q
an

35 40 50

60
Days after birth

Rate of food consumption of different density of B. bengalensis litters.

Fig. 1.

ne
eA eae e

AS @ 4 rats fed on rice
——@ Single rat fed on rat feed
O—— —— —— O 2 rats fed on ragi

x — — — — x5 rats fed on rice

creases in age declined (Figs. 1 and 2). No
marked difference in the weight gain of two
sexes was seen up to 40 days growth; but at
80 days, the rice-fed males were heavier than
similarly reared females. Such a relation was
not seen in ragi-fed group (Table 1).
Jackson and Barbehenn (1962) and Wirtz
(1973) observed that older Rattus exulans
females gained weight at a slower rate than

males. Norway rats, too, exhibited large dif- .

ferences in mean weights between the sexes at
20 weeks of age (Calhoun 1963, and Hirata
and Nass 1973). Bentley and Taylor (1965)

e f= om
ag :
©, ax See Se eee cee cme coalesce me ce ce ae ome
“SIE © cemmecme — e is

70 80 $0

reported similar differences between 35 and
42 days in Rattus rattus. Spillett’s (1969) ob-
servations show that from birth to 30 days ban-
dicot rat females grew faster, males gained
weight more rapidly after 50 days. He also
reported that adult males at 170-190 days in
the wild weighed 225.5 g; females, 203 g.
Growth rates after 40 days are considered
for discussion, since the period of transition
from liquid to solid food is 25 to 40 days.

‘Density of the litter inversely affected growth

rates (Fig. 2), supporting the observations of
McCance and Widdowson (1974). The growth

587

Instantaneous coefficient of growth

588

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

0.08
0.06 21 days
= 25 days
O O 30days

| ae
Se No 35 days

O 4odays
45 days

6.02

O | 2 3 4 5
Density of litter

Fig. 2. Growth rates of different density litters of B. bengalensis at different periods
of growth.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

rate was greater in a non-competitive situation
than in competitive conditions. Though Bentley
and Taylor (1965) failed to establish a linear
correlation between density of the litter and
mean weight, they did observe that in 3 out of
4 comparisons the mean individual weight was
greater in a smaller-sized litter at 28 days.
In addition to density, the diet also seemed
to affect growth rates. The single rat was fed
nutritionally balanced pellets and hence its
greater growth. Ragi is more nutritious than
rice (Aykroyd 1976); the litterlings fed on it
showed a slightly higher rate of growth than
those fed on rice. The number of animals
used for the present study was quite small, but
the general trend observed supports Jackson

DEPT. OF VERTEBRATE BIOLOGY & ZOOLOGY,
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES,
G. K. V. K. Campus,

BANGALORE-560 065,

February 15, 1979.

and Barbehenn’s (1962) view that nutritional
and environmental influences on size and ma-
turation in rats are more important than gene-
tic factors. Merely having animals in a cage
with sufficient food under standard laboratory
condtions does not insure uniform growth.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to late Dr. K. Ramakrish-
nan (Dean) and Dr. R. Narayana (Director
of Instruction, BS&H), University of Agri-
cultural Sciences, Bangalore for encouragement
and facilities. Thanks are also due to the Ford
Foundation, New Delhi for financial aid
(Grant No. 660-019).

SHAKUNTHALA SRIDHARA
R. V. KRISHNAMOORTHY

REFERENCES

AyYKRoyD, W. R. (1976): The nutritive value of
Indian Food and Planning of satisfactory diets.
_ National Institute of Nutrition, Indian Council of
Medical Research, Hyderabad, India.

BENTLEY, E. W .AND TAYLorR, E. J.
Growth of laboratory reared ship rats
rattus L.) Ann. appl. Biol. 55: 193-205.

CaLHOUN, J. B. (1962): The ecology and socio-
logy of the Norway rat. Public Health Ser. Pub.
1008. Bethesda, Md. pp. 288.

Hirata, D. N. AND NAss, R. D. (1974): Growth
and sexual maturation of laboratory-reared, wild
Rattus norvegicus, R. rattus and R. exulans, in
Hawaii. J. Mammal. 55: 473-474.

(1965) :
(Rattus

11

JACKSON, W. B. AND BERBEHENN, K. R. (1962):
Growth and development. In Pacific Island Rat
Ecology (Ed. T. I. Storer), Bull. 225, B. P. Bishop
Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii, pp. 80-88.

McCance, R. A. AND WIDDowSON, E. M. (1974):
The determination of growth and form. Proc. R.
Soc. B. 185: 1-17.

OpuM, E. P. (1971): Fundamentals of Ecology.
Saunders-Toppen, Tokyo.

SPILLETT, J. J. (1969): Growth of three species
of Calcutta rats. Indian Rodent Symposium (Ed.
K. L. Harris), New Delhi, pp. 177-196.

Wirtz, W. O. (1973): Growth and development
of Rattus exulans. J. Mammal. 54: 189-202.

589

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

2. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON BEHAVIOUR OF RODENTS
DURING SOLAR ECLIPSE

(With a text-figure)

Behaviour of five rodent species was studied
during the solar eclipse which occurred on
the 16th February, 1980, from 2.28 p.m. to
4.49 p.m. the greatest phase being at 3.42 p.m.
at Jodhpur. Rodents were studied in the field,
in the rattery and in cages kept in open sun
and in the laboratory. For the sake of com-
parison, the rodent behaviour was also observ-
ed during the same period on two days prior
to the eclipse in identical situations. All the
activities were recorded on a time scale
(Fig. 1).

Behavioural patterns of the Indian gerbil,
Tatera indica indica (nocturnal), the Desert
gerbil Meriones hurrianae (diurnal), the
House rat, Rattus rufescens (nocturnal) and
the Soft-furred field rat, Rattus meltada pal-
lidior (nocturnal) remained conceivably un-
changed between the ‘control’ days and on the
eclipse day.

Pillai (1956) also studied the effect of solar
eclipse (which occurred on 14 December,
1955) on the zoo animals at Trivandrum. He
found that animals either captive or free dis-
play little or no responsive behaviour.

However, noticeable changes in the periodi-
city of a number of behavioural activities were
observed in case of the diurnal Bush at,
Golunda ellioti gujerati. Two males and two
females were maintained in laboratory cages
in the sun. The duration and/or frequency of
almost all the activities except grooming de-
clined significantly when compared with those
on the prior days (Table 1).

Though the difference in duration of feed-
ing increased on the eclipse day but it was
not statistically significant. However, a signi-
ficant shift of this activity from 3.45 to 4.30

590

p.m. on ordinary days (P < .02) to 2.15 to
3.15 pm. (P < .001) on the eclipse day oc-
curred indicating that rodents fed before the
maximum phase of eclipse and ceased their
feeding activity thereafter.

Another significant change observed was in

‘a ON ECLIPSE DAY

i ON NORMAL DAY

AVERAGE OURATION OF.
HUDDLING PER RODENT
mts

AVERAGE NO. OF

GROOMING ACTI-

VITY / RODENT
Ss 4 A wo

AVERAGE OURATION
OF FEEDING(sec) /
ROOE NT

MOVE MENTS/RODENT
~» BHD O

UPRIGHTPOSTURES AVERAGE NO. OF
7 RODENT

AVERAGE NO: OF

AVERAGE NUMBER OF JUMPS
7 RODENT

Fig. 1. Comparison between various parameters of
activities performed by Golunda ellioti on eclipse
and normal day from 2.15 to 5.00 p.m.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

TABLE 1

FREQUENCY AND OR DURATION OF VARIOUS BEHAVIOURAL ACTIVITIES OF Golunda ellioti ON THE ECLIPSE DAY

Mean frequency/duration of activity

Level of probability

Activity

normal day eclipse day
Jumps on the cage wall MeO = IkS0 2.63 = 0.92 P < 0.02
Exploration (upright postures) 9.63 = 1.45 2.20 2= 0.67 P < 0.001
Movements in the cage H22i== OV 1.70 = 0.60 P < 0.001
Total duration of feeding
(in sec.) 27.99 10.64 37.27 == 14.00 (NS)
Grooming (in numbers) 2h ==)0.33 i 13)==0;31 P < 0.05
Huddling (in min.) 2.36 += 1.20 9.03 = 1.74 P< 0.01

day increased considerably (P < 0.01). It was
observed at 2.15 p.m.; prior to the beginning
of eclipse and after 3.15 p.m. huddling gra-
dually increased and interestingly from 3.45
p.m., the greatest phase of the eclipse, to
5 p.m. the animals remained huddled over one
another in the corner of the cage, almost with-
out performing any vital activity. Such a be-
haviour was not observed on earlier days.
During the maximum phase of eclipse (3.30-
3.45 p.m.) in contrast to decline in other actt-
Vities, grooming was performed at a higher
frequency and faster rate (Fig. 1).

COORDINATING AND MONITORING,

CENTRE FOR RODENT RESEARCH & TRAINING,
CENTRAL ARID ZONE RESEARCH INSTITUTE,
JODHPUR (RAJASTHAN),

September 1, 1980.

their huddling behaviour on the eclipse

It is interesting to observe that only G. e.
gujerati behaved in a different manner during
eclipse whereas there was no apparent change
in any other rodent species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. H. S. Mann, Director,
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur
for providing necessary facilities and encour-
agement and to Dr. Ishwar Prakash, Coordi-
nator and Principal Animal Ecologist, All
India Coordinated Research Programme on
Rodent Control and Research, for the prepa-
ration of this note.

RANJAN ADVANI

REFERENCE

PitLal, N. G. (1956): Solar eclipse and animal
behaviour. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 53: 708-710.

3. APPARENT ALLOMATERNAL CARE IN AN INSECTIVOROUS
BAT HIPPOSIDEROS SPEORIS

Analyses of mother-infant relations pave
the way for a better understanding the extent
of social organization in bats (Bradbury 1977).
The process of mother-infant relationship be-

comes a little complex in the case of bats, since
their food and feeding habits necessitate long
foraging sojourns away from the roost every
night. Hence in most cases the mothers leave

591

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

behind their young ones in the roost and re-
trieve them only on return from foraging, im-
plying that the mothers recognize their own
infants individually (Gould 1971). Studies on
one of the microchiropteran species Hipposi-
deros speoris living in a cave near Madurai
(9°58’N. 78°10’E.) revealed that the mothers
recognized and retrieved only their own res-
pective infants by acoustical and olfactory
means (unpublished observations).

We observed two off-beat and unusual phe-
nomena on two occasions in the course of
our experiments with captive bats reared in
laboratory cages and in an outdoor flight
chamber. We consider that such phenomena
resemble some kind of allomaternal care as
defined by Wilson (1975). On the first occa-
sion, a volant young male was seen clinging to
as well as suckling from an adult female which
had experienced a stillbirth on the previous
day. This was observed to happen for two
consecutive days at early morning hours in
our laboratory cages (505050 cm) main-
tained for the purpose of study on spatial
memory in these bats. The position of the
young bat clinging to the ventral surface of
the female was upside down as in normal
cases.

The second phenomenon was observed in
an outdoor flight chamber (26’ x 12’ x 15’) in
the course of our experiments on mother/in-
fant relationship. Five pregnant females were
caught on 4-11-80 which gave birth while being
reared in the cage. Hipposideros speoris is a
continuous breeder. These were individually
marked with different coloured celluloid split
rings before being released into the outdoor
cage. The temperature (27°C) and humidity
(95%) conditions of the cave were simulated
to a certain extent by constructing a thatched
roof over the top and by maintaining a pool
of water inside the flight cage. During day
hours the animals retreated into the darker

SV

recesses of the cage and after sunset flew
around actively foraging on the insects that
were attracted to the fluorescent light fitted
inside the cage.

The bats survived well under these condi-
tions and gave birth to young ones within
1-25 days of capture. As was observed in the
cave, in our captive conditions also, the bats
left the infants behind while foraging, visited
them at random during the night hours and
retrieved them only at early morning hours.
The process of a rigid mother/infant bond
was also observed in these animals for many
days, until on 1.12.80 mother No. 3 was seen
carrying two young bats, one (a 20-day male)
it’s own and the other (a 25-day female) ori-
ginally the offspring of mother No. 1. Though
the actual retrieval of these two young by the
female was not observed directly, we sighted
mother No. 3 carrying both the young ones
at 0400 h in the morning. Though at first the
young ones were found clinging one over the
other on to the ventral surface of the female,
later they hung side by side. Mother No. 3
carried both the young bats till 0502 h when
it deposited both the infants on the roost wall
and continued foraging. Though mother No. 1
—the mother of the female infant stopped for-
aging and settled down for roosting, c 1 metre
from its infant, she did not show any visible
sign of recovering the infant, which was seen
to emit continually faint audible vocalizations
at the mother. The mother responded finally
only at 0740 h and as soon as the infant join-
ed the mother, it started to suckle. Similarly
mother No. 3 also retrieved it’s baby only at
0930 h.

We conclude that the mothers do _ not
voluntarily seek out other infants for nursing
directly, even though they do not reject the
stray infants that somehow manage to reach
them. However these bats differ from Rhino-
poma hardwickei in which the mothers do not

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

even accept their own infants after an expert-
mental separation and they go to the extent
of active rejection by attacking their own in-
fants thus experimentally separated. Adop-
tions in the true sense are not uncommon in
a few social animal groups such as primates
(Poirier 1968), elephants (M. Gadgil, personal
communication) and lions (Schaller 1972). In
a microchiropteran bat Myotis thysanodes
communal raising of young ones and the pre-
sence of guardian females have been reported
(O’Farrell and Studier 1973). Indiscriminate
nursing was noticed in the mexican free-tailed
bat, Tadarida basiliensis mexicana by Davis
et al. (1962). Recently Porter (1979) reported
that the harem males of leaf-nosed bat C. per-
spicillata guard the infants during night hours
and chase the mothers until they reunite with
their young ones. Since we have not noticed
any comparable apparent adoption in any of

UNIT oF ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR,

SCHOOL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES,
MADURAI KAMARAJ UNIVERSITY,
MADURAI 625 021, INDIA,
January 1, 1981.

the 7 species of microchiropteran bats in and
around Madurai as we report here for H.
speoris, we do not wish to rule out the possi-
bility that this behaviour might eventually ex-
press itself only under stress or as an artifact
under captive conditions. If such apparent
tolerance of mothers to stray young ones is
manifested in the natural environment also,
it is of adaptive value in the sense that in an
eventuality of mothers getting killed the or-
phaned infants could survive by the grade of
‘adoption’.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported by the Indo-Ger-
man Project on Animal Behaviour. We thank
Professor M. K. Chandrashekaran, Dr. R. Sub-
baraj and Mr. K. Usman for kindly reading

the manuscript and for their helpful comments
on it.

G. MARIMUTHU
P. F. L. SELVANAYAGAM

REFERENCES

BRADBURY, J. W. (1977): Social organization and
communication, in Biology of Bats. Vol. IU, p. 1-64.

Davis R. B., HERREID, C. F., If AND SHORT, H.
L. (1962): Mexican free-tailed bats in Texas. Ecol.
Monogr. 32, 311-346.

GouLp, B. (1971): Studies of maternal-infant
communication and development of vocalization in
the bats Myotis and Eptesicus. Commun. Behay.
Biol. Part A 5: 263-313.

O’FARRELL, M. J. AND StTupierR, E. H. (1973):
Reproduction, growth and development in Myotis
thysanodes and Myotis lucifugus. Ecology 54: 18-

30.

PorriER, F. E. (1968): The Nilgiri langur (Pres-
bytis johnii) mother-infant dyad. Primates, 9 (1, 2):
45-68.

PorTER, F. L. (1979): Social Behaviour in the
leaf-nosed bat, Carollia perspicillata. I. Social Or-
ganization. Z. Tierpsychol. 49: 406-417.

SCHALLER, G. B. (1972): The Serengeti Lion:
a study of predator—prey relations. University of
Chicago Press, Chicago. 480 pp.

WILSON, E. O. (1975): Sociobiology, the new
synthesis. The Belknap Press, England.

593

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

4. IMPORTANCE OF FRUITS IN THE DIET OF CHITAL IN
DRY SEASON

During a study on the ecology and behaviour
of dholes Cuon alpinus Pallas 1811 in Bandi-
pur Tiger Reserve, rumen contents of seven
freshly killed chital were collected. Of these,
five samples were collected in March, the peak
dry month, and two samples after the onset
of rains and sprouting of grasses (Table).

Following inferences could be made from
the data. 1) During the dry season, because
CONSERVATION AND RESEARCH CENTER,
FRONT ROYAL, VIRGINIA 22630, U'S.A.,
December 10, 1980.

of the availability, chital consumed consider-
able amount of fruit which varied from 13 to
70 per cent of their total rumen content weight.
2) Emblica officinalis and Xeromphis spinosa
were the commonly eaten fruits. 3) After the
rains, fruits in the diet of chital decreased and
this may be due to their scarcity and the avail-
ability of tender grass.

A. J. T. JOHNSINGH

(For Table, see page 595.)
5. SOLAR ECLIPSE—NOTES ON BEHAVIOUR OF EGRETS

A camouflaged observation post was set up
on the foreshore of Tummalagudem village
tank which is located 48 km from the line of
total eclipse. We scouted the area and located
the roost of cattle egrets and little egrets in a
grove consisting of Acacia arabica and Tama-
rindus indicus. The shallow tank and_ the
neighbouring paddy fields are the favourite
feeding grounds of egrets.

Our study of the roosting behaviour of eg-
rets commenced on 14th February, 1980, that
is two days in advance of the total solar eclipse
day. Small groups of cattle egrets and little
egrets flew from their feeding grounds to their
roost. Some of them directly landed on the
branches while others circled over the trees
twice or thrice before landing. Some of the
birds flew from one tree top to another before
finally settling down. Soon after landing, the
egrets started producing low grating croaks
and the crescendo increased gradually as more
and more arrived to roost. It is a mixed colony
of egrets and herons. The bird chorus lasted
for nearly 30 minutes before silence and dark-
ness engulfed the scene.

594

On the next day, before dawn we reached
the roost and recorded the first call of cattle
egret at 5.49 am. With the day breaking at
6.15 a.m. the first egret took off at 6.17 a.m.
and flew directly towards the tank. At 6.19 a.m.
the egrets flew off in small parties, in the direc-
tion of the paddy fields and tank and by
6.35 p.m. the roost was deserted.

The little egrets (Egretta garzetta) and cattle
egrets (Bubulcus coromandus) assembled at
the centre of the waterspread area dotted with
reeds and vocalised for about 30 minutes.
Slowly they spread out towards the tank mar-
gin for foraging. A few flew from one area of
the tank to another.

It was dusk and the egrets started arriving
at the roost either singly or in small parties.
Huge flocks arrived at 6.20 p.m. and after
circling over the area thrice, they alighted on
the tree tops like swarms of locusts and soon
after, indulged in low-key vocalisation. By
7 p.m. the vocalisation subsided and gradually
silence descended on the scene.

On the momentous eclipse day (16-2-1980)
twilight came at 5.56 a.m. We recorded the

595

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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TWLIHD SO SLNALNOD NAWNY AHL NI SLINYA AO AONAWANIIO

CeChAD

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

first croak of egrets at 5.57 am. The egrets
continued their occasional vocalisation. At
6.17 a.m. the little egrets and later the cattle
egrets started to fly either singly or in groups
of 2, 3, 4, 7 etc. A minute later, a mixed flock
of egrets and pond herons took off. Little later,
a third group took to wings and by 6.33 a.m.
the entire mixed colony had left for their
favourite feeding grounds.

The egrets had collected in two groups at
the southern end of the tank margin. The lar-
ger group consisted of little egrets, cattle egrets
and a sprinkling of grey herons. The smaller
group consisting of 30 egrets had assembled
near the reeds. Since 7.12 a.m., they have been
vocalising. At 9.36 a.m., the bigger group slow-
ly thinned out spreading evenly towards North
and West. At 11.10 a.m., a small party of
cattle egrets coming from the fields, alighted
on the tamarind trees abutting the tank bund.
A little later another party arrived and landed
on the same trees. With the increasing heat,
the birds moved to the tank margin and rested
while some flew off and landed on the tamarind
trees.

At 12 noon, the mercury touched 89°F and
by 12.30 p.m. it shot upto 90°F. Egrets stand-
ing in water were still feeding while those on
the grassy tank continued to rest. At 1.00 p.m.,
the thermometer recorded 90.5°F and the
feeding by egrets continued. The temperature
rose to 92.5°F at 1.30 p.m. but came down
to 90°F at 2 p.m. The eclipse began exactly
at 2.30 p.m. when the mercury touched 92.5°F.
The sky was clear and there was no
perceptible change in bird activity. At 3 p.m.,
the thermometer recorded 91.5°F. The eastern
sky which was a hue of light grey and crimson
red became dull at 3.20 p.m. and the thermo-
meter recorded 89.5°F. No change was notic-
ed on bird activity at 3.30 p.m. When the mer-
cury touched 88.5°F. There was dawn twilight
effect at 3.40 p.m. When the temperature ab-

596

ruptly came down to 86.5°F. At 3.45 p.m.
the sky became duller and near darkness ab-
ruptly enveloped the whole scene at exactly
3.46 p.m. when the mercury touched 84°F.
The egrets abruptly took to wing and flew in
the direction of the roosting place. Two parties
flew directly to the tamarind trees on the tank
bund. It was unmistakable that the birds flew
restlessly but vocalisation was distinctly ab-
sent. The sun came out in all brightness at
3.48 p.m. and we could clearly see the egrets
alighting at the roosting place.

Our team member stationed near the roost
reported that at 3.47 p.m. flocks of egrets
arrived and circled over the area twice or
thrice. While they were preparing to land, the
sun came out in blinding brilliance causing
confusion. One party of egrets landed on babul
trees, another on tamarind trees while the third
alighted on the nearby paddy fields. While
circling, the birds looked restless but there was
no vocalisation indicating fright. Two groups
which circled over the roost returned to the
shallow tank as sudden light bathed the whole
landscape.

About 100 yards from our observation post,
we noticed three pairs of little egrets fighting
and making loud noise which attracted a small
party of egrets. The birds were jumping and
pecking at each other and the fighting lasted
a few minutes. A little later, they returned to
the same place and restarted the fight. At
4.28 p.m. we saw a group of egrets take
off from the roost and after circling head
towards the paddy fields. A few birds remain-
ed at the roosting place.

We hastily reached the place of roosting at
5.50 p.m. A flock of egrets arrived at 6.10 p.m.
At 6.30 p.m. a huge flock of little egrets and
cattle egrets came from the tank feeding
ground, circled and landed on the babul trees.
Soon after, they started vocalisation in low
tone. Another flock arrived three minutes later

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

followed by a second. The vocalisation increas-
ed in intensity. The last group landed at
6.38 p.m. and by 7 p.m. the birds ceased voca-
lisation and settled down for the night.
Returning to the roost on 17th morning,
we continued our observations. At 5.49 a.m.
we recorded the first call of egrets. The low
tone croaks mixed with occasional quacking of
pond herons could be heard till 6.10 a.m. At
6.17 a.m. one egret took off and flew south-
wards towards the tank followed by another.
Three minutes later, the third, fourth and fifth
took off. From 6.16 a.m. small groups of egrets
started off, one after another and by 6.35 a.m.,
all the birds had gone leaving the roost totally
empty.
H. No. 10-3-283/5,
HUMAYUN NAGAR,

HYDERABAD-500 028,
August 20, 1980.

The following are the interesting sidelights
of our observations of bird behaviour.

1) Little egrets are the most voiciferous and
while in company, indulge in occasional
pecking and fighting. Cattle egrets are less
noisy and quarrelsome.

2) Most of the time, little egrets and cattle
egrets hunt in company.

3) Little egrets and cattle egrets roost in mix-
ed colonies in the same trees.

4) Egrets are the earliest risers followed by
grey herons.

5) Exactly at 6.17 am., the egrets started
flying singly or in small parties of 2, 3,
A Oates

S. ASHOK KUMAR

6. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF LONG-DISTANCE MOVEMENT
IN THE YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, VANELLUS
(= LOBIPLUVIA) MALABARICUS (BODDAERT)

Of the Asian species of the genus Vanellus
(Brisson), most are known to be migratory
to a certain extent. The degree to which move-
ment occurs can be very variable between and
within species; northern populations may mig-
rate long distances south from their breeding
grounds, whereas southern con-specific popu-
lations may be entirely sedentary (this occurs,
for example, in the Common lapwing, Vanel-
lus vanellus). Other species may be described
as “resident”, showing only local (usually
seasonal) movement within a defined breeding
area; this is the case with the Red-wattled lap-
wing, V. indicus, and Spurwinged plover, V.
spinosus, (although the latter has occurred in
Western Europe in recent years; Blotzheim
et al. 1975). V. malabaricus has.been thought

to be one of the most sedentary species, show-
ing short-distance seasonal migratory or nom-
adic movement, but tending to remain within
the limits of its breeding area.

The breeding range of this species extends
throughout the south of the Indian subcontin-
ent and Sri Lanka, north to West Bengal and
Bangladesh. Occasional stragglers have been
reported from the Nepal Valley although
breeding is not thought to occur there (Ali &
Ripley 1969). It has not been thought to occur
east of the Ganges River, although Oates
(1883) notes one specimen collected from
Burma “in recent years’’; it does not appear
to have been reported from that country sub-
sequently and is unlisted by Smythies (1953).
While information is by no means complete,

597

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

limited by a shortage of observers, this species
does not appear to have been recorded pre-
viously in South-east Asia (Wells; pers. comm. )
and is unlisted by King et al. (1975).

The occurrence of an individual of this
species on the campus of Universiti Pertanian
Malaysia, some ten miles outside Kuala Lum-
pur, was thus unexpected. This individual asso-
ciated with local wintering flocks of Lesser
golden plovers, Pluvialis dominica, moving
with groups of this species between grass play-
ing-fields and a drained marshland area, both
open dry areas as typically preferred by this
species. It was first observed on 8th December
1979 by the authors, and subsequently seen
by other local ornithologists. It was not seen
after April 1980 which suggests that it left
with the northward migration of Lesser golden
plovers.

The bird was immediately distinguishable
from the Greyheaded lapwing, V. cinereus,
which has occurred previously, by the large con-
spicuous yellow wattles around the base of the
bill, a dark crown with narrow white eye-stripe
extending to the nape and a wing pattern
showing white only on the base of the second-

FACULTY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE &
ANIMAL SCIENCES,

UNIVERSITI PERTANIAN MALAYSIA,
SERDANG, SELANGOR, MALAYSIA.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS,
SANDY, BEDFORDSHIRE, ENGLAND,
July 8, 1980.

aries. The possibility of the bird being an
escape was investigated and subsequently dis-
carded. This thus appears to be an example
of long-range movement previously unrecorded
for this species.

It seems likely that the bird associated with
flocks of Lesser golden plovers moving south
from their North Siberian breeding grounds
and followed them down into peninsular Ma-
laysia. This implies either that Lesser golden
plovers may migrate south into India and sub-
sequently move laterally, broadly following
the coastline; or that the lapwing wandered
some distance east from its normal range be-
fore linking up with the migrating flocks. The
bird could thus have moved outward follow-
ing the Indian monsoon, joining the movement
of Lesser golden plovers in mid-September and
arriving in Malaysia towards the end of the
month. That it remained undetected for so
long reflects the shortage of local observers,
and implies that this could well be a rare,
rather than a unique occurrence. It is possible
that occasionally V. malabaricus wanders wide-
ly as has been recorded for V. cinereus (Smith
1976, White 1975) and is not exclusively sed-
entary as has been previously thought.

A. D. JOHNS

R. I. THORPE

REFERENCES

Aut, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1969): Handbook of
the birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. II. Oxford
University Press, Bombay, London.

BLOTZHEIM, G. VON, BAUER, K. M. & BEzzEL, E.
(1975): Handbiich der vogel Mitteleuropas, Vol.
V. Akademische Verlag, Frankfurt-am-Main.

KING, B. F., DICKINSON, E. C. & 'WooDcocK,
M. W. (1975): A field guide to the birds of South-
east Asia. Collins. London.

598

OaTES, E. W. (1883): A handbook to the birds
of British Burmah, Vol. II. Porter & Dulau, Lon-
don.

SmirH, A. P. (1976): Vagrant lapwings Varellus
spp. in Brunei. Bull. Brit. Ornithol. Cl. 96: 80.

SMYTHIES, B. E. (1953): The birds of Burma.
Oliver & Boyd, London.

Wuirte, C. M. N. (1975): Migration of palaearc-
tic waders in Wallacea. Emu 75: 37-39.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

7. THE SOUTHERN GREEN PIGEON (TRERON
PHOENICOPTERA CHLORIGASTER BLYTH) IN KUTCH

While sitting in the varandah of the ‘Dar-
bari Utara’ (i.e. the Maharaos residence at
Mata-no-Madh), in the morning of the 30th
Jan. 1980, I saw this bird flying away from a
Peepul Tree within the compound, flushed ap-
parently by a crow, where it had been eating
the fruit. The pigeon flew away from the com-
pound, but not before I could identify it posi-
tively. In the past, I had shot several of them
for the table, near Mitiyala (in the former
State of Bhavnagar) close to the Gir Forest;
and could therefore, recognise and identify the
bird immediately.

Later in the day, I casually mentioned this
sighting to my Father, with whom I was camp-
ing at Mata-no-Madh; and he advised that as
the Southern Green Pigeon was not reported

SHARAD BAGH,
BHUJ-KUTCH,
February 1, 1980.

from Kutch. I should obtain a specimen for
positive identification.

The following morning at about the same
time, I saw the bird once more, and collected
it.

Subsequent enquiries at Mata-no-Madh re-
vealed that a pair of these birds have been
noticed in the grove of trees near the Cha-
chara Kund (which is a Sacred bathing Tank
situated near the Darbari Utara), for quite
some time.

According to the BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA by
R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji, the main habitat
of this bird in Saurashtra is in the Gir Forest
and it is merely a rare straggler in Wankaner
and Dhrangadhra. In the BIRDS OF KUTCH by
Salim Ali, it is just listed in the Appendix on
page 171.

M. K. S. HANVANT SINHJI

8. POSSIBLE INTERSPECIFIC HYBRIDS BETWEEN COLUMBA
LIVIA AND C. RUPESTRIS

Returning from Leh by jeep through Ladakh
and down to Kargil and the Zoji La Pass I
noticed that the common pigeon, the Rock
Dove (Columba livia) seems now to have
worked its way up the roads which have been
constructed in the past 20 years. The highway
leading from the Zoji La right up through the
Lamayuru area and above to an altitude of
12,000 feet (3658 m) was notable for frequent
flocks or small groups of Rock Doves. By
contrast, the Hill Pigeon Columba rupestris
normally seen only in barley fields at higher
altitudes seems now to descend along the road-
way in nearby cultivation to 11,000 feet

(3353 m).

In the Lamayuru area at 11,500 (3505 m)
to 12,000 (3658 m) feet on July 3rd we notic-
ed while driving along the road frequent groups
of pigeons flying up and off the road in family
aggregations of three or four. On one occasion
a group of four birds included three Hill Pige-
ons, rupestris, and one gray tailed livia. On
another occasion a bird with a gray tail, at
rest, on flying up showed white inner margins
to the outer tail feathers above the presence
of the darker band. I believe that in these mix-
ed parties of white-banded tailed rupestris and
gray-banded tailed livia there is a possibility

599

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

of hybridization, and that the bird I saw with
white inner margins to the outer tail feathers
was in fact a hybrid between the two species.
Examination of specimens in collections in
museums in New York, Chicago and Washing-
ton where collections from Ladakh are housed
failed to reveal the presence of such a sus-
pected hybrid. However, the altitudinal sepa-
ration of the species, at least until recently,

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20560,
USS.A.,

September 23, 1980.

would tend to militate against the collection
of such a specimen. I would urge visitors to
the Ladakh area to watch out for mixed flocks
of these two common species at intermediate
altitudes and carefully note the presence of
partially white-tailed birds such as I have des-
cribed. It would seem quite likely that hybrids
could occur in such an increasing, overlapping
range.

S. DILLON RIPLEY

9. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON A NEST OF THE COMMON CROW-
PHEASANT, CENTROPUS SINENSIS (STEPHENS)

The common _ crow-pheasant, Centropus
sinensis (Stephens), locally known as ‘Kamadi
kukkar’, is a common Indian bird and one of
the few non-parasitic members of the Cuckoo
family in India. Whistler (1963) and Ali
(1976) have given notes on various habits
of this bird. There is little information regard-
ing its breeding biology. Ali and Ripley (1969)
have mentioned that even the incubation period
and other details of the breeding biology of
the crow-pheasant are unknown. The follow-
ing account summarises the observations made
on a nest of this bird in Punjab. This com-
munication will add some information to the
existing knowledge about this bird.

A nest of the common crow-pheasant was
discovered in a ‘kahi’ (Saccharum spontaneum)
bush at village Bias Pind, district Jullundur
(Punjab) while surveying that area for the
nests of the blackthroated weaverbird, Ploceus
benghalensis (Linnaeus), in ‘kahi’.

Nest:

On 19th June, 1979 a ‘helmet’ of the black-
throated weaverbird was located on a ‘kahi’
bush with the owner male working on it. The

600

crow-pheasant started building its nest in the
same bush on 20th June. On the first day of
its construction, the nest was a large, elongat-
ed, loose sphere in the centre of the bush made
by binding the leaves of the same bush. On
the next day, more leaves were found to be
incorporated in the structure and a lateral
opening was distinguishable on the western side
of the thick wall. The ‘helmet’ of the black-
throated weaverbird was also incorporated into
the nest. In building the nest, both members
of the crow-pheasant pair took active part.
The birds went on incorporating leaves into
the nest structure even after the laying of the
first egg. The nest was completed on 23rd
June i.e., in three days. It was built of the
leaves of the ‘kahi’ bush only, without any
other material. The completed nest measured
28 x25 cm internally, with the entrance hole
measuring 15x 19 cm. It was placed at a height
of 1.4 m from the ground.

Fegs:

The first egg was laid on 22nd June and
subsequently four eggs were laid at intervals of
one, two, two and three days respectively. The

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

clutch comprising of five eggs was completed
on 30th June. Each freshly laid egg was mark-
ed by me with a lead pencil, measured with
a vernier callipers and weighed with a two-
pan field balance true to 50 mg. The measure-
ments of the egg number 2 could not be taken
as it slipped from hand and was broken after
having been weighed. The eggs were white,
chalky and oval. Mean size of four eggs was
34.78 + 2.05 x 30.03 + 1.39 mm and mean
weight of five eggs was 18.88 + 2.81 g each.

Incubation period:

Out of the four eggs in the nest, only three
hatched. Egg number 1 hatched after 18 days,
number 4 also after 18 days and number 5
after 16 days. Egg number 3 did not hatch
and was not removed from the nest by the
birds till the last day of observation. The mean
incubation period of 3 eggs was 17.33 + 1.15
days.

Nestlings:

The nestlings in the nest were observed daily
and notes were made on their morphological
appearance. Unfortunately, these observations
could not be completed as the two nestlings
present in the nest were missing (most prob-
ably due to predation) on 22nd July when
nestling number 1 was 12 days old and num-
ber 2 was 7 days old. Nestling number 3 had
already vanished from the nest on 17th July
when it was only one day old. The description
of the nestlings upto eleven days of age is
given below.

The newly hatched nestling is black with
eyes closed. The beak is soft. Upper man-
dible is black with pinkish edges and bent
tip. An egg-tooth is distinguishable on dorsal
surface of the upper mandible about 2 mm
from its tip. Lower mandible and throat are
skin coloured. Legs and claws are soft and
somewhat grey. Two toes of the foot point

forwards and two backwards. The entire dor-
sal surface of body and the forelimbs are cover-
ed with long (about 22 mm), white, hairlike
down. The down on the fore limbs is some-
what shorter. Ventral surface of the body is
also black with centre of the belly pinkish.
There is no down on the ventral body surface.

Eyes opened when the nestling was 4 days
old. Primaries, secondaries and their coverts
started coming through the skin on the fifth day
of age. No other feather tract was distinguish-
able in the 5-day old nestling. Nine-day old
nestling had fully opened eyes and with the
feathers of the head, spinal, humeral, femoral,
crural, ventral and rectal tracts came through
the skin. In all the feather tracts, the feathers
came through the skin exactly below the white
hairlike down and then the down is borne on
the tips of the feather drums. The feather
drums of none of the tracts had opened in the
nine-day day nestling. The nestling was not
able to sit on its feet and continued to balance
its weight on its belly. In the eleven-day old
nestling, tips of the drums of primaries became
flattened at their tips indicating that they were
ready to open.

Weight of nestlings:

The nestlings were weighed daily in the
morning, and their weights upto eleven days
of age was obtained. These data show
that the mean weight of the newly hatched
nestling was 16.083 g (n=3) which is less
than the mean weight of the egg. Within eleven
days, the nestlings attained 175 g of weight.

Food of nestlings:

On 17th July, when nestling number 1 was
taken out of the nest, the tail of a lizard was
found in its mouth. While pulling out, it got
broken and the lizard could not be identified.
On 21st July, one of the parent birds was ob-
served bringing a lizard to its nest. When it

601

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

entered the nest it was disturbed and the bird
could not feed the lizard to the nestling and
dropped it in the nest in its hurry. It was a de-
capitated lizard, of Calotes sp.

These observations reveal that this nest of
the crow-pheasant was completed in three days
and both members of the pair took active part

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,
LUDHIANA-141 004,

PUNJAB,

October 11, 1979.

in nest building. Five eggs were laid in the
nest. The incubation period extended from 16
to 18 days (average 17.33 + 1.15 days). The
young ones are altricial and nidicolous. The
parents fed the young on animal food includ-
ing Calotes lizards. Nesting success was poor,
probably due to predation.

MANJIT SINGH DHINDSA
H. S. TOOR

REFERENCES

ALI, S. (1976): The Book of Indian Birds, 10th
edition. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.
Aul, S. & RipLey, S. D. (1969): Handbook of
Birds of India and Pakistan, Vol. 3, Oxford Univ.

Press, Bombay, London, New York.

WHISTLER, H. (1963): Popular Handbook of
Indian Birds, 4th edition, Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh
and London.

10. ‘HELPERS’ AMONG THE BLACK DRONGO
(DICRURUS ADSIMILIS)

Cooperative breeding, in which group mem-
bers, other than breeding pair, take part in
feeding and protecting the nestlings, has been
observed in many species of group territorial
birds (see Skutch 1961; Zacharias and Ma-
thew 1977: Emlen 1978; Gaston 1978). Hel-
pers in Black drongo have not been recorded
(e.g, Shukkur and Joseph 1980). On 23rd
March, 1980, while following a group of
Whiteheaded babblers Turdoides affinis in
Sivakasi (9°27’N, 77°49’E), we saw two
helpers or ‘auxillaries’ (Emlen 1978) assisting
two adult drongos in feeding 3 young.

Sex identification of the adults was not pos-
sible. The four adults were differentiated based
on differences in the forked tails: one had a
cleft in the left half of the forked tail, another
had a cleft in the right half, the third had a
perfectly forked tail and the fourth had white
spots on the ventral side of its evenly forked
tail. The fledglings, seen on an Albizzia leb-

602

bek tree at a height of 8 m, had stumpy rec-
trices. In order to assess the number of times
fledglings were fed the young were assigned
names A, B and C, as per their perching posi-
tion. The number of insects fed to each fledg-
ling was recorded from 1151 to 1740 hrs.
Afterwards, as the fledglings moved from perch
to perch it was given up.

The adults brought grasshoppers, damsel-
flies, butterflies and larvae from distances over
50 m and also caught insects flying close to
the tree. The adults collectively fed the fledg-
lings 81 times between 1151 and 1848 hrs.
Two types of feeding were recorded. Out of
the total 81, 66 times the adults came with
food and perched on branches at a distance
of 2 m from the fledglings. On seeing the
adult, fledglings begged for food characterised
by begging call, vigorous wing shake and open
mouth. The fledgling which begged more got
the food. In the second type of feeding, which

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

occurred 15 times, the adult flew to and fed a
fledgling of its own choice unmindful of the
intense begging calls of others. Once an adult
brought a large grasshopper and gave it to
fledgling B, but B was not able to swallow it
and the prey fell down. The adult caught the
prey in mid air and fed it to C.

A blackwinged kite (Elanus caeruletus)
which flew over the area 30 m from the tree,
was chased but the babbler group was tolerated
to feed in and near the tree.

The fledglings after 1740 hrs. moved from

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

AyYYA NADAR JANAKI AMMAL COLLEGE,
SIVAKASI-626 123,

September 26, 1980.

tree to tree either alone or with the adults and
covered a total of 85 m. At 1900 they roosted
in an Albizzia lebbek tree where the babblers
had already gone to roost at 1846. Last feed-
ing of a drongo chick was at 1848. We have
already recorded in the study area that drongos
commence feeding earlier than other birds.
The late feeding and early morning activity
of drongos accord with Aschoff’s rule (Daan
and Aschoff 1975). Probably the helpers were
chicks of an earlier brood.

A. THANGAMANI
K. PARAMANANDHAM
A. J. T. JOHNSINGH

REFERENCES

DAAN, S. AND ASCHOFF, J. (1975): Circadian
rhythms of locomotor activity in captive birds and
mammals: their variations with seasons and _lati-
tude. Oecologia, 18: 269-316.

EMLEN, S. T. (1978): The evolution of Coope-
rative breeding in birds. In: Behavioural ecology—
an evolutionary approach. pp. 245-281. Krebs, J. R,
and Davies, N. B. (Eds.), Sinauer Associates, Inc.
Massachusetts.

GasTon, A. J. (1978): The evolution of group
territorial behaviour and cooperative breeding. Am.
Nat. 112: 1091-1100.

SkutTcH, A. F. (1961): Helpers among birds.
Condor 63: 198-226.

SuKKuR, E. A. A. AND JoSEPH, K. J. (1980):
Breeding biology of the Black drongo. J. Bombay
nat. Hist. Soc. 75 (Supplement): 1212-1226.

ZACHARIAS, V. J. AND MATHEW, D. N. (1977):
Malabar Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus mala-
baricus (Jerdon) and White headed Babbler Tur-
doides affinis affinis (Jerdon) jointly caring for the
chicks of the latter. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74:
529-530. :

11. INSECTIVOROUS BIRDS ASSOCIATED WITH THE RICE
ECOSYSTEM AT MADURAI

The principal agroecosystem around the
Agricultural College and Research Institute,
Madurai is the rice ecosystem fed by the Peri-
yar-Vaigai irrigation system. The double and
single cropping lands receive the canal water
from June to February. The rains are received
in the months of August-November and the
water is stored in the tanks. The tanks also
facilitate the presence of a rich aquatic biome
in this area. From June to February or even to

the middle of March there will be some crop
of rice in the fields. The invertebrate fauna
of the rice ecosystem include the pest forms
such as the brown planthopper, green and
white jassids, leafroller, stemborer, gallfly etc.
and non-pest forms like water beetles, water
bugs, odonates, and a variety of other insects,
earthworms and crabs. The tanks also har-
bour fishes, frogs, crabs and aquatic insects.
Naturally these conditions attract a host of in-

603

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

sectivorous birds to this ecosystem. A detailed
observation was made on the insectivorous
avian fauna visiting the rice ecosystem be-
tween May, 1979 and February, 1980 and the
results are discussed below.

The observations were made at the Agri-
cultural College farms, Chittankulam tank,
Othakadai, Uthangudi, Ulaganeri, and _ the
watersheds on the Madurai-Melur road extend-
ing upto Chittampatti. The field specimens
were then and there compared with the authen-
ticated guides by Fletcher and Inglis (1926),
Ali (1941), Ali and Ripley (1969 and 1970)
and Ganguli (1975) for nomenclature. The
birds are classified in the following categories.

1. Very common: Seen on all the days in

large numbers

2. Common: Seen on all days in less num-

bers

3. Less common: Seen on all days in less

numbers at restricted places

4. Rare: Occasionally seen in singles or

very few numbers.

The results are presented in Table 1. Among
the birds the black drongo, Dicrurus adsimilis
appears to be the most predominant insect
hunter of the ecosystem. These birds usually
perch on some convenient supports and cap-
ture their prey by sudden gliding sweeps. They
were reported to feed more on injurious in-
sects (Fletcher and Inglis 1926 and Thiru-
murthi and Abraham 1975). The myna, Acri-
dotheres tristis also appears to be more useful
and specific to insects. They always search on

TABLE 1

House Swift
Palm Swift
Green Bee-eater
Bluetailed Bee-eater
Indian Roller

Hoopoe

Black Drongo

Grey Drongo

Common Myna

Indian Tree Pie

House Crow

Jungle Crow

Redvented Bulbul
Common Babbler
Paradise Flycatcher
White Wagtail

Koel

Common Indian Nightjar
Cattle Egret

Pond Heron

Night Heron

Black bittern

Yellow Bittern
Goldenbacked Woodpecker
Purple Sunbird

Indian Peacock

Apus affinis
Cypsiurus parvus
Merops orientalis
Merops philippinus
Coracias benghalensis
Upupa epops
Dicrurus adsimilis
Dicrurus leucophaeus
Acridotheres tristis
Dendrocitta rufa
Corvus splendens
Corvus macrorhynchos
Pycnonotus cafer
Turdoides caudatus
Terpsiphone_ paradisi
Motacilla alba
Eudynamys scolopacea
Caprimulgus asiaticus
Bubulcus ibis

Ardeola grayii
Nycticorax nycticorax
Dupetor flavicollis
Ixobrychus_ chinensis
Dinopium benghalense
Nectarinia asiatica
Pavo cristatus

Very common
Very common
Less common
Less common
Very common
Rare

Very common
Less common
Very common
Rare

Very common
Common
Common
Very common
Rare

Less common
Less common
Rare
Common
Very common
Common

Less common
Less common
Rare
Common
Common

604

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the ground for their prey. They are active
throughout the day more in the non-cropped
areas and harvested fields. The two species
of the swifts could be also useful as reported
by Thirumurthi and Krishnadoss (1981) for
managing specific pest outbreaks. The wood-
pecker, peacock, wagtail and babbier are
less important as specific predators. The crows
help to eradicate the pupae and soil insects at
the time of ploughing and after the harvest.
The majority of the Cicontiformes are active
around water. However, the pond heron,

DEPT. OF AGRIL. ENTOMOLOGY,
AGrIL. COLLEGE & RES. INSTITUTE,
MapurRalI-625 104, TAMIL NADU,
June 17, 1980.

Ardeola grayii also visits the rice fields.

Among the birds the drongo, myna, swifts,
roller and the pond heron are useful in the
natural control of rice pests and their manage-
ment, and hence deserve to be protected and
encouraged.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We wish to thank Dr. S. Jayaraj, the Direc-
tor of Research, Tamil Nadu Agricultural Uni-
versity for his suggestions and for the facili-
ties provided.

S. THIRUMURTHI
B. RAJENDRAN
D. KRISHNADOSS

REFERENCES

ALI, SALIM (1941): The Book of Indian Birds.
Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

ALI, SALIM AND Rip_ey, S. D. (1969 and 1970):
Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Vols.
I-IV. Oxford University, Bombay.

FLETCHER, T. B., AND INGLIS, C. M. (1926):
Birds of an Indian Garden. Thacker and Spink,
Calcutta.

22,

ACRIDOTHERES

During the month of May, 1979, on my
way to Dehra Dun from Corbett National
Park by road I saw a number of a huge stacks
of crushed and dried sugarcane laid on open
fields, stored presumably for firing the “Gur
Bhattis’” (jaggery making plants) in the com-
ing season. Long rows of round holes on the
side of one of them in a field 4 kilometres
south-east of Afzalgarh (Distt. Bijnour, U.P.)
attracted my attention. On closer scrutiny the
holes turned out to be those of a nesting colo-
ny of Bank Mynas. I could count as many as
171 nest holes in this rather large stack measur-

12

GANGULI, U. (1975): A Guide to the Birds of
Delhi area, I.C.A.R., New Delhi.

THIRUMURTHI, S. AND ABRAHAM, E. V. (1975):
A note on the bird predators of Death’s hawk
month, Acherontia styx W. J. Bombay nat. Hist.
Soc. 72: 204.

THIRUMURTHI, S. AND KRISHNADOSS, D. (1981):
A note on the feeding habits of swifts (Apodidae:
Apodiformes). ibid. 78 (2): 378-379.

A QUEER NESTING SITE OF BANK MYNA,

GINGINIANUS

ing approximately 12 mx6 mx5 metres. The
sun was bright and warm at 11.30 a.m. Most
birds were sitting near the nest holes with their
beaks open.

Normally the Bank Myna builds its nest in
holes in mud banks. Salim Ali & Ripley (Vol.
5 page 182) describe nesting sites of this spe-
cies as “‘steep earth bank of rivers, sides of
disused brick kilns, kutcha wells and the like;
commonly also stuffed within deep-holes in
revetment of masonry bridges, and down shafts
of brick-lined wells often shared cut with house
sparrows and pigeons’.

605

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

The soft stacks of crushed dried sugarcane
had apparently been utilised by the Bank Myna
population for nesting in the area for want of
the usual mud banks in the plain, tube-well-

NORTHERN REGIONAL STATION,
ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
13, SUBHAS Roap,

DEHRA DUN,

March 24, 1980.

irrigated countryside. The improvised nesting
site speaks highly of the adaptability of the
species.

B. S. LAMBA

13. THE ‘BALLING’ OF CROWS

The two of us were waiting at the Manali
bus stand (Distt. Kulu, Himachal Pradesh) on
6th October 1980 for the bus for Delhi to
leave. The time was 5-15 p.m. and a warm
afternoon sun slanted over the western moun-
tains to light up the autumnal glow of high
altitude broad-leaved forests against a lovely
sky full of expressive clouds in the wake of
the previous few days of rain and cold.

Suddenly there was a tumultous noise of
more than three hundred large crows circling
effortlessly with considerable grace above us.
The spectacle of their aerial mastery was
breathtaking! The circling mass of sleek black
birds seemed to have located a late afternoon

14 JAYANT SOCIETY,
RasJKoT 360 004.

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,
HorNBILL HOousE,

BomBay 400 023,

November 14, 1980.

thermal and they rapidly spiralled high up
almost to become specks. Here they collected
into a tight rotating mass of birds in the man-
ner of ‘balling’ House Swifts. After a couple
of minutes of this singular manouvre the birds
separated and the flock drifted towards some
Deodars high up on the eastern mountain
slopes.

A roosting flock? A wintering group just
arrived? One of our members Mr. Suresh Jain
had found a dead crow the skin of which was
brought to the Society for identification. It
was identified as the jungle crow Corvus ma-
crorhynchos.

LAVKUMAR KHACHER

NARESH CHATURVEDI

14. OCCURRENCE OF THE REDHEADED BUNTING (EMBERIZA
BRUNNICEPS BRANDT) IN BOMBAY

March 2, 1980 while watching birds with
Humayun Abdulali at the Golf Course in
Colaba.

A yellow sparrow-sized bird was flushed
almost underfoot. As H.A. turned to look it

606

flew away towards a clump of trees. The brief
glimpse was enough to elicit a guess of ‘finch
or bunting’ from him. We followed and came
upon three feeding almost hidden in grass
three or four inches high. We were able to

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

observe them at leisure. Not all of them had
the same intensity of chestnut on the head and
on the chin and bib. There were another five
feeding a little further on. They all had some
yellow on the undersides. Those with brighter
chestnut heads had a stronger shade of yellow
underneath. The beak was distinctly conical
and the tail slightly but noticeably forked.

H.A. was almost certain it was the Red-
headed Bunting and the following day he con-
firmed the identification stating that the:

The Redheaded Bunting (Emberiza brunni-
ceps Brandt) is a winter visitor to India,
fairly common in Gujarat and in the Deccan
as far south as Cudappah, Mysore and
Coimbatore. There are, however, no records
of this species from the Bombay area where

12 REVATI,
Navy NAGAR,
COLABA,

BomBay 400 005,
June 10, 1980.

the Blackheaded Bunting (£. melanocephala

Scopoli) with which it is often associated,

is common particularly in the Konkan dur-

ing February and March.

On March 4, one Redheaded Bunting was
seen in the same area. It was not shy. The
yellow rump was easily visible when it hopped
onto a water pipe. When feeding on the ground
the yellow rump is concealed by the folded
wings. Further away towards the seaward end
of the Course a party of thirteen was seen.
Four had rich chestnut heads, the colour ex-
tending below the chin into an untidy bib.
The rest were grey-brown near the beak and
fading into a dull grey at the outer limits of
the crown and throat but all showed some
yellow below. Seven were seen in the same
area on April 11, and four on May 6.1

JASJIT MAN SINGH

1 As a postscript the birds have been again found
in the same area in March 1981 on two occasions
—in groups of three and four.

15. AGE AT ONSET OF SEXUAL MATURITY IN MALE INDIAN
MUGGER (CROCODYLUS PALUSTRIS, LESSON) REARED UNDER
IDEAL HUSBANDRY CONDITIONS IN CAPTIVITY

INTRODUCTION

Captive crocodiles maintained under ideal
husbandry conditions show extremely rapid
growth (see below and Bustard, Singh &
Choudhury, in press). It might be expected
that this would lead to-early onset of sexual
maturity. Whitworth (1971) cites an instance
of a female alligator (Alligator mississippien-
sis) which exhibited an extremely rapid rate
of growth in captivity, and mated, nested and
produced eggs at 4 years of age, i.e. over five

years younger than the normal age of sexual
maturity in the wild (MclIlhenny 1934 and
Cott 1961). Joanen and McNease (1975) also
concluded that in the alligator sexual maturity
is dependent on size rather than age, and
Nichols & Chabreck (1980) consider that en-
hanced feeding, leading to much faster growth,
can result in earlier breeding in the alligator.

This paper investigates the relationship be-
tween growth rate and attainment of sexual
maturity in a crocodile species—the Indian
mugger (C. palustris).

607

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A group of five hatchling mugger was ob-
tained from Hoggenakal Water Falls (12°7’N,
77°80’E) on Cauvery River in Dharmapuri
District of Tamil Nadu, and brought to the
Gharial Research and Conservation Unit at
Tikerpada, District Dhenkanal, Orissa, for cap-
tive rearing on 14 August 1975. This group
had hatched during April 1975. They were
reared under the rearing conditions described
by Bustard (1975) and Bustard, Singh and
Choudhury (in prepn.).

Tikerpada and the adjacent Mahanadi River
are in the natural habitat of the mugger and
three wild individuals are known to presently
inhabit the adjacent stretch of the Mahanadi
which during the floods comes to within 25 m
of the Research Centre.

RESULTS

Growth was rapid under the ideal husbandry
conditions prevailing (Bustard, Singh and
Choudhury, in prepn.) and presumed breeding
size of 1.62 to 1.73 m was obtained by four
males after two years and six months by
which time the penes of the males were greatly
enlarged (at least 10 cm). No female mugger
of comparable size were available in the Unit
to conclusively prove copulation and successful
insemination of females at this age. However,
strong corroborative evidence of their sexual
maturity was obtained from the following in-
direct evidence:

1. From December 1977, a wild female
mugger living in the adjacent stretch of the
Mahanadi river was repeatedly attracted to
the rearing enclosure at the centre which held
the males (mean length 1.64 m). This behavi-
our was very frequent in December 1977 and
January to February 1978, (the 1977/78
breeding season) and again from November

608

1978 to January 1979 (when this female was
captured) (Singh 1979, Singh and Bustard,
in prepn.). The attraction is considered to re-
sult from olfactory stimuli from the male mug-
ger in the Centre which may have reached the
female in the river via water drained out of
the pools.

The attractiveness of these male mugger to
the female in the adjacent river suggests that
they had attained sexual maturity by the age
of two years and six months.

2. Following her capture, frequent court-
ship and mating was observed during Febru-
ary 1979 by the two males of May 1975 stock
retained at the Centre. This is further strong
evidence that the two males were sexually
mature. However, at the time of these actual
matings (following the capture of the female)
the males were three years and eight months
old and between 1.7 to 2.1 m length.

No eggs resulted from these matings in the
1979 breeding season. However, this could
be due to sexual incompatibility or other fac-
tors (Singh and Bustard, in prepn.) and not
due to inability of the males to successfully
inseminate the female.

DISCUSSION

Taken together, the above data suggest that
these two male mugger had probably attained
sexual maturity at 24 years old (mean length
1.64 m) and certainly by about 34 years old
(mean length 2.09 m). It is our belief that
these mugger could have successfully mated
had suitable females been present during the
December 1978—February 1979 mating season
at an age of three years and six to eight
months.

The youngest definitely recorded breeding
age for the female Indian mugger at present
is six years (Choudhury, in prepn.) and six
or seven years (Whitaker, pers. comm.).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

These data indicate that attainment of sexual
maturity, in atleast some races of the Indian
mugger, can occur remarkably quickly. This
finding has two important implications:

(a) A practical application in the develop-
ment of crocodile farms. A crucial handicap
in the use of saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus
porosus) is that individuals of this species
take approximately 10 years (12 to 15 years;
Yangprapakorn 1971) to reach sexual matu-
rity. This means that a long period has to be
devoted to building up the captive breeding
herd before any breeding takes place. The
fast breeding, of at least some mugger strains,
would overcome this difficulty. Growth in
captivity in this species can also be excellent
(Bustard, Singh & Choudhury, in prepn.).

(b) Ecological resilience of the species. If,
under ideal conditions in the wild, early onset
of sexual maturity and breeding is a possibi-
lity, the survival prospects for the species will
be enhanced. Indeed, early onset of sexual
maturity in the mugger, as compared to the
much larger gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) and
saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), a
phenomenon seen in most if not all of the
smaller crocodilian species, is undoubtedly one
reason for the better survival of this species in
India at the end of the heavy hunting phase.

These limited data are noteworthy as they

CENTRAL CROCODILE BREEDING &
MANAGEMENT TRAINING INSTITUTE,
RAJENDRANAGAR Roap,

HYDERABAD 500 264, A.P.,

April 30, 1981.

are based on the ‘grow and release’ technique
(Bustard 1974, 1975) under which crocodiles
are grown under ideal husbandry conditions
for quick release back into the wild. Most cap-
tive crocodiles in Indian and overseas zoos
are kept under distinctly suboptimal husbandry
conditions and as a result exhibit greatly re-
duced growth compared to what is possible.
Consequently the onset of sexual maturity may
be retarded by many years. Unfortunately such
data come to be accepted as the norm.

The whole topic of size/age/sex relation-
ships is in need of attention (Bustard, in
prepn.). It is not known if there is an age
or size ‘over-ride’ in crocodilians, that is, if
crocodilians have to attain a certain age be-
fore they can breed irrespective of their size.
The above data suggest that breeding can per-
haps be speeded up following very fast juve-
nile growth and that there is probably not an
absolute age ‘over-ride’. These results are more
noteworthy since they are achieved with males
which one might expect to attain sexual matu-
rity later than females, a point also made by
Cott (1961), Yangprapakorn (1971) and B.
C. Choudhury (pers. comm.). This is clearly
a topic on which further research is required.
Data are being assembled by our group on all
three species of Indian crocodilians but this
will take some years.

H. R. BUSTARD

L. A. K. SINGH

REFERENCES

BusTarD, H. R. (1974): India: A_ preliminary
survey of the prospects for crocodile farming FO:
IND [71/033 October 1974. FAO, Rome.

(1975): Gharial and crocodile con-
servation Management in Orissa Interim Report,
Crocodile Farming Project FAO, Rome. December

1975. FAO, Rome. FO:IND/71/033.

Cott, H. B. (1961): Scientific results of an in-
quiry into the ecology and economic status of the
Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) in Uganda
and Northern Rhodesia. Trans. Zool. Soc. London
29 (4): 211-356.

609

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

JOANEN, T. & McNEASE, L. (1975): Notes on
the reproductive biology and captive propagation
of the American alligator. Proc. 29th Annual Meet-
ing Southeast Association of Game and Fish Com-
missioners. 29: 407-415.

McILHENNY, E. A. (1934): Notes on incubation
and growth of alligators. Copeia 1934: 80-88.

NicHo.s, J. D. & CHABRECK, R. H. (1980): On
the variability of alligator sex ratios. American
Naturalist 116 (1): 125-137.

SINGH, L. A. K. (1979): Sexual attraction of a

wild mugger (Crocodylus palustris, Lesson) toward
captive mugger. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76 (1):
167-172.

WHiItTwortH, J. (1971): Notes on the growth
and mating of American alligator (Alligator mis-
sissippiensis). International Zoo Yearbook I1: 144.

YANGPRAPAKORN, U. (1971): Captive breeding of
crocodiles in Thailand. 98-103 In: Proceeding of
the First Working Meeting of crocodiles Specialists
IUCN Publications New Series No. 32 Morges,
Switzerland.

16. GHARIAL ATTACKS ON MAN

Malcolm Smith (1931) stated of the gharial,
“Very occasionally they will attack man, but
they are not much feared on this account.”

In over 6 years’ experience, we know pert-
sonally of only one attack on man by a gharial.
The details of this attack are set out below
together with information on three other ‘at-
tacks’ which we have been told about during
survey trips.

On 14th November 1979 at Tasera on the
Mahanadi river in the Satkoshia Gorge Sanc-
tuary of Orissa, an old man, Sankara Behera,
aged 55 years, had his left arm caught by a
young male gharial, 3-3.7 m in length, while
Sankara was washing his utensils in the water
from the river bank. The gharial, probably
waiting to emerge at this preferred basking
spot, was not observed by Sankara as the water
was turbid due to waves washing the bank.
The old man was either pulled or slipped into
the river but the gharial did not retain its
hold on his arm. Fortunately the old man’s
son, Barju Behera seeing the predicament of
his father, came to his rescue in a canoe and
pulled him by his hair into the boat. As the
son dragged his father into the boat the gharial
again caught the man by his right thigh and
released him immediately. The man was hospi-
talised and recovered.

Both of us have seen Sankara subsequently
and can testify to the extensive scars on the

610

left forearm and right thigh resulting from
lacerations caused by the fish-holding (pierc-
ing) teeth of the gharial’s elongated jaws. _

Information on three other attacks, all in
Orissa, reported to us, is set out below:

1. A female gharial was known to be
guarding its nest on the river bank at Naraj
on Mahanadi river. The attack took place
prior to 1974, when a visitor to the riverside
village went down to the water’s edge after
nightfall to take his bath in the river. The
local villagers knew and avoided that exact
spot where the female gharial was guarding its
nest, located in the sandbank near the water’s
edge. The visitor, unaware of the nest, ap-
proached this site and had his ankle ‘nipped’
by the nest-guarding female. No injury was
sustained—probably the gharial was merely
trying to warn him away from the nesting site
as is known to occur in C. porosus (Bustard
and Choudhury 1980). |

2. Around 1974 a local fisherman, also
from Naraj village was bitten in the chest area
when he dived under water to release his fish-
ing nets which had become snagged on what
he thought to be some rocks. He was imme-
diately released and sustained only minor
injuries.

3. A similar incident happened about
twentytive years ago to a fisherman near Tal-
char on the banks of the River Brahmani,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

formerly a good gharial habitat. The man sur-
vived the injuries and died only in 1979.
The above incidents, and their rarity, con-
firm Malcolm Smith’s statement, and also in-
dicate how a human death in a crocodilian
habitat can be interpretated as being ‘only’
due to crocodilian attack. Had the son not
rescued his father in the instance described

CENTRAL CROCODILE BREEDING &
MANAGEMENT TRAINING INSTITUTE,
RAJENDRANAGAR ROAD,

HYDERABAD 500 264,

April 30, 1981.

by us, the old man would have drowned as he
was unconscious, probably from shock. This
would have led to the gharial being blamed
for the man’s death and perhaps even accused
of eating him.

We would be interested to learn of other
authenticated instances of gharial attacks on
man.

H. R. BUSTARD
L. A. K. SINGH

REFERENCES

BusTARD, H. R. & CHouDHURY, B. C. (1980):
Parental care in the saltwater crocodile (Croco-
dylus porosus Schneider) and management impli-
cations. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 77 (1): 64-69.

SMITH, M. (1931): The Fauna of British India
including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphi-
bia. Volume I—Loricata, Testudines. Taylor and
Francis, London.

17. A NOTE ON THE SLENDER CORAL SNAKE, CALLOPHIS
MELANURUS

During the course of snake collection in
district Dhar, we obtained specimens of the
coral snake Callophis melanurus.

Specimens were collected in the early morn-
ing during the months of November and De-
~ cember 1980. Collection during morning hours
indicates that the snakes are most active dur-
ing night hours. The collected specimens mea-
sured 20 to 30 cm in length and 4 to 5 cm in
circumference. This snake is unique in ap-
pearance. The head and neck are black in
colour having two distinct spots on the top of
the head and rest of the body is light pink
in colour. The tail has two black rings—one
ring at the tail base and other at the tail tip.
Poison fangs are well developed. Males are
longer than females.

For studying the general biology of the
snakes, specimens were kept in large aquaria

with a surface of sand. The animals burrowed
into the sand, just keeping their heads above
the sand. Excited animals curled their tail up
and waved it. A few petridishes were kept fill-
ed with water for drinking purpose. Worm
snakes Typhlops braminus were provided as
food. Coral snakes fed on worm snakes.

In Maharashtra it is believed that if this
snake bites at night, the victim will die before
day break. Hence it is known as “Raat”
(= night).

So far this snake has not been reported from
Madhya Pradesh. Hence, this report is first
from (Dhar) Madhya Pradesh.

Presence of Coral snake, Callophis melanu-
rus at Dhar district suggests that these sankes
are not only located in the regions mentioned
above, but also in the Malwa region of Ma-
dhya Pradesh.

611

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.

LECTURER,
P. G. DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
Govt. COLLEGE, DHAR (M.P.).

SCHOOL OF STUDIES IN ZOOLOGY,
VIKRAM UNIVERSITY,

UssAIN 456010 (M.P.),

March 25, 1981.

SOCIETY, Vol. 78

TEJ PRAKASH VYAS

(MRS.) MADHU VYAS

18. ON A COLLECTION OF COBITID LOACHES OF THE GENUS
NOEMACHEILUS VAN HASSELT FROM POONCH VALLEY

(JAMMU AND

Cobitid loaches of the genus Noemacheilus
van Hasselt (sub-family: Noemacheilinae)
are typical rheophilous teleosts which prefer
pure- oxygen-rich waters with sandy or gra-
velly bottoms and are met with in the rivers
and streams of mountainous Asia, Bulgaria,
Macedonia, Europe, Turkey, the Transcauca-
sian region and England. During the course of
extensive collections of aquatic fauna under-
taken by me in Poonch Valley from 1971 io
1973 six species of Noemacheilus were collect-
ed, out of which three species are being re-
ported from Poonch Valley for the first time.

Species

1. Noemacheilus botia (Ham.)
2. WN. gracilis Day

3. N. kashmirensis Hora
*4. N. rupicola McCl.

*5. N. marmoratus (Heckel)
*6. N. vittatus (Heckel)

* New Record.
Noemacheilus botia (Ham.) occurs in
Sind, Punjab, Assam, the upper regions

of the Ganges and Jumna, the Nurbudha, as

612

Locality

KASHMIR)

well as Ceylon (Day 1878). Singh (1964) re-
corded it from the Doon Valley while Khan &
Kamal (1979) reported this species from
River Kosi (Bihar). There is no record of this
species from Kashmir Valley so far and the
only previous report of its occurrence in
Jammu & Kashmir State is by Das & Nath
(1965) and Das & Nath (1971), who reported
it from Poonch Valley. Subsequently, Malhotra,
Jyoti & Dutta (1975) recorded it from the fish
ponds at Gadigarh (Jammu).

N. gracilis Day is a high altitude cobitid
which inhabits the head waters of the Indus

Previous record from
Poonch Valley

Ponch River
Poonch River and
Sooran torrent
Poonch River and
Sooran torrent
Poonch River and
canals —
Sooran torrent —_

Das & Nath (1971)
Sharma & Sharma (1974)

Sharma & Sharma (1974)

Sooran torrent —

SETS EY SES

(Day 1878). Silas (1960) and Das (1965) re-
ported it from Kashmir Valley, while Sharma
& Sharma (1974) recorded it from Poonch

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

River and adjoining streams. The latest record
of this species is from Ladakh by Talwar
(1978).

N. kashmirensis Hora is endemic to Kash-
mir Valley (Silas 1960). It was reported by
Sharma & Sharma (1974) from Poonch Val-
ley for the first time but has not been reported
from Jammu (Tawi) so far.

N. rupicola McCl. is abundant in Kashmir
Valley (Das 1965) and the Doon Valley
(Singh 1964). Khan & Kamal (1979) reported
it from River Kosi (Bihar). It is the most
abundant cobitid loach of Poonch Valley, being
found in Poonch River, rivulets, ponds, pools,
tanks as well as large drains and rice fields.
There being no previous record of this species
from Poonch Valley, the present report is an
extension of range of this species. It has not
been recorded from Jammu (Tawi) so far.

N. marmoratus (Heckel) is a basically lacu-
strine species, which is abundant in Kashmir
lakes (Silas 1960, Das 1965). It was collected
from Sooran torrent (Poonch Valley) by me
and is a new record for that region.

N. vittatus (Heckel) is also endemic to

ProFEssor & HEAD,

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

ISLAMIA COLLEGE OF SCIENCE & COMMERCE,
SRINAGAR (KASHMIR), INDIA,

October 18, 1980.

Kashmir Valley (Silas 1960) but has not been
recorded from any part of Jammu Province
so far. The present report of the occurrence
of this species in Poonch Valley (Sooran tor-
rent) is, therefore, a new record for Jammu
Province. |

A comparison of the ichthyofauna of
Kashmir Valley with that of Poonch Valley
reveals that there is a relatively low endemi-
city of the fish fauna in the river systems of
Poonch Valley. Probably a geologically-suffi-
cient time lapse has not occurred for the fishes
in Poonch Valley to evolve into new species,
which offers a sharp contrast to the ichthyo-
fauna of the older river systems of Kashmir
region (Das & Nath 1965, 1971).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Dy.
Director, Southern Regional Station, Zoologi-
cal Survey of India, Madras and Dr. A. K.
Datta of the Zoological Survey of India, Cal-
cutta, for confirming the identification of the
present collection.

SURENDRA NATH

REFERENCES

Das, S. M. (1965): A revision of the fish species
inhabiting Kashmir Province. Kashmir Sci., 2 (1-2):
13-18.

Das, S. M. AND NATH, SURENDRA (1965): The
Ichthyofauna of Poonch Valley (Jammu & Kash-
mir). ibid., 2 (1-2): 147-155.

(1971): A revision of fishes from
Jammu Province, India. ibid., 8 (1-2): 1-22.

Day, F. (1878): Fishes of India. 2 vols., London.

KHAN, H. A. AND KAMAL, M. YussuF (1979):
On a collection of fish from River Kosi (Bihar).
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76 (3): 530-534.

MatuHotra, Y. R. Jyor1, M. K. ANpD Dutta, S.

P. SiIncH (1975): An aid to the identification of
fishes found in Jammu Division of J. & K. State.
Jammu Univ. Rev. 5 (8): 50-66.

SHARMA, B. D. AND SHARMA, TEJ (1974): Six
new fish records for Poonch Valley in J. & K. State.
Indian J. Anim. Res., 8 (1): 45.

Smas, E. G. (1960): Fishes from the Kashmir
Valley. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 57 (1): 66-77.

SincH, P. P. (1964): Fishes of the Doon Valley.
Ichthyologica, 3 (1-2): 86-92.

TALWar, P. K. (1978): On the fishes collected
by the Ladakh Expedition, 1976. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc. 74 (3): 501-505.

613

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

19. OCCURRENCE OF ZEBRIAS JAPONICUS (BLEEKER)
(SOLEIDAE: PISCES) IN THE BAY OF BENGAL, OFF
VISAKHAPATNAM

(With a text-figure)

Eight species of the genus Zebrias Jordan
and Snyder, 1900, have so far been recorded
from Indian waters (Day 1878, Norman 1928,
Talwar & Chakrapani 1967, Rama Rao 1967,
Yazdani 1976, Joglekar 1976, Oommen 1977).
Another species identified as Zebrias japonicus
(Bleeker), was collected from the trawl catches
off Visakhapatnam. The only other region of
its occurrence is Japan (Talwar & Chakrapani
1967) and Taiwan waters (Chen and Weng
1965). As it is recorded for the first time from
India, a short description is given (Fig. 1).
Synonymy of the species is given by Chen &
Weng (1965).

Material: One specimen measuring 100.0 mm
in standard length, from trawl catches, off
Visakhapatnam on 28-10-79.

Counts: D. 85; A. 72; P. (eyed) 9; P. (blind),
5 (tudimentary): V: 5: Cali -ljal- 95:

Fig le

614

argh tt

Zebrias japonicus

Vertebrae 44 (from radiograph).
Measurements: In standard length: Head

length 5.5; Body depth 2.9; In head length:

Snout length 3.6; Eye diameter 3.6; Pec-

toral fin length (eyed) 2.0.

Description: Body elongate, elliptical, gra-
dually tapering posteriorly; head small; eyes
separated, upper eye slightly in advance of
lower eye. Interorbital space about half of eye
diameter. Anterior nostril on ocular side a long
tube, backward, reaching anterior border of
lower eye, posterior shorter than anterior,
covered by a flap. Mouth moderate, curved;
Papillae are present on blind side from upper
lip to dorsal fin beginning with series of fringes
along opercular margin. Teeth developed on
blind side only. Scales rough, strongly ctenoid
on both sides. Head and interorbital space
covered with scales. One straight lateral line on

SO ees

a

‘a

ea hic gee SAG
. Aq ‘
ee oe * fi

om

coe eae ip
Fes

8 60 5 new eg oefOE
one oe 60%
eee
«
fee
> or”
Io 16@ SS SB OnaGys
A aes 2

“6
=.
2

(Bleeker).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

both sides. Dorsal fin beginning on dorsal pro-
file above upper eye. Dorsal and anal rays
branched up to half their length, excepting
anteriormost and posteriormost. Dorsal and
anal partially confluent with caudal. Caudal
fin rounded, rays (excluding upper and lower
two) branched. Pectoral fins asymmetrical with
unbranched rays; small and rudimentary on
blind side. The upper rays of right pectoral
prolonged. Pelvics symmetrical.

Coloration: Colour in formalin pale brown,
with 18 cross bars from caudal to head, which
are wavy and forked on dorsal and anal fins.
A black spot on the dorsal and anal fins be-
tween the extensions of the cross bars. Dorsal
and anal fins on blind side bluish black; caudal
black, edge milky white. Blind side white.
Remarks: The description of the specimen

under report agrees with that given by Chen

& Weng (1965) for Z. japonicus from Tai-

wan. It also agrees with the counts of lateral

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
ANDHRA UNIVERSITY,
WattTarr, (A.P.),

April 29, 1980.

line scales and caudal rays; and morpho-
metric measurements of the body depth and
head length mentioned for the Japanese
specimen by Talwar & Chakrapani (1967).
The present specimen however differs from
the Taiwan specimen in having more num-
ber of dorsal, anal, caudal, pectoral fin rays
and lateral line scales (78,65,16,4 and 85
respectively in Taiwan specimen). These
differences may be attributed to geographic
variation.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to express our sincere thanks to
Dr. C. C. N. Murty, Head of Zoology Depart-
ment, Andhra University, Waltair and one of
us (MRM) is indebted to Shri V. Sitarama
Swamy, Head of Zoology Department, Mrs.
A. V. N. College, Visakhapatnam, for provid-
ing research facilities and for constant encour-
agement.

K. SRINIVASA RAO
M. RAMA MURTY

REFERENCES

CHEN, J. T. F. AND WENG, H. T. C. (1965): A
review of the Flatfishes of Taiwan, Published by
Tunghai Univ., China. Biological Bulletin 27: 39-
42.

Day, F. (1878): The fishes of India. (Reprinted
ed., 1958), Dawson, London. 430-431.

JOGLEKAR, A. (1976): On a New Species of the
Genus Zebrias Jordan and Snyder, 1900 (Pisces:
Soleidae) from Kerala Coast (India). Zool. Anz.,
Jena 197.1/2, S. 67-70.

NorMAN, J. R. (1928): The flatfishes (Heteroso-
mata) of India, with a list of the specimens in the
Indian Museum. Rec. Indian Mus. 30 (2): 173-215.

OoMMEN, V. P. (1977): New Records of bathy-

pelagic fishes from the Arabian Sea, with descrip-
tion of a new species. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.
74 (2): 282-287.

RAMA Rao, K. V. (1967): A new Sole Zebrias
cochinensis from India. J. Zool. Soc. India. 9
(1 & 2): 99-100.

TALWAR, P. K. AND CHAKRAPANI, S. (1967): A
new flatfish of the genus Zebrias Jordan and Snyder
(Soleidae) from the Orissa Coast, India. Proc. Zool.
Soc., Calcutta. 20: 119-121.

YazDANI, G. M. (1976): The specific identity of
the sole, Zebrias zebra (Bloch) in Indian waters.
J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 73 (2): 408.

615

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

20. BOTANY AND ENTOMOLOGY AS SUPPLEMENTARY
SCIENCES

In my paper ‘‘Moth Migration in Mombasa
—1955/1977° (1979, J. Bombay na. Hist.
Soc., 75 (3): 618-624) I wrote that larvae of
the suspected lymantriid migrant, Sapelia
tavetensis Holl., had once been found on an
unidentified tree belonging to the Bombacaceae.
This is wrong, and the tree has now been
positively identified as Sterculia foetida L.
(Sterculiaceae), a native of southern India and
Sri Lanka.

The final identification of this tree is an
interesting example of how the two sciences,
botany and entomology, can supplement each
other.

The tree, obtained as a seedling from a local
nursery garden was unnamed and for many
years a keen botanist friend and myself have
puzzled over its identification. The fruit, form
of growth and digitate leaves all pointed to
the Bombacaceae, the flower was Sterculia-
like, but no East African Sterculiaceae has

P. O. Box 95617,
Mompsasa (NYALI),
KENYA,

March 9, 1980.

digitate leaves. Finally, one of the two record-
ed food-plants, Ochromus lagopus belongs to
the Bombacaceae, and there was no record of
any Sterculiaceous food-plant.

A recent paper by M. Edmunds “‘Contrast-
ing methods of survival of two sympatric cot-
ton stainer bugs (Hem., Pyrrhocoridae) in
Ghana during food shortage” (1979, Entomo-
logist’s mon. Mag., 114: 241-244) recorded
that both Dysdorcus veelkeri Schmidt and
Odontopus sexpunctatus Castelnau fed on fal-
len fruits of Sterculia foetida (presumably in-
troduced) in Ghana. In my garden a number
of Pyrrhocorids feed on the seeds of Calotropis
procera (Asclepiadaceae) and, when these are
not available, feed on the fruits of the mystery
tree. This suggested that it might, after all,
belong to the Sterculiaceae, and a detailed and
intensive search in available botanical litera-
ture finally produced the definite identification
of Sterculia foetida L.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO

21. NOTES ON THE CARPENTER ANT CAMPONOTUS
IRRITANS (SMITH)

The Carpenter Ant (Camponotus irritans)
is fairly common in the Indian desert, being
extra-ordinarily tolerant of heat. This highly
predaceous insect is of considerable ecological
and biological interest. The observations made
on this insect from March 1978 to October
1979 in the Indian desert are reported here.

Its nest colonies are largely found on cal-
careous soils, preferably small mounds of such
soil in sandy biotopes and so also in stony and

616

rocky areas. The nest colony is usually solitary
but at favourable sites three or more nests
colonies were observed three metres apart. The
opening of the nest measures about 0.5 cm x
4.0 cm. The ant is an active predator, capturing
insects even five times larger than itself. As
soon as it comes across a prey it at once cat-
ches it and begins to drag it to its colony, the
prey unsuccessfully struggles to escape but dies
on the way while being taken to the nest

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

colony. The Common Black carpenter ant
(Camponotus compressus) is the most com-
mon prey, the next are termites, small beetles
(largely Protaetia cuprea) and caterpillars of
moths and larvae of several insects. It was
noted that cannibalism is also prevalent, in-
jured or weak ants are caught and taken into
the nest colony. ,

Its daily activity is paradoxical to normal
practices of other animals. It begins to move
out after sunrise and becomes more active
with rising of temperature up to 50°C, where-
as most of animals in the desert take shelter
when temperature rises above 35°C and solar
radiation above 40 cal/cm? hr. It is further
noteworthy that it ceases to be active and goes
underground when solar radiation is below
30 cal/cm? hr. In the winter it remains
active during the mid-day when temperature

BHAGWATI BHAVAN,
RATANADA Roap,
JODHPUR-342 020,
October 26, 1979.

rises above 28°C or solar radiation above 40
cal/cm? hr.

It takes out excavated soil in wet pellet
form and drop these out of the mouth of the
nest as does other ants. Co-operation for drag-
ging of a large sized prey was lacking.

it was noted that it dislikes rain and plugs
the mouth of the nest with sand during rain.
When accumulated water level rises to the
mouth of the nest another opening is made
at a higher level nearby and if necessary the
nest colony is shifted to a nearby elevated site.

Its eggs and youngs were observed largely
in the premonsoon season, i.e. late in June.

Babblers (Turdoides caudatus and T. stria-
tus), crows (Corvus splendens and C. macro-
rhynchos), Calotes versicolor and Varanus
spp. etc. were observed preying on the car-
penter ant.

INDRA KUMAR SHARMA

22. ACTIVITY AND ABUNDANCE OF FLOWER VISITING
INSECTS OF ALMOND (PRUNUS AMYGDALUS BATSCH)
AT LUDHIANA (PUNJAB)

Almond is an important fruit crop of hill
regions of India. In the Punjab plains also this
crop gave encouraging results at the almond
orchard of the Punjab Agricultural University,
Ludhiana. Due to this, the area under this
crop is increasing in the Punjab. The almond
flowers are 2.5 to 3.8 cm in diameter and have
a single pistil with two ovules. The flower
is self incompatible and, thus, the cross pol-
lination of the flowers is a must for obtaining
the almond crop. Secondly the pollen is also
not wind blown, which leads to more depend-
ence on insect pollinators.

Taking this in view, the flower visiting in-

sects of almond at the almond orchard of the
Punjab Agricultural University at Ludhiana
were recorded from 9.00 a.m. to 5.30 p.m. at
hourly intervals. There were 5 replications and
each tree served as one replication. The ob-
servations were recorded for 5 minutes on each
tree. The observations were repeated thrice at
weekly interval in March 1979, which was a
peak fiowering season of the year under study.

The honeybees, i.e. Apis mellifera Linn., A.
dorsata Febr. and A. florea Fabr. were the
dominant fiower visitors. The maximum popu-
lation was that of A. dorsata (Table 1). Some
dipterous flies also visited the flowers but their

617

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

TABLE 1

ACTIVITY AND ABUNDANCE OF FLOWER VISITING INSECTS OF ALMOND DURING Marcu, 1979

Name of species 9h 10h 11h 12h
Apis mellifera 0 Z 9 12
Apis dorsata 7 16 44 33
Apis florea 1 1 6 5
Total 8 19 59 50

number was negligible. In the earlier reports
on almond pollination honeybees have been
reported practically the only pollinating insects
of economic importance (Muttoo 1950, Purdie
and Winn 1965, McGregor 1976). The period
of maximum activity of ail the three species
of honeybees was from 11.00 a.m. to 1.00 p.m.
A. dorsata started visiting the flowers in suffi-
cient numbers even at 9.00 a.m. than the other
species of bees. A. mellifera was active even
upto 5.00 p.m. The activity of all the flower
visiting insects was very low on cloudy days.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY,
PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,
LUDHIANA,

March 4, 1980.

Number of insects if 5 trees at
16 12 13 12 10 86
33 12 21 11 ih 184
| 6 ! 4. 1 2, 1 Di
! 55 28 35 25 18 297

In conclusion, honeybees were the only do-
minant flower visiting insects of almond at
Ludhiana.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. A. S. Sidhu, Professor-cum-
Head, Department of Entomology, Punjab
Agricultural University, Ludhiana for provid-
ing the facilities and to Dr. G. S. Nijjar, Pro-
fessor-cum-Head, Department of Horticulture,
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana for
access to the orchard.

G. S. MANN
GURDIP SINGH

REFERENCES

Mutroo, R. N. (1950):
crop. Indian J. Hort. 7 (3/4): 17-20.

Purpig, J. D. & WINN, R. A. (1965): Almond
pollination: Honeybee activity. Aust. Bee. J. 46:

Honeybees and fruit

cultivated crop plants.
Book No. 496, 411 p.

17-19.
McGrecor, S. E. (1976): Insect pollination of
USDA Agriculture Hand —

23. BUTTERFLIES OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH

Altitudinal zones of the Eastern Himalayas
have their own fauna. The ecosystem varies
from west to east and the altitudinal zones are
sharply defined and telescoped into tightly
packed tiers of life zones. Considering the
importance of North Eastern Himalaya as a
gateway for oriental biota in the peninsula a

618

thorough ecological survey of the area is essen-
tial especially in the face of rapid man made
environmental changes. One such expedition
was organised jointly by the Bombay Natural
History Society and the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington D.C. for the avifaunal survey of
the Arunachal Pradesh. During the survey

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

party also collected butterflies from this area.

In the past butterflies of North Eastern
India had been studied by several persons but
very little collection had been made from
Tirap division. [Varshney & Chanda (1971)
Ind. Mus. Bull. 6(1) 28-53]. The present re-
port deals with the small butterfly collection
made by Mr. S. A. Hussain and Mr. Rex
Pimento in 1979 at Tirap division. Tirap
Frontier division is in the extreme east of
Arunachal Pradesh adjoining the Kachin Dis-
trict of Burma over the Patkai range of hills.
Collection was done at Miao c. 300 m from
3rd to 8th March and Bhimraj (40th mile
camp from Miao) from 10th to 25th March,
SSE

Family : DANAIDAE

1. Danaus aglea (Kluk) Glassy Tiger.
Common.
Distribution : Assam, Burma.

2. Danaus melaneus (Cramer) Chocolate
Tiger. Common.
Distribution : Sikkim to Assam and
Burma.

3. Danaus sita (Kollar) Chestnut Tiger.
Not rare.
Distribution : Shillong, Khasi Hills, Assam
and Burma.

4. Danaus melissa (Cramer): Dark Blue
Tiger. Common.
Distribution : Kulu to Burma and Assam.

5. Euploea mulciber (Cramer) Striped Blue-
Crow. Common.
Distribution: Assam and Burma.

Family : SATYRIDAE

6. Lethe bhadra M. Tailed Labyrinth. Rare.
Distribution : Sikkim to Burma.

7. Lethe sinoryx Hew. Tailed Red Forester.
Rare,

10):

he

12,

U3.

14.

lis)

16.

7.

Lites

Distribution: Sikkim to Burma.

. Ypthima baldus F. Common Fivering.

Very Common.
Disiribution: Chaneba to Assam and
Burma.

. Orsotricena medus F. Nigger. Common.

Distribution: Sikkim to Assam and
Burma.

Elymnias hypermnestra Linn. Common
Palmfly. Common.

Distribution : Bengal, Assam and Burma.

Family: NYMPHALIDAE

Apatura ambica Kollar Indian Purple
Emperor. Noi rare.

Distribution : Burma.

Kuthalia kesava (Moore) Powdered
Baron. Common. _

Distribution: Sikkim to Assam and
Burma.

Limenitis daraxa (Doubl.) Green Com-
mander. Not rare.

Distribution: NE India, Burma.
Pantoporia selenophora (Kollar) Staff
sergeant. Rare.

Distribution: Assam, Bihar, Burma.
Neptis hordonia Stoll Common Lascar.
Common.

Distribution : Dehra Dun to Assam,
Burma.

Precis almana (Linn.) Peacock Pansy.
Common.

Distribution : Throughout India and
Burma.

Vanessa cardui (Linn.) Painted Lady.
Very common.

Distribution : Throughout India, Assam
and Burma.

Cethosia biblis (Drury) Red Lacewing.
Common.

Distribution : Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan,
Assam and Burma.

619

1s

20.

il.

22.

23):

24.

25).

26.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Ergolis merione (Cramer) Common.
Distribution: Assam and Burma.

Family : ERYCINIDAE

Abisara neophron (Hewitson) Tailed
Judy. Not rare.

Distribution: Nepal, Hills of NE India,
Burma.

Family : LyCAENIDAE

Castalius rosimon (Fab.) Common Pier-
rot. Common.

Distribution : Throughout India and
Burma.

Heliophorus epicles (Fruh.) Purple sap-
phire. Common.

Distribution: Kumaon to Assam and
Burma.

Cheritra freja (Fab.) Common Imperial.
Common.
Distribution :
Burma.

Kumaon to Assam and

Family : PAPILIONIDAE

Papilio protemor (Carmer) Not rare.
Distribution: Assam and Burma.
Papilio helenus (Linn.) Red Helen.
Common.

Distribution : Mussoorie to Assam and
Burma.

Graphium sarpedon (Linn.) Common

BomMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY,
HorNBILL HOUSE,

SHAHID BHAGAT SINGH ROAD,
BomBay 400 023,

March 30, 1981.

620

Ze

28.

Me)

30.

Shy

32.

Blue Bottle. Common.

Disiribution : Kashmir to Assam and
Burma.

Leptocircus curius F. White Dragontail.
Not rare.

Distribution: Assam and Burma.

Family : PIERIDAE

Pieris canidia (Spairman) Indian Cabbage
White. Very Common.

Distribution: Himalaya and Hills of
Assam and Burma.

Pieris brassicae (Linn.) Large Cabbage
White. Very Common.

Distribution : Assam.

Ixias pyrene (Linn.) Yellow Orange Tip.
Common.

Distribution: North West Himalayas to
Assam and Burma. :

Dercas verhuelli (Doub) Tailed Sulphur.
Not rare.

Distribution: Sikkim to Assam and
Burma.

Family : HESPERIDAE

Baoris farri (Moore) Paint Brush Swift.
Not rare.

Distribution: Sikkim, Bengal, Bihar,
Assam to Burma.

. Polytremis eltola (Hewitson) Yellow Spot

Swift. Common.
Distribution : Assam.

NARESH CHATURVEDI
REX PIMENTO
S. A. HUSSAIN

REFERENCE

VARSHNEY, R. K. AND CHANDA, S. K. (1971):
Butterflies of the North-Eastern India. Indian Mus.

Bull. 6 (1): 28-53.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

24. NEW RECORD OF HELIOTHIS PELTIGERA DENIS AND
SCHIFFERMULLER ON SUNFLOWER

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus Linn.) is a
new introduction as an oilseed crop in the
Punjab State. Because of its unique organolep-
tic and other properties it can be exploited
for a variety of purposes. A detailed biblio-
graphy of insects associated with this crop
throughout the world had been _ reported
(Rajamohan 1976). Twenty nine species of
insects and one species of mite had been re-
ported feeding on sunflower in Tamil Nadu
(Rangarajan eft al. 1973); 42 species of insects,
2 mites and one bird from Punjab (Sandhu
et al. 1973). Heliothis peltigera was recorded
causing damage to sunflower during April-May
in 1978 and 1980 at Ludhiana (Punjab).

Occurrence of H. peltigera on sunflower is

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY,
PUNJAB AGRIL. UNIVERSITY,
LUDHIANA,

October 27, 1980.

a first report from India. The larvae feed on
leaves and flower heads. One to six larvae
were observed feeding on a single head. In-
festation was comparatively more in the semi-
opened heads. Fully-opened heads and closed
flower heads had fewer larvae in them. Ini-
tially the larva attacked the bracts and later
started feeding on developing seeds. Advanc-
ed stage larvae bored deep into the flower
head.

Thanks are due to Dr. B. S. Chahal, Pro-
fessor-cum-Head, Department of Entomology
for facilities and to Director, Commonwealth
Institute of Entomology, London, for arrang-
ing the identification from Dr. J. D. Holloway.

GURDIP SINGH
G. S. GREWAL
S. S. SANDHU

REFERENCES

RAJAMOHAN, N. (1976): Pest complex of sun-
flower—A bibliography. PANS 22 (4): 546-63.

RANGARAJAN, A. V., MAHADEVAN, N. R. SUBA-
RAJA, K. T., PALANISWAMY, P. AND SIVAPRAKASHAM,
Kk. (1973): Pests and diseases of sunflower and their

control. Technical Bulletin 1972-73. The Additional
Director of Agriculture, Tamil Nadu, pp. 428-35.
SANDHU, G. S., BRAR, K. S. AND BHALLA, J. S.
(1973): Pests of sunflower and other insects asso-
ciated with sunflower crop. Oilseed J. 3 (2) 19-26.

25. NOTES ON THE MATING BEHAVIOUR IN LACCOTREPHES
GRISEUS GUER AND L. ROBUSTUS STALL (HETEROPTERA:
NEPIDAE)

(With a text-figure)

INTRODUCTION
Information pertaining to the mating beha-

viour of aquatic insects, in particular Nepidae,
is meagre except for the passing observations

13

by Rao (1969) on Laccotrephes griseus Guert.
In the course of the bio-ecological studies of
South Indian aquatic Hemiptera of the family
Nepidae, it was found that various factors-
visual, tactile and chemical-play an important

621

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

role in the pre-mating and mating as well as
the ovipositing behaviour of many species of
aquatic insects. The present paper deals with
the ethology of mating in two common South
Indian Nepidae Laccotrephes griseus Guer and
L. robustus Stal.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Adults and nymphs of L. griseus and L.
robustus were collected during the months of
October and November 1978 from temporary
and permanent ponds around Madras and
reared in trays of 31 x 24 x 7 cm provided
with a 2.5 cm layer of mud at the bottom and
1.5 cm thickness of water above the substra-
tum. The trays were provided with aquatic
plants or straw, making the medium as nearly
natural as possible. The insects were fed re-
gularly on mosquito larvae. The water in the
tray was renewed at intervals of three days. In
order to assess the role of visual sense in the
act of mating, the compound eyes of adults
were painted with white dye. Antennae were
amputated to find out their role in mating.

OBSERVATIONS

Mating instinct begins 4 or 6 days after the
final moult. Prior to mating, the male of L.
griseus exhibits a specific dancing behaviour.
It lifts up its right raptorial foreleg so as to
contact the left foreleg of the female and rubs
against it. Rubbing continues until the female
responds. If the female does not respond, the
male swims away. A positive response from
the female is the raising of its left foreleg
towards the male, a unique nuptial dancing
follows. The left and the right raptorial fore-
legs of the couple are pushed and pulled alter-
nately. This process lasts from 3 to 5 minutes,
whereupon the male slides fast along the
female till it contacts the genitalia and mounts

622

at once. The female is observed to brush its
genital segments with the help of its posterior
pair of legs. On mounting the female, the male
holds her by the forelegs in the region of the
2nd and 3rd thoracic legs and copulation en-
sues. When in copula, interruption by another
male elicits an aggressive behaviour from the
couple. The copulating male as well as the
female use their third pair of legs to chase
away the intruder by pushing and kicking.
The sexual excitement of the male is such
that it often mounts 4th or 5th nymphal in-
stars only to be dismounted at once. In labo-
ratory experiments, when more than one male
is exposed to a female, competition follows
and the stronger one succeeds in mounting the
female. Often the unsuccessful males interfere
with the copulating pair so much that the
latter is forced to separate.

The duration of copulation is, on an average,
15 minutes in L. griseus and 19 minutes in
L. robustus (vide Table 1). The minimum and

TABLE 1

DURATION OF COPULATION IN THE SPECIES
OF NEPIDAE

Time taken in minutes

Species Range SD | Maxi- Mini-
mum mum
L. griseus 14-16 1643.1 18 12

L. robustus 18-20 19,6+1.28 22 15

maximum duration of copulation in the former
are 12 and 18 minutes respectively, and 15
to 22 minutes respectively in the latter. The
frequency of mating appears to be higher at
night between 9 and 12 p.m. (Fig. 1)
correlated with the nocturnal habit of these
species. Phoresic behaviour in mating is not
noticed in L. robustus while it is quite com-
mon in L. griseus.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Jem.

Jen 6 pm

12 pm.

e—° L .grisous
ens | robust us

12 am.

3AM 6am. Dam.

Time

Fig. 1. Peak of copulation in two species of Nepidae.

Tactile sense appears to play but a minor
role in the mating prelude, for males with
amputated antennae behave very much like
normal forms although the time taken to ex-
plore the female appears to be a little longer.
On the other hand, the visual sense appears to
be of immense value in the recognition of op-
posite sexes. Males with their compound eyes
painted with white dye are found to wander
aimlessly and contact the females accidentally.
Once they establish contact, the sequence of
courtship behaviour is found to be normal.

OVIPOSITION '
The selection of site for egg-laying and the

oviposition behaviour are quite distinct in L.
griseus and L. robustus. Oviposition commen-

ces 6-8 days after copulation in L. griseus,
while in L. robustus the preoviposition period
appears to be longer, being 11-13 days. In both
the species, the females appear to be very
active in searching for a suitable place for egg-
laying. L. griseus lifts its ovipositor and taps
the soil apparently to test the suitability of the
soil, while this behaviour is lacking in L. robu-
stus. Once a suitable site is selected, the female
of L. griseus opens and closes the valves of its
ovipositor rhythmically and lays the eggs in
groups of 8-12. The eggs adhere to its sides
by means of a slimy substance which it secre-
tes, and are then inserted one by one into the
smooth soil by bending the tip of the abdo-
men. The eggs are arranged compactly and
regularly with their anterior filamentous ends
projecting outwards like a bouquet. In contrast

623

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

to this behaviour, L. robustus, which lays, on
an average, 16 eggs at a time, shows no pre-
ference to the nature of soil nor does it show
any specificity in the process of oviposition.
After oviposition is accomplished, the females
of both the species become exhausted and pas-
sive and they resume their mating activity in
two days.

DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY,
LoYOLA COLLEGE,
MapbraS-600 034,
July 28, 1980.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the Rev. Fr. Principal
and the staff members of the Department for
their continuous encouragement and help ex-
tended for this study. Thanks are also due to
University Grants Commission, Government
of India for awarding Teachers minor research
project in Science to one of us.

M. SELVANAYAGAM
T. K. RAGHUNATHA RAO

REFERENCE

RAo, T. K. R. (1969): Bioecological studies on

some
University.

aquatic Hemiptera.

Ph.D. thesis. Madras

26. CYSTIPHORA TARAXACI KIEFFER (DIPTERA:
CECIDOMYIIDAE) MINING THE LEAVES OF TARAXACUM
OFFICINALE WEBER (COMPOSITAE) IN KASHMIR

Members of the gall-midge genus Cystiphora
Kieffer are exclusively restricted to Compo-
sitae and have not been recorded from any
other host. The genus so far was considered
to be confined to Europe and north America
(Delfinado and Hardy 1973). This is the first
report of its occurrence in India.

I have come across larvae of Cystiphora
taraxaci making small circular mines, 2-4 mm
across, below the cuticle on the under-surface
of the leaves of the common meadow dande-
lion, Taraxacum officinale in Kashmir. On the
dorsal leaf surface, the mines are represented
by bright reddish-purple pustules which are
slightly raised above the general leaf surface.
The central area of the pustules is of a lighter
shade. Although generally these pustules are
randomly distributed over the leaf surface,

624

they sometimes have the tendency to aggre-
gate towards the terminal portion of the leaf.

The mines are locally common and some-
times are so abundant that it is rare to find
an unaffected plant. Ecologically, these mines
are regarded as intermediate forms between
mines and the galls, and can be equally con-
sidered under either of these categories (Her-
ing 1951).

Each mine contains a single pale coloured
larva which later turns orange-yellow as it at-
tains maturity. The larva lies sluggishly in the
centre of the mine and apparently lives on the
sap seeping constantly from the wound made
by it in the leaf tissue. Pupal period lasts from
8-9 days. There are 3-4 overlapping generations
under field conditions during the period June-
Sept. The midges over-winter as pupae.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY,

ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY,
ALIGARH-202 001,

November 27, 1980.

M. ZAKA-UR-RAB

REFERENCES

DELFINADO, M. D. & Harpy, D. E. (1973): A
Catalogue of the Diptera of the Oriental Region.
Vol. 1. Suborder Nematocera. The University Press
of Hawaii, Honolulu. 618 pp.

HERING, E .M. (1951): Biology of the Leaf
Miners. Uitgeverij Dr. W. Junk, ‘s-Gravenhage.
420 pp.

27. OCCURRENCE OF PALEARCTIC LEECH HEMICLEPSIS
MARGINATA ASIATICA MOORE IN RENUKA LAKE,

HIMACHAL

The genus Hemiclepsis Vejdovky, 1883 is
represented in the Indian sub-region by only
two subspecies viz., Hemiclepsis marginata
marginata (Muller) and Hemiclepsis margi-
nata asiatica Moore; the former race is widely
distributed whereas the latter is so far known
only from its type locality Srinagar (Kashmir)
from slow running hillstreams (Moore 1924,
Soota 1959). Hemiclepsis m. asiatica is an
intermediate form between Hemiclepsis m.
marginata a common European form and
Hemiclepsis m. casmiana Oka, the only other
sub-species of the genus known from far east
(Harding & Moore 1927).

HicH ALTITUDE ZOOLOGY Fb. STN.,
ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
‘MoHINDER BHAWAN’,

RAJGARH Roap, Solan (H.P.),

May 15, 1979.

PRADESH

The present find of Hemiclepsis m. asiatica
in Renuka (Himachal Pradesh) is of consi-
derable zoogeographical significance, for it ex-
tends the distribution of this subspecies from
palearctic region of Kashmir Valley in the
great Himalayan range to the oriental region
in the Shivalik range.

Material examined:

(1) 1 ex., Parshuram Tank, Renuka, Distt.
Sirmour, H.P., 6. iv. 1970, Coll. M.
Chandra (Attached to submerged stones).

(ii) 5 exs., South bank of Renuka lake, Re-
nuka, Distt. Sirmour, H.P., 5.iv.1970,

Coll. M. Chandra.

M. CHANDRA

REFERENCES

HARDING, W. A. & Moore, J. P. (1927): The
Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma.
Hirudinea: 87.

Moore, J. P. (1924): Notes on some Asiatic
Leeches (Hirudinea), principally from China, Kash-

mir and British India. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-
delphia, 8/: 343-388.

Soora, T. D. (1959): Fauna of the Kashmir
Valley: leeches. Rec. Indian Mus. 54 (1 & 2): 2.

625

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

28. A NOTE ON SOME NEW HOSTS OF OROBANCHE
AEGYPTIACA PERS.

Orobanche aegyptiaca Pers. of family Oro-
banchaceae, is an erect, pale brown, scapiger-
ous, root parasite with many blue, sessile
flowers arranged in lax spike. The different
species of Orobanche parasitise many cultivat-
ed plants such as hemp, tobacco, tomato and
many leguminous as well as cruciferous plants.
Maheshwari: collected O. aegyptiaca Pers. on
the roots of Ammi majus Linn. from Delhi.

In the present investigation O. aegyptiaca
was recorded for the first time parasitising
the roots of Parthenium hysterophorus Linn.,
Datura metal Linn. and Nicotiana plumbagini-
folia Viv., which were growing along the banks
of river Kshipra and its tributaries near Ujjain
(23°11’N, 75°47’E). Its presence on the roots

1 Maheshwari, J. K. (1963): The Flora of Delhi.
CSIR, New Delhi.

SCHOOL OF STUDIES IN BOTANY,
VIKRAM UNIVERSITY,
USJAIN-456 010,

August 9, 1980.

IAS

of Parthenium is rather interesting in the light
of present day investigations on the phytoal-
lelopathic potential of its root exudates
as it is spreading at a fast rate by eliminating
other species growing in its association. It ap-
pears that root exudates of Parthenium do not
inhibit seed germination and seedling growth
of Orobanche, in turn these stimulate the seed-
ling growth of it. Nycotiana plumbaginifolia
where it was host for Orobanche, was in asso-
ciation of Parthenium, while Datura metal was
growing in isolation. Host parasite relationship
between these plants is of great interest and
needs further experimentations.

I am thankful to Prof. L. P. Mall, Head,
School of Studies in Botany, Vikram Univer-
sity, Ujjain, for encouragement. I am also
thankful to CSIR for financial assistance.

J. C. DAGAR

A NOTE ON SABIA PANICULATA EDGEW. EX HOOK. F. &

THOMS. (SABIACEAE) FROM WEST BENGAL

The genus Sabia Coleb. has over 55 species
in the Indian sub-continent and East Asia to
Solomon Island. Of these, India has 10 species
of which five occur in West Bengal being parti-
cularly confined to the northern part of the
state. Of the 5 species distributed in West
Bengal, this paper describes Sabia paniculata
Edgew. ex Hook. f. & Thoms.—a species of
botanical interest. This has not been recorded
earlier from West Bengal by D. Prain (1903).
Cowan & Cowan (1929) listed the occurrence
of the taxon in the state along with the other

626

4 species, but without mentioning precise loca-
lity. Biswas (1966) recorded 4 species from
Darjeeling district, except S$. paniculata. A
study of the herbarium specimens in CAL and
pertinent literature, shows that the occur-
rence of the species in West Bengal needed
further investigation. With this in mind,
the senior author collected a number of speci-
mens of the taxon from different localities in
Jalpaiguri district during his field studies on
the flora of the district. Since the collection
of the taxon referred to by Cowan & Cowan

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(1929), there has been a long gap in the col-
lection of plant materials. The present record
of the taxon by the Senior author from a few
localities in the plains of Jalpaiguri district is
interesting, as it records extended distribution
towards the plains of Jalpaiguri District from
Darjeeling and Assam ranges. A brief descrip-
tion of the species together with correct nomen-
clature, flowering and fruiting time, distribu-
tion and ecological notes are given.

Sabia paniculata Edgew. ex Hook. f. &
Thoms., Fl. Ind. 1:211 (1855); Brandis, For.
Fl. 117 (1874); Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 2:3
(1879); Duthie, Fl. Up. Gang. Plain 1:171
(1903), repr. ed.; Duthie, Cat. Pl. Kumaon
38 (1906); Burkill in Rec. Bot. Surv. India
4:103 (1910); Haines, Bot. Bih. & Ori. 1:226
(1921), repr. ed.; Osmaston, For. Fl. Kumaon
132 (1927); Cowan & Cowan, Trs. N. Beng.
44 (1929); Kanjilal et al., Fl. Assam 1 (2):
326 (1934); Gupta, Fl. Nainitalensis 70 (1968);
Kanai in Ohashi, Fl. East. Himal., Bull No. 8,
3rd report. 78 (1975).

Slender climbing shrub with glabrous, dark
grey branches. Leaves 10.5-17.5 x 3.2-5.5 cm.,
alternate, oblong-lanceolate or elliptic, entire,
base rounded or acute, petioled, coriaceous,
dark-green and oily-shining on the upper sur-
face, pale and strongly reticulate below, main
nerves 6-8 pairs, arched, slightly reddish along
the midrib below. Flowers 3-5 mm. across,

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,
BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
HowrauH-711 103,

July 3, 1980.

yellowish, arranged in lateral leaf-bearing and
pilose long panicles. Sepals ovate-elliptic, 1-
nerved, densely hairy. Petals oblong or ovate-
oblong, 3-nerved. Stamens included; filaments
ligulate. Fruit with solitary or two drupelets,
-+- 8 mm. across, orbiular, compressed, base
kidney-shaped, reddish-green, pitted and ridg-
ed on the margin.

Type: Sub-tropical Himalaya, Garhwal,
Edgeworth s.n.! Kumaon, Madden s.n.! (Syn-
types—K. non vidi).

Flowering & fruiting: February to April.

Specimens examined: WEST BENGAL:
Jalpaiguri, North Bholka, Bholka range
(6.12.1975), Sikdar 4178 (CAL); Titi-2, Ma-
darihat Range (3.5.1976), Sikdar 4506 (CAL);
Darjeeling, Kurseong (May, 1915); Modder
58 (CAL).

Distribution: INDIA (West Bengal, Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh), NEPAL and BURMA.

Restricted to the northern tract in West
Bengal from the plains upto 1500 m., rather
common in the eastern forest ranges of Jal-
paiguri district upto Assam border. It usually
grows along shady, moist, areas of the semi-
evergreen forests especially near the foot-hills.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Deputy Director, Central
National Herbarium, Howrah for encourage-
ment and facilities.

J. K. SIKDAR
R. B. GHOSH

REFERENCES

Biswas, K. P. (1966): Plants of Darjeeling and
Sikkim Himalayas. Vol. I. Calcutta.

Cowan, A. M. AND Cowan, J. M. (1929): The
trees of Northern Bengal including shrubs, woody

climbers, bamboos, palms, free ferns being a revision
of the list by Gamble. Calcutta.

PraIin, D. (1903): Bengal Plants, Vol. I. Cal-
cutta, (repr. ed. 1963).

627

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

30. SOME NOTEWORTHY PLANTS FROM WEST BENGAL

During recent floristic surveys (1975-1977)
of the Jalpaiguri and Miéidnapore districts,
several species collected were new distribu-
tional records for West Bengal. The follow-
ing four species which have now extended their
distributional range to the northern and
southern tracts of West Bengal are dis-
cussed alongwith correct nomenclature, diag-
nostic features and field notes. Specimens cited
have been deposited in the Central National
Herbarium (CAL).

VITACEAE

Cissus assamica (Laws.) Craib. in Kew Bull.
1911: 31. 1911; Mukerjee in Rec. bot. Surv.
India 20 (2):61. 1973. Vitis assamica Laws
in Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 1:648. 1875; Prain,
Bengal Plants 1:237. 1903 (repr.); Kanjilal
et al., Fl. Assam 1 (ii):291. 1936; Ghosh &
Ghosh in Bull. bot Soc. Bengal 31:80. 1977.

A slender glabrous climber with simple ten-
dril; leaves orbicular or cordate, shortly acu-
minate, margin bristly-serrate; flowers greenish-
white on slender pedicels; fruit juicy, black at
maturity; seeds small, smooth.

Jalpaiguri district-Bania, Chilapata forest
range, rare in the semievergreen forest, fr., 17
Sept. 1975, Sikdar 570. Midnapore district-
Balibhasa, Manikpara forest range, occasional
in the forest outskirts preferably in moist
shady localities, fr., 19 Nov. 1976, Maji 7694;
Mayurjharna, Banspahari forest range, rare
climbing over the bushes, fl., 1 Jul. 1976,
Maji 3155.

The species restricted to Eastern India,
and has so far been known to occur in
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Megha-
laya, Mizoram, Sikkim and Tripura. Recent-
ly it has been recorded by Mukerjee (l.c.)
from Bhutan. Prain (1.c.) mentioned its distri-
bution in Chittagong (Bangladesh). Recently

628

its occurrence in the northern tract of West
Bengal has been mentioned by Ghosh &
Ghosh (i.c.) based on V. Narayanswami’s col-
lection from Jalpaiguri district without giving
precise locality and description. Hence the
present collections establishes its occur-
rence further in West Bengal and also shows
further extension of the range of its distribu-
tion into the plain of southern tract of West
Bengal.

CON NARACEAE

Connarus paniculatus Roxb. (Hort. Beng.
49. 1814, nom. nud.) FI. Ind. 3:139. 1832;
J. D. Hooker in FI. Brit. India 2:52. 1876;
Prain, Bengal Plants 1:254. 1903 (repr.);
Kanjilal ez al., Fl. Assam 2:2. 1938; Leenhouts
in Fl. Males. Ser. I, 5:533. 1958; Sengupta
in Rec. bot. Surv. India 20 (2): 66. 1973.

Large, much-branched woody climber; leaves
2-3 jugate, glabrous, leaflets elliptic-oblong or
elliptic-lanceolate, entire; inflorescence broadly
paniculate, ferruginous-tomentose; capsule
semi-obovoid, base narrowed into a short stipe.

Midnapore_ district—Tapoban, Chandabila
forest range, rare in dry mixed forests along
streams, climbing over Ardisia solanacea, Dal-
bergia tamarindaefolia, etc., fr.. 4 Mar. 1976,
Maji 2934 & fi., 15 Nov. 1976, Maji 4235.

It occurs in South China, Indo-China, Hai-
nan, Malay Peninsula, Bhutan and Assam,
Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland in
India, Prain (l.c.) recorded it from Chittagong
(Bangladesh). Though Leenhouts (l.c.) men-
tioned its occurrence in Bengal, presumably
from the present day area of Bangladesh, yet
it is still not recorded from the present day
from West Bengal. However, a single specimen
collected by Wm. Roxburgh in cultivated con-
dition from Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

indicates its only existence in West Bengal. So,
the recent collection in wild condition from
the above mentioned locality is worthy of re-
cord for its extension of distribution in the
plains of West Bengal.

FABACEAE

Crotalaria humifusa Grah. (in Wall. Cat.
no. 5421. 1831-32, nom. nud.) ex Benth. in
Hook. Lond. Journ. Bot. 2:476. 1843; J. G.
Baker in Hook. f., Fl. Brit. India 2:67. 1876;
Kanjilal et al., Fl. Assam 2:11. 1938; Munk
in Reinwardtia 6(3):205. 1962; H. Ohasi in
Hara, Fl. East. Himal. 146. 1966; K. P. Bis-
was, Plants Darj. & Sikkim Himal. Vol. I.
270. 1966.

Prostrate, much-branched, densely villous
herb; leaves simple, + round-oblong, obtuse,
sessile, glaucous beneath; flowers in axillary
and terminal lax-flowered, leaf-opposed race-
mes, yellowish; pods oblong, 4-6 seeded.

Jalpaiguri district-Mahakalguri, Alipurduar,
fl.. 28 Oct. 1891, Heywood 113. Midnapore
district-Bhulabhada, Banspahari forest range,
rare on moist rock under partial shade along
a stream associated with Oldenlandia corym-
bosa, Juncus prismatocarpus, Hemigraphis late-
brosa, Crotalaria prostrata etc., fl., 17 Nov.
1976, Maji 7332.

It is distributed in Bhutan, Burma, Thailand,
Indo-China, Malaysia and in India known so
far from Sikkim, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya,
Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Bis-
was (l.c.) reported it as an occasional plant
in the middle hill forests of Darjeeling and
Sikkim hills. Ohasi (1.c.) mentioned this spe-
cies from Nepal. On scrutiny of the herbarium
material of the taxon (in CAL), we came
across one specimen of the species collect-
ed by E. A. Heywood in 1891 from Jal-
paiguri district and as such that specimen
is included here as the new additional

locality in North Bengal. It is interesting that
the recent collection of the species from the
plains of Southern Bengal indicates that it has
succeeded in spreading southwards in West
Bengal plains through Jalpaiguri district. It
may be possible to locate it in other interven-
ing zones of West Bengal.

MoRACEAE

Phyllochlamys spinosa Bur. in DC. Prodr.
17:218. 1873; J. D. Hooker in FI. Brit. India
5:488. 1888; Prain, Bengal Plants 2:727. 1903
(repr.); Haines, Bot. Bihar & Orissa 3:860.
1922 (repr.).

Small evergreen gnarled tree, armed with
sharp spines; leaves elliptic or obovate, acu-
minate, irregularly serrate; flowers dioecious;
fruit obovoid, splitting into 2-valves.

Jalpaiguri district-Rajabhatkhawa, rare in the
semievergreen forest, fr., 6 Jun. 1976, Sikdar
8132. Midnapore district-Baura, Nayagram
forest range, rare in the scrub jungle along
the river Subarnarekha, fl, 21 Apr. 1976,
Mali 7765.

It has been reported so far from Bihar, De-
can Peninsula, South India, Andaman Islands
in India and Sri Lanka and Malaya Islands.
Prain (l.c.) and Haines (l.c.) have recorded it
from Orissa. It is assumed that the present
recording of the species in West Bengal indi-
cates its further north-eastwards extension from
Bihar and Orissa ranges.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. M. P. Nayar, Deputy
Director, Central National Herbarium, How-
rah for encouragement and providing facilities
and to Prof. R. S. Rao, Department of Botany,
Andhra University for his valuable guidance.
Thanks are also to Dr. R. B. Ghosh, Syste-
matic Botanist, Central National Herbarium,
for kindly going through the manuscript.

629

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,
P. O. BOTANIC GARDEN,
HowraH-711 103,

April 9, 1980.

J. K. SIKDAR
S. MAJI

REFERENCE

Basak, R. K. (1976): The bibliography of the
flora and vegetation of Bengal with an introductory

note. Bull. bot. Surv. India, 15 (1 & 2): 22-38.

31. NOTES ON TWO RARE AND INTERESTING PLANTS FROM
SOUTH INDIA

(With three text-figures)

The paper presents the description of hither-
to undescribed fruits and seeds of Lasianthus
dichotomus Wight, a rare and endemic spe-
cies which was collected after a lapse of over
100 years; and records the occurrence of Pue-
raria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth. for the first
time in South India.

Lasianthus dichotomus Wight in Calc. J. nat.
Hist. 6: 508. 1846; Bedd. Ic. t. 13. 1868-74;
Hook. f. Fl. Brit. India 3: 191. 1880; Gam-
ble, Fl. Pres. Madras 648. 1921 & 2: 457.
1957 (repr. ed.). Mephitidia dichotoma
(Wight) Walp. Ann. 2: 761. 1852. [RuBIA-
CEAE].

R. Wight (1846) described this species from
Western Ghats in Tirunelveli District, Tamil
Nadu without describing the fruits. While stu-
dying the specimens of L. dichotomus Wight
represented at Madras Herbarium (MH), a
subsequent collection made by R. H. Beddome
in 1869 was noted. It is of interest that this
rare and endemic species could be relocated
from Mahendragiri peak of Tirunelveli Dis-
trict in 1972, after a lapse of over 100 years.
R. H. Beddome (loc. cit.) has not made any
mention about the fruits of this species. Fur-
ther, J. D. Hooker (1880) stated... ““Drupe
not seen’. The same lacuna in the description

630

has continued in the critical flora of Gamble
(1921). Interestingly, we could find the fruits
of this species in some of the specimens in MH.
These sheets have been critically studied so as
to supplement the description with the fruits
and seeds for a better understanding of this
species.

Drupes 6-7x5-6 mm, subglobose, sparsely
pilose or glabrescent, with persistent calyx
lobes; pyrenes -- 6 X 3 mm, 3-4, triquetrous,
crustaceous, often rugose dorsally, 1-seeded.
Seeds + 3 x 1 mm, black, narrowly ovate-
oblong, dorsally convex, ventrally flat, glab-
rous. (Figs. 1-3).

Specimens examined: TAMIL NADU. Tirunel-
veli Dt.: Shevagherry, Wight s.n. (in fl., acc.
no. 26414 Type material, MH); Wight s.n.
(in fl. & young fr., acc. no. 26416 Type mate-
rial, MH); Chokkampatty hills, in fl. & fr.,
Collector? s.n. (acc. no. 26417, MH); Tinne-
velly, in fl., 1869, Beddome s.n. (acc. no. 26415,
MH); Way to Mahendragiri peak, in fl. & fr.,
8-2-1972, 1550 m, Sharma 40033 (MH).
Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth. in J.

Linn. Soc. 11: 125. 1867; Baker in Hook.

f. Fl. Brit. India 2: 199. 1876; Kanjilal et

al., Fl. Assam 2: 82. 1938; Duthie, FI. Up.

Gang. Pl. 1: 216. 1960 (repr. ed.); Haines,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. 1-3. Lasianthus dichotomus Wight: 1. Drupe;
2. Pyrene—inner view; 3. Seed—side view.

Bot. Bih)| Or 22 295: 1961) (repr. ed.);

Prain, Beng. Pl. 1: 282. 1963 (repr. ed.);

Backer & Bakhuizen, Fl. Java 1: 632. 1963;

Thothathri in Rec. bot. Surv. India 20(2):

81. 1973; Babu, FI. Dehra Dun 159. 1977.

Dolichos_ phaseoloides Roxb. Fl. Ind. 3:

316. 1832. [PAPILIONACEAE].

Roxburgh (1832) states...‘“‘From Mr. Kerr
at Canton in China, the seeds were received
into the Botanic Garden in 1804; where the
plants thrive well...”. Baker (loc. cit.) and
Kanjilal et al. (loc. cit.) have recorded its
distribution from Eastern Himalayas in India.
Duthie (loc. cit.) has recorded its distribution

from Dehra Dun, N. Oudh extending from
Garhwal eastwards in Tropical Himalayas and
Bengal in India. Haines (loc. cit.) reports its
occurrence from the jungles of Purneah in
Bihar.

During the botanical exploration in the
mountainous region of Quilon District, Kerala,
this species was collected from the dense ever-
green forests in Angamuzhi, Ranni R.F. at an
altitude of 250 m. The identity of this species
was confirmed at Central National Herbarium
(CAL), Howrah. The common occurrence of
this large climbing shrub in this area forms a
new distributional record for South India. As
only one species, i.e. P. tuberosa (Roxb.) DC.
has been so far reported from South India, an
artificial key has been provided for distinguish-
ing the two species occurring now in South
India.

KEY TO THE Pueraria DC. SPECIES OCCURRING IN
SouTH INDIA

Flowering when leafless; pods 3-7.5 x 0.5-0.8 cm,
narrowly oblong, compressed, constricted between
seeds bristly hairy Sey. es). P. tuberosa
Flowering with the leaves; pods 5-10 x 0.3-0.4 cm,
linear, subterete, not constricted between the seeds,
adpressed pubescent P. phaseoloides

eee 2 © © © © © © © ow 8

A short description for P. phaseoloides
(Roxb.) Benth. has also been furnished below
to facilitate easy identification.

Climbing shrubs; branches slender, twining,
brown pubescent. Leaves pinnately trifoliolate;
leaflets 5-12 x 4-11 cm, subrhomboid to broad-
ly ovate, entire, adpressed pubescent, subacute
or acute, mucronate at apex, cuneate or round-
ed at base; stipels linear-lanceolate; petioles
5-10 cm long; stipules lanceolate. Flowers =:
2 cm long, white with violet tinge, many, short-
ly pedicelled, in long-peduncled, axillary race-
mes 20-30 cm long. Pods 5-10 x0.3-0.4 cm,
linear, subterete, straight or reflexed, adpress-
ed pubescent, 12-20 seeded.

631

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Specimens examined: KERALA. Quilon Dt.:
Angamuzhi, Ranni R. F., in fl. & fr.,
22.11.1976, Chandrabose 49161 (MH).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Our grateful thanks are due to Dr. N. C.
BOTANICAL SURVEY & INDIA,
SOUTHERN CIRCLE,

CoIMBATORE-641 003,
March 10, 1980.

Nair, Deputy Director, Botanical Survey of
India, Coimbatore for guidance and constant
encouragement and to Dr. A. N. Henry, Syste-
matic Botanist, Botanical Survey of India,
Coimbatore for helpful suggestions.

M. CHANDRABOSE
S. R. SRINIVASAN

32. A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF HYPOCHOERIS
RADICATA L. (ASTERACEAE) IN N. W. HIMALAYAS

Like other successful invading weeds of
Asteraceae Hypochoeris radicata L. is also
getting a foothold in the Indian subcontinent.
This European species has already spread in
Eurasia and is also naturalised in South Ame-
rica and parts of Australia and North America.

In India the genus is represented by another
species namely H. glabra L. and is known to
occur only in the Nilgiris. The first report of
distribution of Hypochoeris radicata L. was
made by Panigrahi and Kammathy (1960)
from Meghalaya and Assam where it is a com-
mon weed. Later on Kammathy (1963) re-
corded the species also from the Nilgiri Hills
in South India.

While undertaking explorations in the dis-
trict Tehri (Garhwal) the senior author col-
lected the species from Pratapnagar at an alti-
tude of 2500 m and it is naturalised in the
area. With the present discovery of the species
from a locality far away from the earlier re-
ports of distribution shows that it is likely to
to spread throughout the Himalayan tract
in course of time.

In order to invite reports of further distribu-
tion and to facilitate an easy identification, the
species is described with key characters and
ecological notes.

632

Key Characters: Leaves sinuate toothed, brist-
ly hairy on both surfaces. Heads yellow ligu-
late, 2-3 cm in diameter. Pappus feathery, the
peripheral ones shorter than the inner whorl.
Receptacle flat naked.

Hypochoeris radicata L. sp. Pl. 2: 811-1753;
Butcher, R. W. New Illust. British Fl. 2:
528. pl. 1324. 1961; Ross Craig, S. Draw.
British Pl. pt 18 (4): pl. 21. 1963; Panigrahi
& Kammathy in Mem. Indian Bot. Soc. 3:
200-210. 1960.

Description: A long rooted, perennial latici-
ferous herb. Leaves rosulate, sessile 4-12 cm,
oblong lanceolate, sinuate or irregularly pin-
nately lobed., Scapes 7-25 cm, leafless, bran-
ched, green, hollow, striated. Heads 20-30
mm diameter. Involucral bracts 4-7 mm with
membranous margins; inner 10-20 mm
long, linear, midnerve bristly hairy, imbri-
cate. Ray florets linear, apex toothed; disc
florets, tube slender, unequal. Style & Stig-
ma spinulose. Achenes 4-5 mm long, hori-
zontally striated and vertically ribbed, muri-
cate above; beak 3-5 mm, stout.

Occasional on open sunny slopes; Pratap-
nagar (Tehri Garhwal, N. W. Himalayas)
2500 m, 24.2.1979. Goel 65717; Fils. & Frs:
Feb. to May; Chr. No: 2n=8.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The senior author wishes to express his
thanks to the Botanical Survey of India for

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
NORTHERN CIRCLE,

DEHRA DUN,

Februay 26, 1980.

an award of Research Fellowship and is thank-
ful to Dr. D. K. Hore, Research Associate for
providing useful informations.

A. K. GOEL
U. S. BHATTACHARYYA

REFERENCES

KAMMATHY, R. V. (1963): On the occurrence of
two species of Hypochoeris L. in Nilgiris, South
India. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 5 (3 & 4): 247-249.

PANIGRAH, G. & KAMMATHY, R. V. (1960):
Studies on Hypochoeris radicata L—A New Re-
cord for India. Mem. Indian Bot. Soc. 3: 200-210.

33. NEW INDIAN RECORD OF ARDISIA PARDALINA MEZ
(MYRSINACEAE)
(With a text-figure)

Carl Mez (1902) in his monograph on the
family Myrsinaceae described a new species
Ardisia pardalina from Philippines. During the
course of our study on the Indian Myrsinaceae
we came across an unidentified specimen which
after critical study appeared to be Ardisia par-
dalina Mez. The plant so far is not recorded
in India. It is a very interesting species among
the Indian Ardisia so far studied as regards
the glands on the leaf. Mez in his key esta-
blished the subgenus Crispardisia based on the
marginal albuminous glands on the leaves.
Within the subgenus he described 2 species
with the elongated glands namely A. pardalina
and A. sinuato-crenata. But A. pardalina can
be easily separated from its ally by the entire
leaves whereas in A. sinuato-crenata the leaves
are sinuate-crenate. Mez also described ano-
ther species A. oldhami (l.c.) with large glands
(not elongated) which was merged later on
by Walker with A. virens Kurz. (Walker in
Philippine Journal of Science 73:82. 1940). But
he however did not mention the species A.

pardalina. The specimens of A. pardalina Mez
from Philippines are available in Herb. CAL.
As no diagram is available a short description
along with a diagram is given.

Ardisia pardalina Mez in Engl. Pflanzenreich

9 (iv.236) 148. 1902.

Shrub, glabrous, smooth. Leaves lanceolate
12-15 cm x 2.5-3.5 cm., base cuneate apex
acute or obtuse, membranous, glabrous, mid-
rib raised beneath, lateral nerves many pairs,
nerves prominent beneath, gland dotted, glands
elongated, scattered, margin entire, recurved
with albuminous glands; petioles + 12 mm
long, glabrous, canaliculate. Inflorescence axil-
lary, peduncles 40-60 mm long, slender, few
flowered, paniculately umbellate. Pedicel 6-8
mm long, glabrous. Sepals 5, ovate-acute 1.5-
2 mm X 1 mm large gland dotted, persistent.
Fruit globose 7-8 mm diameter, reddish brown,
large gland dotted.

Fruit—January.
Distribution—1InvDIA: Rengging, Assam, 860 m,

25 Jan. 1912, 7. H. Burkill 36251 (CAL).

633

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Fig. 1. Ardisia pardalina Mez.

634

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

PHILIPPINES: Mayon volcano, Albay province,
Luzon, Sept. 1928 M. Ramos 75720; Bangui
to Claveria, Ilocos norte province, Luzon,
Aug. 1918, M. Ramos 33045.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,
BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
HowraH,

February 11, 1980.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We wish to thank Director, Botanical Survey
of India for all facilities.

G. S. GIRI
M. P. NAYAR

34. ACANTHUS CARDUACEUS GRIFFITH—A SCARCELY
KNOWN ENDEMIC PLANT FROM WEST BENGAL

(With a text-figure)

While collecting in the Jalpaiguri district
during 1975-1976, the senior author noticed a
robust scandent shrub with deeply pinnatifid,
spinescent leaves and white flowers arranged
in compact terminal raceme. This plant could
be easily identified as Acanthus carduaceus
described by Griffith in 1837-38 based on his
own collections from Oongar, Bhutan. Accord-
ing to Griffith the species is a typical Acan-
thus, of the same series as the Mediterranean
species which has no representative in Asia.
Griffith met with it only twice in Bhutan at
Bhoomlungtun and Oongar. After Griffith, this
species has been collected by I. E. White in
1905 again from Bhutan at Punakha and for
the first time from India by K. P. Biswas in
1934 after a gap of about 97 years. But un-
fortunately this extension of distribution was
not recorded. Yamazaki in his 2nd report in
1971 on the Flora of Eastern Himalaya, re-
corded after 37 years from Birch Hills of Dar-
jeeling at alt. 2200 m. The present collection
from Jalpaiguri district confirms its occurrence
in West Bengal.

A detailed description of the species together
with its Pollen morphology is presented below:

Acanthus carduaceus Griff., Itin. Notes, 144.
1837-38 & Icon. Pl. Asia. t. 427. 1854; Ander-
son in Jour. Linn. Soc. 9: 500. 1867; Clarke

in Hooker’s FI. Brit. Ind. 4 : 480. 1884; Yama-
zaki in Hara’s Fl. East. Himal. Report 2 : 122.
1971.

A robust shrub of about 2.5 m high, some-
what scandent; leaves large, 30-45 cm long,
pinnatifid with toothed spinous lobes; inflore-
scence a terminal raceme, 15-28 cm long, com-
pact with bracts and bracteoles; bracts four-
sided, ovate-lanceolate, 2-3 cm x 1-2 cm, acu-
minate, dentate; bracteoles 2, lanceolate, 1-1.5
cm x 0.5-0.8 cm, acuminate, ciliate; flowers
white, 2.5-3 cm long, subsessile to shortly pedi-
celled, 2-3 mm long; calyx of 4 sepals, hetero-
morphic, lanceolate to elliptic-lanceolate, 1.2-
2 cm X 0.5-0.8 cm, acuminate, ciliate through-
out, outer 2 sepals larger than inner 2 sepals,
anterior sepal shortly 2-toothed; corolla 5-
lobed, minutely tubular, 5-6 mm union, free
part expanded, posterior lobes 3, broader,
rounded and with slightly crenate margin, an-
terior lobes 2, smaller, placed laterally, round-
ed, both throat and base villous, hairs silky;
stamens 4, didymous, filament 1 cm _ long,
stout and fleshy, swollen towards base, anthers
about 3 mm long, oblong, 2-celled with longi-
tudinal splitting; ovary ellipsoid, glabrous, style
1.5-1.7 cm long, linear, glabrous, stigma point-
ed, glabrous; capsule oblong, with a pointed
tip, 1.5-2 cm long, obtusely 4-angular, glabrous,

635

TOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Fig. 1. Acanthus carduaceus Griff.: A. Inflorescence with leaves; B. Flower; C. Co-
rolla; D. Bracts and Calyx; E. Corolla split to show stamens and carpel; F. Cap-
sule; G. One valve of capsule; H. Seed; I. Pollen.

636

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

deep-brown, shiny, loculicidal dehiscence;
seeds 4, 2-in each half, triangular, 0.6-0.8 cm
diam., compressed laterally, glabrous, purple
brown (fig. 1, A-H).

Pollen: Prolate, 41-49 pm x 22-24 um; 3
colpate, colpa tapering, margin not entire, 21-
32 wm X 4-4.5 wm, granulated; Exine 2.5 ym;
Columella short; straight, indistinct; sexine +
1 »m; nexine + 1.5 pm; semitectate, finely re-
ticulate; lumi 1 pm, muri 0.5 pm, some free
bacula present in the lumi (fig. 1, D.

Flowering: November. Fruiting: March.

Type: Bhutan, Oongar, Griffith 688 (CAL).

Specimens Examined: BHUTAN: East Hima-
laya, Bhutan, without any precise locality, Ex
herb. East India Company 6146 (CAL); Puna-
kha, 18.4.1905, I. E. White 37 (CAL). WEST
BENGAL: Jalpaiguri Dist., Buxaduar, Ramiti,
29.11.1975, Sikdar 4034 (CAL); Buxaduar,
way to Sinchula, 1450 m, 2.3.1934, K. Biswas
2032 (CAL).

We have came across collection of uncertain
localities deposited at (CAL). The first one is
labelled ‘“‘Herb. Hort. Bot. Calcuttensis (Flora
of Sikkim), Ribu & Rhamoo s.n.” but has a

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,
BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
HowraHu 711 109,

January 24, 1980.

3:

remark about its collection locality by S. K.
Mukerjee (on 6th Nov. 1941) as “‘this has
been recorded from Bhutan and from Torsa
Valley in Chumbi’’. The second collection by
K. Thothathri 63 (Acc. No. 339558) is most
probably from Bhutan as he visited Bhutan.

Distribution: Bhutan, West Bengal.

Yamazaki (l.c.) has included Sikkim in its
distribution but no representative collection
was cited by him. It is not known to occur
any where in Sikkim.

Rare, growing on rocky crevices on the
Buxaduar hill slopes at + 1400 m altitude.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted to Prof. R. S. Rao, Dept.
of Botany, Andhra University, Waltair, for his
valuable suggestion in this preparation. We
are also thankful to the Deputy Director, Cen-
tral National Herbarium for consultation of
materials housed there in. Thanks are also due
to Mr. M. S. Mondal, B.S.I. for his help in
preparation and study of pollen.

J. K. SIKDAR
G. G. MAITI

A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF CROTALARIA

ACICULARIS BUCH.-HAM. IN KARNATAKA AND MAHARASHTRA

(With seven text-figures)

Cooke (1901-08) and Haines (1916) did
not record Crotalaria acicularis Buch.-Ham.
from Maharashtra State. However, Gamble
(1916) has recorded this species from N. Cir-
cars in Ganjam in dry forest lands and West-
ern Ghats in Anamalai hills and Travancore.
The localities cited by the earlier workers are

14

neither from Karnataka nor Maharashtra.
The identity of herbarium specimen (Rao
95536) housed in the herbarium of Western
Circle (BSI) collected earlier from Coorg
district identified as Crotalaria albida was cri-
tically examined and found to be Crotalaria
acicularis Buch.-Ham. only, and is therefore a

637

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

Figs. 1-7. Crotalaria acicularis Buch.-Ham.: 1. Entire plant; 2. bract; 3. calyx;
4. standard petal; 5. wing petal; 6. keel petal; 7. Androecium ensheathing gynoecium.

638

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

new record for Karnataka State.

Critical studies on “‘crotalaria’’ from Chan-
drapur district shows the occurrence of Crota-
laria acicularis Buch.-Ham. in Maharashtra
also. The plant (Malhotra 138567) collected
from Palmalgotta in Bhamragarh forest divi-
sion (Chandrapur district) serves as a new
record for Maharashtra State thus extending
its distribution further north.

In view of its rarity and absence of any
known published illustration of the plant, a
line drawing is given along with a brief des-
cription.

Crotalaria acicularis Buch.-Ham. in Wall.
Cat. 5390, 1831-32. Baker in Hook. f. Fl. Brit.
India 2: 68. 1876.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,
WESTERN CIRCLE, PUNE,
May 19, 1980.

A prostrate herb with spreading branches
thinly clothed with silky hairs. Leaves nearly
sessile, obtuse, glaucous green, membranous,
rounded at the apex, slightly cordate at base.
Stipules persistent, reflexed. Flowers yellow.
Pods small, oblong, glabrous.

ACK NOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Dr. B. D. Sharma, De-
puty Director, Western Circle, Pune for en-
couragement and to the Director, Botanical
Survey of India, Howrah for providing faci-
lities.

S. K. MALHOTRA
SIRASALA MOORTHY

36. NEWLY RECORDED AND REDISCOVERED FERNS AT
MT. ABU, RAJASTHAN

Mt. Abu situated at 24°36’N and 22°43’E
forms the south western extremity of the Ara-

vali Range and is the highest point between

the Himalayas and the Nilgiris (height 1727 m
above mean sea level at Guru Shikhar, the
highest peak of this range). Due to heavy rain-
fall compared to other parts of Rajasthan it
possesses a rich vegetation of the humid sub-
tropical type with the largest concentration of
pteridophytes in Rajasthan.

Bhardwaja et al. (1978) in their recent sur-
vey of pteridophytic localities of Rajasthan
mentioned that some of these ferns have now
been observed during a botanical trip to Mt.
Abu in August-September 1979. Besides,
Araiostegia pseudocystopteris (Kze.) Copel a
fern belonging to Davalliaceae has also been
observed for the first time at Mt. Abu. This
note describes the distribution and morphology

of these rediscovered and new fern taxa at
Mt. Abu.

Araiostegia pseudocystopteris (Kze.) Copel.:
This fern was collected from Guru Shikhar
and is a new record for Rajasthan. The Mt.
Abu material bears the following morpholo-
gical features. !

Rhizome creeping on the moist surfaces of
rocks, sympodial, brown, densely covered with
spreading, cordate scales. Fronds alternate aris-
ing from an involucral cup like structure form-
ed by densely overlapped, spreading scales on
short lateral branches. Stipe 7-15 cm_ long,
grooved, sparsely covered with scales. Fronds
sagittate, lowest pinnae opposite and all other
pinnae alternate. Each pinna broadly lanceo-
late 3-4 pinnatifid, lower pinna 5-7 cm long,
upper most 1-1.5 cm long. Segments very
acute, texture thin. Sori on veins, ventral inter-

639

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 7&5

calary, usually single sorus per pinnule, as
broad as the segment. Involucre complete,
prominent and translucent white. Sporangia
7-12 per sorus. Spores reniform with a honey-
combed exine.

This species has so far been reported from
Dalhousie to Nepal (Beddome 1892) and
Nainital (Loyal & Verma 1960). According to
these authors it grows as a common epiphyte
on moss covered trunks of Cedrus and other
large trees. The Rajasthan material thus dif-
fers from that of the Himalayan material in
being lithophytic and larger in size. Moreover
occurrence of scales sparsely throughout the
length of stipe and an exine with a honey-
combed pattern are additional features of the
Rajasthan material of this fern.

Dryopteris cochleata (Don) C. Chr.: After
Bir & Verma (1963) described some speci-
mens of this fern collected from Sunset point
by S. K. Sharma of Ajmer, Mital (1969) also
referred to the same collection of sterile speci-
mens of this fern at the same locality. It has
now been collected with fertile fronds for the
first time on way to Palanpur point and Sun-
set point. As mentioned by Bir & Verma
(1963) it is the only fern at Mt. Abu with
dimorphic fronds. The sterile fronds are large
(1.5 m long) with broad upper pinnae and
lobed lower pinnae. Fertile fronds consist of
contracted, narrow pinnae covered with shin-
ing white scales and ramenta. The sori are
large, paired and with a prominent convex
involucre. The fertile fronds are produced after
the end of rainy season, i.e. September.

Cyclosorus dentatus (Forsk.) Ching.: Though
reported by earlier workers (Kanodia & Desh-
pande 1962, Bir & Verma 1963, Mital 1969,
Sharma & Bohra 1977) but Bhardwaja et al.
(1978) could not locate this fern till 1976.
It has now been observed growing on way to
Kodra Dam and Guru Shikhar valley. It forms
a Close thicket with Hypodematium crenatum

640

(Forsk.) along streams in the forest flora of
Guru Shikhar valley.

Pieris vittata Linn.: Though this fern was
reported by Bir & Verma (1963) to be com-
mon around Nakki lake, later workers (Mital
1969, Bhardwaja et al. 1978) could not find
this fern subsequently at this spot in Mt. Abu.
It has now been found again, growing near
the margins of streams on way to Palanpur
point and Kodra Dam.

Ferns like the endemic Asplenium pumillum
var. hymenophylloides (Fee) Clarke, Adian-
tum capillus-veneris Linn. A. phillipense Linn.,
Actiniopteris radiata Link., taxa of Athyrium
complex, Isoetes sp. and Ophioglossum spp.
recorded by Bhardwaja e¢ al. in 1975 & 1976
were found to be growing widely from Anadra
point to Achal Garh and Guru Shikhar. We
could also collect new forms of the genus
Asplenium and Cheilanthes which are yet to
be identified and are under investigation in this
laboratory. The material of all the above col-
lections has been lodged in the Herbarium of
the Pteridophyte Biology Lab., Deptt. of Bo-
tany, Govt. College, Ajmer.

A striking feature of this botanical explora-
tion of Mt. Abu was our observation of a
drastic and continuing decrease in the popu-
lation densities of individual species of pteri-
dophytes for which besides deforestation, the
spread of Lantana camara seems to be respon-
sible. This shrub started to be introduced at
Mt. Abu in late sixties has been exerting alle-
lopathic effect on the pteridophytic vegetation
as confirmed by experiments conducted (de-
tails published elsewhere) in this laboratory.
This work has indicated beyond any doubt the
allelopathic potential of this obnoxious weed
on fern spore germination and early gameto-
phytic growth.

Earlier, restricted to municipal limits of Mt.
Abu. Lantana camara has now spread up to
Traver’s tank forest and the ferns which were

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

observed in abundance here at this spot in
1976 have receded to higher altitudes towards
Achal Garh and Guru Shikhar. It is important
that this obnoxious plant should be eradicated
or there will be extinction of pteridophytes
from this richest locality for these plants in
Rajasthan.

PETRIDOPHYTE BIOLOGY LAB.,
DEPT. OF BOTANY,
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE,
AJMER-305 001,

RAJASTHAN,

March 13, 1980.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Prof. B. N. Nayar, Cali-
cut University, Kerala for confirming the iden-
tification of Araiostegia pseudocystopteris and
Dryopteris cochleata. The University Grants
Commission, New Delhi provided financial
assistance for this survey.

T. N. BHARDWAJA
C. B. GENA
TEJINDER TAKKER
RANJEET KAUR

C. WADHWANI

REFERENCES

BEDDOME, R. H. (1892): A Handbook to the
ferns of British India, Ceylon and Malay Peninsula
with Supplement. Calcutta. Thacker Spink & Co.

BHARDWAJA, T. N., YADAV, A. K. & GENA, C. B.
(1978): New localities for leptosporangiate ferns
in Rajasthan, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75:
533-535.

Bir, S. S. & VERMA, S .C. (1963): Ferns of Mt.
Abu. Res. Bull. Punjab Univ. 14: 187-202.

KANopiA, K. C. & DESHPANDE, U. R. (1962):

Additions to the flora of Mt. Abu, Rajasthan. Proc.
Indian Sci. Cong. Assoc. Cuttack Session, 3: 312-
313.

LoyaAL, D. S. & VERMA, S. C. (1960): Ferns of
Nainital. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 479-490.

MiraL, P. L. (1969): Ferns and fern allies of
Rajasthan. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 66: 31-42.

SHARMA, B. D. & BouHRA, D. R. (1977): Year
round pteridophytic flora of Mt. Abu. Geobios 4:
102-103.

641

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
FOR THE YEAR 1979-80

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

Mr. R. E. Hawkins
Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s. (Retd.)

President
Dr. Salim Ali, D.SC., F.N.A.
Vice-Presidents
Ex-Officio
Mr. D. J. Panday |
Member
J

Secretary, Dept. of Science & Technology,
Government of India

Elected Members ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. Humayun Abdulali Mr. H. G. Acharya Ahmedabad
Dr. S. R. Amladi, M.D. ee
Pak PW Bole Mr. F. C. Badhwar, 0.B.E. New Delhi
Mr. Divyabhanusinh Chawda Dr. B. Biswas Calcutta
Dr. B. Dasgupta

Mr. H. K. Divekar Mr. S. Chaudhuri New Delhi
Mr. David Fernandes Dr. Madhav Gadgil Bangalore

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.SC., PH.D.

Mr. N. D. Jayal New Delhi
(Honorary Treasurer)
Mr. Bansi Mehta | Mr. Shivrajkumar Khachar Jasdan
bale Nee Nee Mr. Lavkumar Khacher Rajkot
(Honorary Secretary)
Mtr. M. S. Srinivasan Mr. M. Krishnan Madras
Mrs. Dilnavaz Variava Mr. Duleep Matthai New Delhi

642

A.G.M. 1979-80—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1979

This report covers the activities of the Society in the 96th year of its existence.

MEMBERSHIP

Our membership continues to _ increase
slowly. The total of 973 at the end of 1976
had grown to 1241 at the end of 1979, so that
the target of 1500 by the centenary year 1983
is not unrealistic. We now have 660 ordinary
members paying annual subscriptions and 305
life members who have preferred to pay a
single sum (at present Rs. 750). There is
large scope for increasing the number of Cor-
porate members, now only 180. However, the
overall position, leaves something to be desir-
ed. With the number of new members coming
in (e.g. 186 in 1978) our total strength would
be far greater, but for the large number of
drop outs every year. It may help to reduce
the drop out rate, if those who introduce new
members would keep a list, and check on their
renewals, at least for the first three years.
Details of membership for the past quinquen-
nium, showing members fully paid up on 31st
December of each year, are given in the state-
ment below:

Ordinary members

ee Corporate members
Life members

Compound Corporate members
Student members

Honorary members

Forest Department Nominees

Members elected in 1979, but not paid

Members paid in 1978, but not paid for 1979

PUBLICATIONS

Journal:

Our Journal continues to publish authorita-
tive contributions to the Natural History of the
Oriental Region. The December 1978 issue,
published during 1979, was a bumper one of
388 pages celebrating the completion of 75
volumes since its inception in 1886. In con-
tains the first part of the President’s history
of the Society. ‘Apart from the persons res-
ponsible for the material well-being of the
Society, the Founders and the Builders,’
Dr. Salim Ali writes, ‘I have selected a num-
ber of others, the Guardians—scientists, field
naturalists and sportsmen—who by their re-
searches and their experiences and writings,
or by their prowess as hunters, or their zeal as
nature conservationists have aided substantially
in the evolutionary process of the Society.’
Two other issues were published during the
year, a Supplement to Volume 74 to clear the
backlog of botanical papers, and Volume
75(2). Prompt publication of scientific papers

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980
531 512 541 640 660
188 190 180 184 180
246 246 257 274 305

1 1 2 9 9

10 20 39 96 83

4 4 4 4 4

36 a an a ia,

1016 973 1023 1207 1241
14

643

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

is very desirable, and though our Journal is
not as slow as many others of international
repute, special efforts are being made to pub-
lish regularly.

Hornbill:

The first issues of Hornbill, a newsheet to
provide more popular and topical reading, and
accounts of our activities, for our members,
were cyclostyled. The magazine is now ele-
gantly printed, well illustrated and issued
quarterly. The first new issue appeared in
November 1976 to celebrate our President’s
80th birthday, but manufacturing expenses are
rising so rapidly that we may be compelled
to cease publication, unless more support by
way of advertisements is available. Members
are requested to help in obtaining advertise-
ments from firms known to them.

Books:

During the year the following sales were
made:

The Society’s two best-selling publications,
Salim Ali’s BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS and S. H.
Prater’s BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS remained
out of print throughout the year. Sales of other
publications in 1978 and 1979 were:

cies (making 296 in all) with four new colour
plates. Price Rs. 60.

THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS
By S. H. Prater:

The 4th new edition will be published in
1980. Price Rs. 60.

GRASSES OF WESTERN INDIA
By T. Hodd (1st edition):

A handy field guide for the identification
of Grasses of Western India, with illustrations
for all the species described should be available
by end 1980, or early in 1981.

A SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA &
PAKISTAN
By Dillon Ripley (2nd edition):

This definitive work on bird taxonomy of
the Indian region is a required reference for
any study on Indian birds. The revised 2nd
edition now in press is expected to be ready
by end 1980.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS
AND SHRUBS
By Bor & Raizada (2nd edition):

Some Beautiful Indian Trees
Glimpses of Nature in India Booklet
Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra

Sales in Balance stock
1978 1979 31-12-1979
133 147 2484
217 142 2147
110 148 208

Books under preparation:
THE BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS
By Salim Ali:
The 11th edition will be published in 1980
and contains descriptions of 16 additional spe-

644

This popular treatise on the wild and culti-
vated shrubs and climbers occurring in India

is an excellent ready reference for members
and others interested in the country’s flora and
the indigenous and exotic cultivars. The second

A.G.M. 1979-80-—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

edition, now in the press, is expected to be
ready by the end of 1980.

Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History,
Centenary Publication 1883-1983:

Work on the Encyclopedia is proceeding
satisfactorily under the direction of the Gene-
ral Editor. We hope to produce a book that
should arouse the interest of students and
others in the natural environment making
them aware and appreciative of rivers, rocks,
plants and animals and all! other forms of life
around them.

CONSERVATION

The Society continued to take an active part
in the Conservation Movement in the country
through its association with State and Central
Wildlife Boards, and through its members and
staff serving on the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources,
the World Wildlife Fund, and the International
Council for Bird Preservation.

Fossil-bearing rocks at Worli, Bombay:

Bombay city has the unusual distinction of
having fossil-bearing rocks within its munici-
pal limits. Several fossils of frogs have been
located in this area. However, there is a danger
that the fossiliferous rocks will be built over.
The Society has for several years been making
efforts to preserve the area and it is likely
that at least a part will be saved.

Chail Reserve for Cheer Pheasants, Himachal
Pradesh:

The Society strongly supported the recom-
mendation made by Dr. Antony Gaston of
Cambridge University that the Chail area be
preserved a reserve for Cheer Pheasants.

Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal
Pradesh:
One of the results of the visit of Dr. Salim

Ali and Dr. Dillon Ripley to Arunachal Pra-
desh is a strong recommendation to the Gov-
ernment of India for the preservation of the
Namdapha area as a natural sanctuary. A
dam is proposed to be constructed within the
sanctuary area and we hope that our efforts
to prevent this will be successful.

Silent Valley:

The Society continued to support the cam-
paign for the preservation of the Silent Valley
in collaboration with Save Silent Valley Com-
mittee and other organisations.

14th General Meeting of the IUCN at
Ashkhabad, U.S.S.R. (1978):

The Curator of the Society attended the
general assembly as a Co-Chairman of the
Asian Elephant Group and also represented
the Society at the assembly. At the instance
of the Society the IUCN General Assembly
adopted resolutions urging the Government of
India to preserve Silent Valley and Kalakkad
evergreen forests in the Western Ghats and to
take action for the conservation of the Asian
Elephant and its habitats in India.

Asian Elephant Specialist Group:

The Survival Service Commission’s Asian
Elephant Group, which had the Society’s
Curator as Chairman, continued to be active
in organising conservation action and protec-
tion measures for the elephant in India in
assessing the data obtained from the surveys.
The studies are being funded by the World
Wildlife Fund.

Endemic Flora of Kalakkad:

An appeal was made to the Government
of Tamil Nadu to preserve the Kalakkad Forest
in view of the number of species of endemic
plants which have been recorded from the area.
These forests are threatened by a proposed
dam.

645

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

SEMINARS & CONFERENCES

At the invitation of the organisers, the
Curator attended the seminar on Tropical Eco-
logy at the University of Kuala Lumpur and
presented a paper on the status of the Asian
Elephant.

The Honorary Secretary attended the Asia
Pacific Non-Governmental Organisations En-
vironment Conference on Regional Coopera-
tion for Development without destruction, in
Colombo, Sri Lanka, in October 1979.

The Curator attended a workshop on status
of the elephant at the Agricultural University
of Kerala, Trichur.

MEMBERS’ ACTIVITIES

Bird Counts:

The monthly roadside count of birds at the
Borivli National Park on the last Sunday of
each month was continued. The collection of
data to record the fluctuations in the bird
fauna over a period of time is the primary
aim.

Nature Walks:

This programme also assists in recruiting
more members for the Society and in fostering
interest in natural history among members and
others.

Nature walks were organised in _ Borivli
National Park and elsewhere for bird-watching,
vegetation studies and general natural history.
A large number of members participated.

Nature Camp:

A camp was organised in October-Novem-
ber at the Point Calimere Sanctuary in Tamil
Nadu. 58 members participated. The main pro-
gramme was the teaching of bird banding
techniques. The groups were led by Dr. R. B.

646

Grubh and Mr. P. B. Shekar of the Society’s
staff.

RESEARCH AND OTHER ACTIVITIES FUNDED
FROM FIELD WORK FUNDS

The field work funds available at the Society
supported the following activities:

SALIM ALI/LOKE ORNITHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
FUND:

During the year the fund supported the field
studies of two research students. Mr. S. A.
Yahya studied “The Ecology of Barbets’ and
Mrs. K. R. Lalitha studied ‘Comparative Eco-
logy of Drongos with special reference to Eco-
logical isolation among them’.

SALIM ALI CONSERVATION

Arunachal Pradesh:

1. Dr. Salim Ali and Dr. Dillon Ripley sur-
veyed Namdapha area in Arunachal Pra-
desh.

2. Mr. H. K. Divekar, Dr. R. B. Grubh and
Mr. P. B. Shekar surveyed further areas
of the Wild Buffalo habitat in east Maha-
rashtra and presented a report on its en-
dangered situation.

FUND:

PIROJSHA GODREJ FUND:

Frog-mouth study: Financial assistance was
extended from the fund for a survey of the
status of the Frogmouth Batrachostomus
moniliger, in the evergreen forests of Kerala.
The bird was considered to be rare and there
were very few records, but Dr. Sugathan re-
ports that the species is not uncommon in
particular habitats. His report will be publish-
ed in a future issue of the Journal.

CHARLES MCCANN VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY FUND:

Mr. J. H. Sabnis of the Marathwada Univer-

A.G.M. 1979-80—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

sity was offered assistance for studying ‘Food
habits of the tiger’ on the basis of scat ana-
lysis.

DORABJI TATA FIELD WORK FUND:

Survey of Tahr: Financial assistance was
extended to Dr. Satish Chandra Nair of the
Kerala University, for the study of Nilgiri Tahr
in the Eravikulam area.

Bird Survey, Bandipur: Financial assistance
was extended to Dr. Reza Khan from Bangla-
desh for a survey of the bird fauna of Bandi-
pur Sanctuary.

RESEARCH FUNDED BY GOVERNMENT &
GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES

The project “Determination of ecological
disturbances in Agricultural & adjoining lands
caused by removal of Rana tigrina and Rana
hexadactyla for export’? conducted by Mr. H.
Abdulali funded by the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research was completed, and the
final report was submitted to the Council.

Computer Analysis of Bird Banding Data:

Data for 1,09,250 birds ringed by the Bom-
bay Natural History Society during the years
1959 to 1973 was fed into the computer. The
remaining items of work to be done in order
to complete the programme are: 1. Feed the
remaining 14 lakhs of data. 2. Prepare different
programmes for each of the objectives speci-
fied in the project. 3. Obtain answers from the
computer for each of the questions asked by
the programmer. 4. Analyse these answers in
terms of the objectives listed in the project
and prepare reports. The work up to item 3
is expected to be completed before the end
of 1980.

The immediate results of the Computer
Analysis attempt is that we have identified

many deficiencies in our earlier data collecting
system so that we have been able to develop
a more advanced system for future bird band-
ing studies.

APPROVED FIELD PROJECTS

Bird Hazard Project:

At the request of the Aeronautics Research
& Development Board of the Ministry of De-
fence, the Bombay Natural History Society
drew up a project proposal for a study of bird
hazards at Indian aerodromes. The objective
was to reduce bird hazards in and around air-
fields and make flying safer. The work was to
commence at two airfields during 1980. The
Society agreed to undertake the research for
a year, and, if found productive, to continue
for another four years.

The Government of India has approved
financing of the following projects from PL-
480 funds. These projects will come into ope-
ration in 1980.

1. Studies on the movement and popualtion
structure of Indian avifauna:
-The project calls for extensive field work
in selected habitat types. The bird fauna,
both resident and migratory, of a wide
variety of bioctopes in the plains and hills
of the subcontinent will be sampled. The
areas covered in earlier research will be
the main study areas with particular em-
phasis on Bharatpur and Point Calimere.

2. Avian Ecology Research Station, at Keo-
ladeo Ghana Sanctuary, Bharatpur:
The project plans to study the ecology of
the large numbers and variety of water-
bird species breeding at the Ghana and
assembling during winter. The proposed
research station would be the first of its
kind in India and the research conducted

647

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

there would provide a basis for research
and management of other important
waterfowl reserves in the country.

The Government of Tamil Nadu has ap-

proved the financing of the following project.
This will also come into operation in 1980.

An ecological reconnaissance of Veda-
ranyam Swamp, Thanjavur District, Tamil
Nadu with special reference to habitat
preference and habitat partitioning by
migrant/resident waders:

The Vedaranyam—Muthupet—Adhiram-
pattinam swamp-belt is one of the major
and important refuges of migratory as
well as resident water birds in the penin-
sula. Every winter (October-March) over
90 species of birds (both Passerine and
wading) arrive and spread along the
swamps and forested tracts along the sea-
board. The State Government has propos-
ed to develop the entire 24,000 hectare
swamp as an integrated marine chemical
complex and as an expression of its an-
xiety about the possible effect of such a
project on the ecology of the area has
asked the Society to undertake a two-
year study, in collaboration with the forest
Department and with financial assistance
from the Salt Corporation of Tamil Nadu,
to assess the seasonal population dynamics

Dr. Salim Ali for Publication
Fund Rs.
Anonymous for Charles

McCann Vertebrate Zoology

Fund Rs.
Dr. C. V. Kulkarni for Staff
Welfare Fund Rs.
Gabriel India Ltd. for Silent
Valley Conservation Rs.

Mr. S. Chaudhuri for Charles
McCann Vertebrate Zoology

Fund Rs.
For General purpose:

Mr. G. V. Bedekar Rs.
World Wildlife Fund-India Rs.
Mrs. A. H. Patel Rs.
Mrs. D. S. Variava Rs.
Mrs. J. P. Sidhwa Rs.
M/s. B. R. Films Rs.
Mr. Kenhelm W. Scott Rs.
Mr. J. Strickland Rs.

5,000.00

2,100.00
1,000.00

3,000.00

600.00

2,000.00
5,000.00
1,500.00
2,000.00
1,500.00
500.00
20192
164.34

Donations to the Society of more then Rs.
250/- qualify for reduction of income-tax
under section 80G of the Income-tax Act 1961.

REFERENCE COLLECTION

During the year 665 specimens were receiv-

ed at the Society as donations.

of water birds and based on the above ae ae

studies, to advise the State Governement Repti a 56

on the conservation aspect of the Swamp. aehican. 30

DONATIONS Insects 93
Chenkim Loke Foundation for Total 665
SAlim Ali Nature Convervation
Fund Rs. 18,209.56
EME

Pirojsha Godrej Foundation NATURE) EDUCAMON (stu
for Pirojsha Godrej Fund Rs. 10,000.00
Dr, Salim Ali for Salim Ali In 1979 250 schools were contacted and 97

Nature Conservation Fund Rs. 5,000.00 actually participated in different activities.

648

A.G.M. 1979-80—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS

Besides, 110 trainee teachers and 65 college
students took advantage of our programmes.
A series of lectures and practical demonstra-
tion on maintenance of aquaria was held for
biology teachers.

An exhibition on “The need to preserve
wildlife’ was arranged during wildlife week.

MEETINGS

January, 12: Talk:
‘Malaria and its mosquito vectors in an
urban area’ by Dr. Rachel Reuben.

January, 19: Film show:
‘Last of the Wild’.

February, 17: Lecutre:
“Wildlife and Wildlife Management in the
Nilgiris’ by E. R. C. Davidar.

February, 10-11: Nature Trip:
Bhimashankar.

March, 5: Talk:
“Tiger to spider’ by S. P. Shahi.
March, 10-11: Field Trip:
Matheran. |
April, 1: Field Trip:
Tungareshwar Temple Road.
April, 13-15: Field Trip:
Mahabaleshwar.

May, 13: Field Trip:
Along Yewoor Road.

June, 4: Lecutre:
‘Chipko’ agitation against deforestation in
Garhwal by Shri S. Bahuguna.

June, 17: Field Trip:
Khandala—Khopoli.

July, 15: Field Trip:
Chenna to Yewoor.

August, 23: Film Show:
1. The Magic Square;
2. Waddensea, Birds’ Paradise;
3. Sos Sagnes.

August, 25-27: Field Trip:
Bhandardara.

September, 12-13: Film Show:
1. Kites are flying;
2. The Lonely Level.

October, 14: Nature Walk:
Goregaon to Vihar dam.

November, 11: Nature Walk:
Tungareshwar.

December, 1-2: Nature Walk:
Tansa Lake Sanctuary.

REVENUE & ACCOUNTS

The financial situation of the Society is still
unsatisfactory. The year’s working showed a
deficit of Rs. 36,418.31.

STAFF

The Committee wishes to record its appre-
ciation of the willing cooperation of the staff
in the activities of the Society.

649

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

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AWAHIS NOILVONdGA AUNLVN
ALHIDOS AYOLSIH TWAUNLVN AVENO

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE BOM-
BAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1979-80 HELD
AT THE B.E.S.T. CONFERENCE HALL, ORMISTON ROAD, COLABA,
BOMBAY, ON SATURDAY, THE 18TH OCTOBER 1980 AT 5.00 P.M.

The following were present:

Mr. Humayun Abdulali
Dr. C. V. Kulkarni
Dr. Salim Ali

Mr. O. S. Fernandes
Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati
. G. V. Bedekar

. R. E. Hawkins

. Bansi Mehta

Mr. D. J. Panday

Mr. Vivek Matthai
Mr. David Fernandes
Mr. K. K. Vajifdar
Dr. P. J. Deoras

Mr. V..G. Govekar
Capt. Dhun Mehta
Mr. S. R. Nayak

Mr. R. H. Tehsin
Miss M. M. Haribal
Miss A. A. Kaikini

a a i ee ee oe
OornanBbwWnNRK OO ONAN BW LPH —

20. Mr. Dilip Patil

Divine ve tranr

22. Mrs. Phillippa Mukherjee
23, Prof. P. VY. Bole

2 Dr. A. R. Almeida

25. Mr. Chandrakant Wakankar
26. Mr. Deepak Patwardhan
27. Mr. G. K. Amte

28. Miss Renee Borges

29. Mr. K. R. Kothary

302 Mir SoP -Godre]

31. Mr. Ulhas Rane

At the request of the President (Dr. Salim

Ali), Mr. G. V. Bedekar, Vice President, took

the Chair and conducted the proceedings.

664

The Chairman welcomed the members, parti-

cularly Mr. Humayun Abdulali (who had re-
cently been assaulted and robbed at the Borivli
National Park near Bombay) and added that
a representation has been made to the Chief
Minister of Maharashtra regarding better pro-
tection of visitors to the park and regarding
general questions of demarcation, gpa
etc. of the park. - :
Agenda Item (1): The report* of the Com-
mittee for the year 1979 which had been cir-
culated was taken as read and the Honorary
Secretary (Dr. Nanavati) in inviting comments
on the report gave a brief account of the acti-
vities at the Society since the end of the year
of report, particularly the field projects which
had been sanctioned for a period of five years
with financial assistance from PL- -480) funds.
The projects would enable the Society to widen
activities in ecological studies and to ‘train
more young scientists in undertaking research
on field problems. The year 1979 is 96th les
of the Society’s existence.

Dr. P. J. Deoras wished to know details of
the work and the questions about Computer
Analysis of bird banding data. Mr. Humayun
Abdulali supported Dr. P. J. Deoras. The
Chairman explained that while the recovery
data only related to approximately 3,000 birds,
the data that was being fed into the Computer
related not only to ring recoveries but also to

several other parameters which would provide

information on several points of interest. Bird
migration has several mysterious aspects and
all kinds of information about it would add to
our knowledge. Dr. Deoras was requested to

*See p. 643.

MINUTES OF THE A.G.M. OF THE B.N.H.S.

visit the Society and acquaint himself with the
Computer Programmes objectives and draft
questions being put to the Computer.

Dr. Deoras asked for information about the
Curator’s activities in the Asian Elephant
Group of the Survival Service Commission of
the IUCN. The Curator (M. J. C. Daniel)
requested Dr. Deoras to visit the Society so
that copies of the reports and papers presented
at meetings and seminars on the activities of
the group can be given to him.

Mr. Humayun Abdulali raised the issues of
the paucity of staff for normal work at the
Society and the additional work for various
projects being undertaken by the Society. He
complained that the staff was not responding
to his queries for identification of material and
Specimens etc. sent to the Society. Mrs. Mu-
kherjee stated that her queries about various
matters and identification of specimens were
being answered but it was necessary to remind
and expedite the staff. Mr. D. Fernandes stated
that he had no complaint in this behalf, and
found that the staff was cooperative. The
Honorary Secretary stated that every effort is
being made to answer members’ queries but
in some cases owing to circumstances beyond
the control of the staff, delays did occur. He
assured the members that all efforts would be
made to avoid delays as far as possible.

Mr. Humayun Abdulali and Dr. P. J.
Deoras felt that the members of the Society
were not being involved in the various pro-
jects being undertaken by the Society. The
Honorary Secretary reiterated that the Society
always welcomed and continues to welcome
the cooperation of members and their offers
of participation in all projects undertaken by
the Society, and that proposals for new projects
would receive careful consideration by the exe-
cutive committee. The initiative in such matters
must come from interested members.

In summing up, the Chairman pointed out

that the Society cannot allow itself to stagnate
and must enter new fields and widen its in-
terests in fields in which it has expertise and
it may be necessary to use Society’s experienc-
ed staff to train and guide new recruits in
various activities of the Society. It would there-
fore be to the Society’s advantage to under-
take such field programmes, though they strain-
ed the staff.

The Committee’s report for

approved.
Agenda Item (2): ‘The balance sheet and the
statement of accounts 1979 were presented*
by the Honorary Treasurer (Dr. C. V. Kul-
Karni), who explained that the deficit of
Rs. 36,418.31 for the year was due to lack
of availability of the Birds and Animals pub-
lications for sale and the increase in staff
salaries and general rise in prices of all items.
He added that with the publications on Birds
and Animals being ready for sale in new edi-
tions and the support from other fields of
activities, the finances of the Society are ex-
pected to improve but efforts to enrol new
members on a large scale must continue.

Mr. Vivek Matthai suggested that the for-
mat of the Society’s calendar should be chang-
ed to make it more attractive, and enhance the
sales. The Chairman stated that this matter
is under constant review by the Committee
and concrete proposals from members would
be welcome.

Mrs. Mukherjee wished to know about dam-
age to the roof which necessitated an imme-
diate expenditure of Rs. 20,000/-. The Hono-
rary Treasurer explained that from time to time
small leaks in the roof had developed (in the
Society’s building which is about twenty years
old) and were attended to but the situation
has suddenly deteriorated, during the last
monsoon (of 1980) and urgent steps became

1979 was

*See p. 650.

665

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 78

necessary. The members would be glad to
know that the Governments of both Maha-
rashtra and India had responded promptly to
the appeal for assistance made by the Presi-
dent of the Society and requisite repairs would
be carried out, it is hoped, before the mon-
soon of 1981.

Mrs. Mukherjee enquired about the cost of
the Society’s Journal and opined that the So-
ciety’s Journal was not of interest to a num-
ber of the Society’s members who are more
interested in “‘Hornbill’. She suggested for
consideration whether to such members only
the Hornbill may be sent and whether the
question of a membership (at reduced fees)
without Journal may also be examined. Mr.
David Fernandes supported the view that a
non-Journal membership would be of benefit
to the Society. The Chairman stated that this
complex matter had been considered by the
Executive Committee on several occasions in
the past, that the costs of the Journal were

666

mainly on composing and printing, and much
saving would not result from reduction in
number of copies, and that under the rules
despatch of the Journal to members was obli-
gatory. The Committee would however consi-
der specific porposals received in this matter.

The accounts were approved.

Agenda Item (3): Appointment of Auditors
and fixing their remuneration. The Honorary
Treasurer expressed appreciation of the ser-
vices rendered by the Society’s Auditors Messrs
Habib & Co. and proposed that they be re-
quested to continue as Society’s auditors for
the year 1980 on a remuneration of Rs. 1000/-.
The proposal was seconded by Dr. Nanavati
and was unanimously approved.

There being no other business, the meeting
terminated with a vote of thanks to the Chair
and was followed by exhibition of a film on
African Wildlife, kindly arranged by the World
Wildlife Fund—India.

Tee
a ms
fs

y

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Mammals

. The Book of Indian AGhals, by S. H. Prater, 4th edition (reprint). 28 plates in

oo by Paul Barruel and anes other monochrome illustrations. Rs. 60.00
(Price to members Rs. 55)

The Ecology of the Lesser Bandicoot Rat in Calcutta, YY James Juan Spillett.

Rs. 10
, Birds
The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali. 11th (revised) edition. 74 coloured and
: many monochrome plates. ‘Rs. 60.00

(Price to members Rs. 55)
Checklist of the Birds of Maharashtra, by Humayun Abdulali, 2nd edition. Rs. 4
Checklist of the Birds of Dethi, Agra and Bharatpur, by Humayun Abdulali &
J. D. Panday. : Rs. 3.00
| Snakes

Identification of Poisonous Snakes, Wall chart in Gujarati, and Marathi. Rs. 5
Plants
Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. te many coloured aud

monochrome plates. 3rd: edition (Reprint). Rs. 40.00
: (Price to voor Rs. 35)
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coloured and monochrome plates. 2nd edition. (in Press)

- Miscellaneous
Glinpses of Nature Series See .
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and Marathi. Rs. 0.80
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and Hindi Rs) 1.25:
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(Price to members Rs. 5)
Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application.
The Society will gratefully accept. back numbers of the Journal, from mem-
bers who may not wish to preserve them.

: TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP
- Entrance Fees:

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. Student Members a ne Ni ae Rs. 10
Subscription : | ,

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Members residing outside India should pay their i abeesation by means of orders on
their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in Bombay on the Ist
January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £6.50 should be paid annually
to the Society’s London Bankers—The Grindlays Bank Ltd., 13, St. James’s Sq., London
SWI1Y 4LF. Account No. 1101091.

The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers the
period from the date of their election to the end of the following year.

CONTENTS

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION IN INDIA—PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS.
By M. S. Swaminathan

OBSERVATIONS ON 1HE BIOLOGY OF Hipposideros lankadiva’ KELAART, 1850 (CHIROP-

TERA, RMINOLOPHIDAE). By H. R. Bhat and M. A. Sreenivasan

A LIST OF TAXA OF INDIAN FERNS NOT INCLUDED IN BEDDOME’S HANDBOOK TO THE
FERNS OF ‘BRITISH INDIA AND A SUPPLEMENT TO THE HANDBOOK TO -THE FERNS
OF BritisH INbIA. By N. C. Nair and R. D. Dixit

REDEFINITION OF RHESUS MaAcAaQuE—BONNET "MACAQUE BOUNDARY IN PENINSULAR

INDIA (PRIMAIES: Macaca mulatia, M. radiata). By Jack Fooden, Anil Mahabal
and Subhendu Sekhar Saha

THE VEGETATION OF NAGZIRA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY AND ITS ENVIRONS (MAHARASHTRA
STATE). By S. K. Malhotra and K. Madhusudan Rao

BEHAVIOUR OF Lissemys punctata (REPTILIA, TESTUDINATA, TRIONYCHIDAE) IN A
DRYING LAKE IN RAJASTHAN, INDIA. By Walter Auffenberg

THE TIMING OF BREEDING SEASON AND INTERBREEDING BETWEEN THE COLOUR PHASES
IN THE INDIAN REEF HERON, Egretta gularis (BOSC). od R. M. Naik, B. M. Para-
sharya, B. H. Patel and A. P. Mansuri

ALPINE FLORA, OF TUNGNATH IN GARHWAL HIMALAYA. By J. K. Semwal and R. D.
Gaur

THE FOOD HABITS OF THE INDIAN HARE, Lepus nigricollis, IN CHATRI FOREST, ee
VATI, MAHARASHTRA: By J. H. Sabnis

TEACHING OF BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE THROUGH PRACTICAL APPLICATION—AN URGENT

NEED. By A. N. Henry and M. Chandrabose

SOME .FRESH-WA'LER OLIGOCHAETA FROM BOMBAY CITY AND ENVIRONS. By K. a
Naidu and K. Abhinender Naidu

WEEDY ELEMENTS IN THE FLORA OF Guanpeipos DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA STATE.
By S. K. Malhotra and Sirasala Moorthy

FooD OF JUVENILE Garra mullya (SYKES) (FAMILY CYPRINIDAE). By V.-S: Somvanshi.
and S. S. Bapat

MATERIAL FOR THE FLORA OF Mir beace eters By P. V. Bole and M. R. Almeida ..
New DESCRIPTIONS
REVIEWS
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL Hickory SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1979-80
STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

MINUTES CF THE ANNUAL GENERAL Ne

PAGE

429

436

443

463

475

487
494
498

513

519
524.

539

543

548

568

581°

586
642

610.

664

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Bombay 400 092

and published by Editors: J. C. Daniel, P. V. Bole and A. N. D. Nanavati for Bombay
Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 400 023.

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