Class PE II t( Book . H

PRE5E1

71

>RESENTED BY

HARVEY'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR,

PRACTICAL GRAMMAR

ENGLISH LANGUAGE,

USE OF SCHOOLS OF EVERY GEADE.

BY

THOS. W. HARVEY, A. M.

VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO., 37 Walnut Street, 28 Bond Street3

CINCINNATI. NEW YORK.

Harvey's Language Course,

REVISED, TWO BOOK SERIES.

/. Harvey's Revised Elementary Grammar and Composition. II. Harvey's Revised English Grammar.

The best and most practical course in Oral and Written language Wessons, Composition, and Eng- lish Grammar. The Golden Mean between the too labored attempt at simplification, and the scientific technical grammar.

"A thorough knowledge of the elements, forms, structure, and laws of our mother-tongue can only be acquired by patient, persistent exercise in the analysis and synthesis of words, phrases, and sen- tences. The labor necessary for the acquirement of this knowledge, as well as accuracy and facility in the use of our language, may be made attractive, but it can not be dispensed with."

It is claimed for Harvey's Language Course that it shows how this labor should be expended to secure the best results.

i. Necessary instruction is given in simple yet concise form, thus economizing the time and energies of both pupil and teacher.

2. Model Oral Lessons, which first appeared as a special feature in HARVEY'S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, and have proven so popular, are here presented in an improved and suggestive form.

3. Sentence-making and Composition are presented in a natural and attractive manner.

4. Pictorial Illustrations are employed in teaching Com- position.

5. Special attention is given to exercises in False Syntax, care being taken to include the common errors of speech.

6. Diagrams for "mapping" sentences are given early in the course, with Models for Analysis.

7. The higher book contains an exhaustive presentation of the properties and. modifications of the different Parts of Speech; also carefully prepared Models for Parsing and An- alysis ; rules of Syntax and schemes for the description of objects.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by Wilson, Hinkle & Co., in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern District of Ohio.

t mi \

PREFACE.

In the preparation of this treatise, the ever-recurring wants and requirements of the class-room have been kept constantly in view. The aim of the author has been to make a practical text- book— a useful manual for the learner, not a reference book for the learned.

The whole plan of the work is in accordance with the educa- tional doctrine that accuracy and facility in the use of language, both spoken and written, are the ends to be secured by the study of grammar: that to secure these ends, a thorough acquaintance with the elements, forms, structure, and laws of our mother tongue, is indispensable; and that a practical knowledge of these can be acquired only by patient, persistent exercise in the analysis and synthesis of syllables, words, and sentences.

The author has endeavored to present the subject in a simple, concise, and perspicuous manner. He has purposely avoided the discussion of mere theories; preferring, rather, a plain didactic statement of his own views. Experience has taught him that such discussions serve only to confuse and discourage the begin- ner, and are of questionable utility to the advanced student. Neither the erudition of the teacher, nor the exhaustive com- pleteness of the text-book used,' can compensate for the lack of drill in the class-room.

The distinguishing features of this treatise, to which special attention is invited, are the following :

1. The methodical arrangement and logical development of the subjects discussed.

(iii)

IV PREFACE.

2. The brevity, clearness, and uniformity of the rules and definitions.

3. The simple yet complete system of Analysis.

4. The great variety of carefully prepared Models for Pars- ing and Analysis. By these models, the pupil is taught how- to parse every kind of word, and how to analyze every kind of sentence.

5. The abundance of appropriate exercises and illustrations, systematically arranged, and numbered for convenient reference.

6. The definite statement or clear indication of opinion upon those points which annoy and perplex both pupil and teacher.

7. The practical character and systematic classification of the instruction and exercises in False Syntax.

8. The lucid and comprehensive treatment of Punctuation and Prosody — both important subjects, too much neglected in most schools.

9. The superior mechanical execution of the work.

Actuated by a desire to render the labor of the class-room more pleasant and effective, by furnishing an attractive means for instruction in a useful branch of study, the author ventures the hope that this treatise will commend itself to the favorable notice and consideration of his fellow-teachers.

CONTENTS

ORTHOGRAPHY.

PAGE

Elementary Sounds, .... 8

Vowels, 9

Consonants, 9

Diphthongs, 11

Digraphs, 11

Trigraphs, 11

Double Consonants, .... 11

Substitutes 12

Capital Letters, .... 13-17

Italics, 18

Small Capitals 18

Syllables, 19

Words, Classes, .... 20-22

ETYMOLOGY.

Definitions, The Noun,

Classes,

Gender,

Person,

Number.

Case, .

Declension,

Models for Parsin The Adjective, . .

Descriptive,

Definitive,

Articles, .

Pronominals, .

Numerals,

Comparison,

Models for Par The Pronoun,

Personal, .

Models for Parsing

Possessive,

:ii-:

23 24 25 2G 28"

28-30

31-33 33 34 37 33 39 39

40-43 43

44-46 46 49

51-53 54 56

Models for Parsing,

Relative, .

Models for Parsing,

Interrogative,

Models for Parsing, The Verb,

Classes,

Voice, . . .

The Participle,

Auxiliaries,

Mode,

Tense,

Forms,

Person and Number,

Unipersonal Verbs,

Conjugation, .

Irregular Verbs,

Defective Verbs,

Models for Parsing, The Adverb, .

Classes,

Comparison,

Models for Parsing, The Preposition,

List, ....

Models for Parsing, The Conjunction,

Classes of Connective

Classes of Conjunctions

Models for Parsing, The Interjection, .

Model for Parsing,

SYNTAX

Oral Lessons,

Definitions,

Sentences,

Classification,

(v)

CONTENTS.

	PAGK		PAOB
Elements, ....	. 135	False Syntax, .	199
Principal Elements, .	135-137	Improper Words,	199
Arrangement,	137	Improper Forms,	201-204
Subordinate Elements,	139	Improper Expressions,	204
Objective,	139-142	Unnecessai-y Words, .	205-207
Adjective,	142-144	Omission of Words, .	207-209
	144-146	Improper Arrangement,	209-212
Attendant,	146	Words Variously Classified	215-223
Classes, ....	147	Figures, ....	225
Models for Anab/sis, .	148	Of Etymology, .	225
Classes of Elements,	151	Of Syntax, .	226
- Simple, ....	151	Of Rhetoric,	227-231
Complex,	152-156	Punctuation, . . .	232
Compound, .	157	Comma, .	232-236
Phrases Classified,	158	Semicolon,	237-239
Clauses " Contracted Sentences, .	159 161		239
Period, ....	. 241
Ellipsis, ....	161-163	Interrogation Point, .	242
Abridgment,	163	Exclamation Point, .	242
	165-166 171	Dash, ....	243
Rules of Syntax,	Curves	244
Subject-Nominative, .	172	Brackets,	246
Predicate-Nominative,	173	Other Marks,	246-248
Possessive Case, . Apposition, .	174 175	PROSODY.
Absolute Case,	176	Definitions, ....	249
Objective Case,	177-179	Poetic Feet,	250-252
Pronouns,	180-184	Kinds of Verse, .	253
Adjectives, .	185	Poetic Pauses, .	253
Participles, .	1S5	Iambic Measures,	254-257
Verbs, ....	186-190	Trochaic Measures, .	. 257
Infinitives, ...	190-193	Anapestic Measures,	258
Adverbs,	193-195	Dactylic Measures, .	259
Prepositions,	19G	Amphibrach Measures, .	. 260
Coordinate Connectives,	196	Mixed Verse,	260
Subordinate Connectives,	197	Poetic License, .	. 261
Interjections, . ' .	198	Scanning, ....	. 262

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

1. Definitions.

1. A Word is the sign of an idea.

2. Iianguage is the expression of thought by means of words. It may be either spoken or written.

3. Spoken Language is the expression of ideas by the voice.

4. Written Language is the expression of ideas by the use of written or printed characters representing sounds.

5. Grammar treats of the principles and usages of language.

6. English Grammar teaches how to speak and write the English language correctly.

7. English Grammar is divided into four parts: Or- thography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.

8. Orthography treats of elementary sounds, letters, syllables, and spelling.

9. Etymology treats of the classification, derivation, and properties of words.

10. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences.

11. Prosody treats of the quantity of syllables, of ac- cent, and of the laws of versification.

(?)

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

PART I

ORTHOGRAPHY.

2. Definitions.

1. Orthography treats of elementary sounds, letters, syllables, and spelling.

2. An Elementary Sound is one which can not be separated into two or more distinct sounds.

3. A Letter is a character used to represent either an elementary sound, or a combination of elementary sounds; as, a, x.

4. A Syllable is a sound or a combination of sounds uttered with one impulse of the voice; as, man, man-ner.

5. A Word is either a syllable, or a combination of syl- lables; as, hat, men-tion, phi-los-o-phy.

3. Elementary Sounds.

1. There are forty elementary sounds in the English language.

2. They are divided into Vowels and Consonants. Con- sonants are subdivided into Subvocals and Aspirates.

3. Vowels, or Vocals, are those sounds which are made with the vocal organs open, and consist of pure tone only. They are also called Tonics.

4. Subvocals are those sounds which are obstructed by the vocal organs, in the process of articulation. They are sometimes called Subtonics.

ORTHOGRAPHY.

9

5. Aspirates are mere emissions of breath, articulated by the lips, tongue, teeth, and palate. They are sometimes called Atonies.

TABLE OF ELEMENTARY SOUNDS.

4. Towels.

a Ions' as in late.

a short, " a middle, " a Italian, " a broad, " e long, " e short, "

hat.

ask.

arm.

all.

eve.

elL

i long, as in time.

i short,	' tin.
© long, _	< cold.
o short,	' hot.
oo long,	' ooze.
oo short,	' book
u long,	' lute.
u short,	' cup.

5. Consonants.

1. Consonants may be divided into six classes, viz.:

Labials, or lip-sounds, which are made by the lips;

Unguals, or tongue-sounds, made by the tongue;

Ling-uo-dentais, or tongue-teeth-sounds, made by the tongue and teeth;

Ianguo-nasals, or tongue-nose-sounds, articulated by the tongue, the sound passing through the nose;

Palato-nasals, or palate-nose-sounds, made by the palate, the sound passing through the nose;

Palatals, or palate-sounds, made by the palate.

2. The Subvocals are arranged on the left of the page, and the corresponding Aspirates on the right.

		Labials.
b, as in	bib,			p, as in lip,
v, "	save,			f, " life,
w, "	way,			wh, " when
111, "	am,

10

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Ianguo-I>enials.

<1, as in lid, th, " with, J, " jar, z, " size, zh, " azure,

t, as in tat, th, " myth, cli, " rich, s, " hiss, sh, " hush.

1, as in lull, r, " roar.

Unguals.

(Have no corresponding asDirates.)

Ianguo-Xasal.

n, as in man. (lias no corresponding aspirate.)

x in song.

Palato-Xasal.

(Has no corresponding aspirate.)

g, as in nag,

y» " yes,

Palatals.

h, as in kick, h, " how.

Rem. — The sounds represented by I, m, n, and r, are sometimes called liquids, because they easily unite with other consonant sounds.

6. Letters.

1. There are twenty-six letters in the English alphabet. As there are more elementary sounds than letters, it becomes necessary that some letters represent more than one sound. Letters also combine to represent sounds for which there are no single representatives. Letters and combinations of let- ters are often used as substitutes for other letters.

ORTHOGRAPHY. 11

7. Diphthongs, Digraphs, and Trigraphs.

1. A Diphthong consists of two vowels sounded to- gether in the same syllable.

Rein — There are two diphthongal sounds, represented by four diphthongs, viz. : ou, ow, oi, oy, as in foul, now, boil, cloy.

2. A Digraph consists of two vowel letters written to- gether in the same syllable, one only being pronounced, or both representing a single elementary sound.

Rem. — There are twenty-four digraphs, viz. : aa, Canaan ; ai, gain ; ao, gaol ; au, maul ; aw, maw ; ay, may ; ea, meat ; ee, need ; ci, ceiling ; eo, people ; eu, feud ; ew, new ; ey, they ; ie, lief; oa, coat ; oe, foe ; oi, avoirdupois ; oo, moon ; ou, tour ; ow, flow ; ua, guard ; ue, sue ; ui, guise ; uy, buy.

3. A Trigrapii consists of three vowel letters written together in the same syllable, one only being pronounced, or the three together representing a single vowel sound, or diphthong.

Rem. l. — There are seven trigraphs, viz.: aye, aye; awe, awe; eau, beau, beauty ; eou, gorgeous ; eye, eye ; ieu, lieu ; iew, view.

Rem. 2 — In such words as Christian, alien, union, i does not form a digraph with the following vowel, but is a substitute for y. In the unaccented terminations cean, cial, sion, Hon, the combina- tions ce, ci, si, ti, are substitutes for sh.

Rem. 3. — In such words as herbaceous, gracious, precious, e and i do not form trigraphs with the following vowels, but the combina- tions ce, ci are substitutes for sh.

8. Double Consonants.

Double Consonants consist of two consonant letters written together in the same syllable, representing a single elementary sound.

Rem. — They are ch, chord ; gh, laugh , ph, physic ; sh, hush ; th, thin, this , wh, when ; ng, sing.

12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

9. Substitutes.

A Substitute represents a sound usually represented by another letter or combination of letters.

A long has four substitutes: e, tete; ei, feint ;ey, they; ao, gaol.

A middle has two substitutes : e, there ; ei, heir.

A broad has two substitutes : o, cord ; ou, sought.

E long has three substitutes : i, marine ; ie, fiend ; ay, quay.

E short has four substitutes : ay, says ; u, bury ; i, irksome ; ie, friend.

I long has three substitutes: y, thyme; ei, Steinway ; oi, choir.

I short has six substitutes : y, hymn ; e, England ; u, busy ; o, women; ee, been; ai, captain.

O long has three substitutes : eau, beau ; ew, sew ; oa, goal.

O short has two substitutes : a, what ; ow, knowledge.

U long has five substitutes : eau, beauty ; ieu, lieu ; iew, view ; ew, new ; ui, suit.

U short has three substitutes : e, her ; i, sir ; o, son.

F has two substitutes : gh, laugh ; ph, philosophy.

J has two substitutes : g, rage ; di, soldier.

S has two substitutes: c before e, i, and y ; z, quartz.

T has one substitute : ed final, after any aspirate except t.

V has two substitutes: /, of; ph, Stephen.

Whas one substitute: u, quick. It is understood before o in one, once.

X is used as a substitute for ks, as in wax ; gz, as in exact ; hsh, as in noxious.

Y has one substitute : i, alien. It is frequently understood before u, as in verdure.

Z has three substitutes : c, sacrifice ; s, his ; x, Xenia.

CH has one substitute : ti, question.

SH has six substitutes : ce, ocean ; ci, facial ; si, losion ; ti, motion ; ch, chaise ; s, sugar.

ZH has four substitutes: si, fusion; zi, brazier; z, azure; s, rasure.

NG has one substitute : n, generally before palatal sounds ; as in ink, uncle, conquer.

ORTHOGRAPHY. 13

10. Forms of the Letters.

1. Letters are of different styles; as, Roman, Italic, ItM, <©0j ISnglisf).

2. Types for printing are of various sizes:

Great Primer, Sma11 Pica> Minion'

T? ^'^ Long Primer, Nonpareil,

Jinsmsn, „ 6 . Agate,

c Bourgeois, Pearlj

X ICa, Brevier, Diamond.

3. Letters are used either as capital letters or as lower- case, or small letters.

11. Capital Letters.

I. The first word of every sentence, or the first word after a fall pause, should begin with a capital letter.

Ex. — Winds blow. Snow falls. The heavens are aflame.

II. The first word after an introductory word or clause may begin with a capital letter.

Ex. — "Resolved, That the sum of $3000 be appropriated," &c. "Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Ohio, That section fourteen," &c.

III. Each new line or paragraph of an enumeration of particulars, arranged in lines or paragraphs, should begin with a capital letter.

Ex — " These expenditures are in proportion to the whole expend- itures of government,

In Austria, as thirty-three per cent. : In France, as thirty-eight per cent. : In Great Britain, as seventy-four per cent."

IV. The first word of a direct quotation, or of an impor-

14 ENGLISH GRAMMAK.

tant statement, a distinct speech, &c, should begin with a capital letter.

Ex. — " When thou saidst, Seek ye my face, my heart said unto thee, Thy face, Lord, will I seek." " Dora said, ' My uncle took the boy.' " " One truth is clear : Whatever is, is right."

V; The first word in every line of poetry should begin with a capital letter.

" Put your best foot foremost, or I fear That we shall miss the mail : and here it comes With five at top ; as quaint a four in hand As you shall see — three piebalds and a roan." " Faith, he 's got the Knicker- Bocker Magazine."

VI. Proper names of persons, places, months, days, &c, should begin with capital letters.

Ex. — James, Emma, Boston, July, Wednesday, James Monroe, O. W. Holmes.

VII. Titles of honor or distinction, used alone or ac- companied by nouns, should begin with capital letters.

Ex.— Earl Kussell ; the Duke of York ; Mr. Wilson, Mrs. Smith ; Dr. Johnson ; Gen. Harrison ; Sir Eobert Peel ; George the Third-; Charles the Bold; "O had I a thousand a year, Gaffer Green;" " The Elder spake as follows."

VIII. Names of things personified become proper nouns in sense, and should begin with capital letters.

Ex. — "Come, gentle Spring/ ethereal Mildness/ come." "In Misery's darkest cavern known, His useful care was nigh, When hopeless Anguish poured his groan, And lonely Want retired to die."

IX. Words or phrases used as names for particular ob- jects should begin with capital letters.

Ex. — The Falls ; Yellow Creek ; the Havana ; the City of Broth- erly Love; the Cape of Good Hope; John o' Groat's House; the

ORTHOGRAPHY. 15

Round Tower ; the Sailor's Home ; " I have read ' The Tent on the Beach.' "

X. All appellations of the Deity should begin with cap- ital letters.

Ex. — God; the Most High; the Supreme; the Infinite One; Divine Providence ; the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost ; our Lord Jesus Christ.

XI. A common word must sometimes begin with a cap- ital letter, to show its reference to the Deity.

Ex. — "The Hand that made us is divine."

"The spangled heavens, a shining frame, Their great Original proclaim."

Bern. — A word that describes rather than denotes a name of the Deity, and a pronoun whose expressed antecedent is the name of the Deity, usually require no capitals; as, "O thou merciful God!" "The all-powerful Lord of lords;" "God provides for all his creatures."

XII. Xouns denoting the race or nation of individuals should begin with capital letters.

Ex. — The French ; the Spaniards ; the English ; the Anglo-Saxons.

XIII. Words derived from proper names should begin with capital letters.

Ex. — American, Mainote, Danish, Johnsonian, Icelandic.

Rem — When such words become common nouns by losing their reference to their original proper nouns, they should not begin with capital letters ; as, a louis d' or ; a guinea ; china-ware.

XIV. Words of special importance may begin with cap- ital letters.

Ex. — The Tariff; the Sub-Treasury Bill ; the Commissioner of Common Schools ; " Be prepared for the Great Day ; n "Angler's Companion : a Complete and Superior Treatise on the Art of An- gling."

36 ENGLISH GRAMMAK.

XV. In natural history, generic names, or names of genera, should commence with capital letters. Specific names, or names of species, if derived from proper nouns, should also commence with capitals: otherwise with small letters. Scientific terms are usually printed in italics.

Ex. — Rosa Gallica, Rosa alba; Anomma Burmeisteri, Anomma rubella; Sjpongltes Townsendi, JSpongites flexuosus.

XVI. The pronoun I and interjection 0 should be

capitals.

Ex.— "Sleep, O gentle Sleep,

Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee."

GENERAL REMARKS.

1. Indirect quotations, or words quoted as the peculiar language of authors, should not begin with capital letters; as, "A man is an 'individual,' or a 'person,' or a 'party.'" "A fine house is always a ' palatial residence.' "

2. The pronouns he, his, him, thy, and thee, referring to names of the Deity, in sentences where their antecedents are understood, or when they are used for emphasis, may sometimes begin with capital letters; as, "The hope of my spirit turns trembling to Thee;" "Trust in Him, for He will sustain thee."

3. In writing many compound names of places, usage is not uniform. When the parts remain separate, or are connected by a hyphen, each should begin with a capital letter: when the parts are consolidated, but one capital letter should be used; as, New Castle, New-Castle, Newcastle.

4. In phrases or sentences used as headings or titles, nouns, adjectives, participles, or other important words, only, should begin with capital letters : unimportant words and connectives should begin with small letters.

5. In advertisements, show-bills, &c, different styles and sizes of type are frequently used, and the liberty of capitalizing is car- ried to an indefinite extent.

6. Names, signs, titles, and mottoes, designed to attract atten- tion, are printed in various styles; most frequently in capitals.

0-RTHOGRAPHY. 17

12. Exercises to be Corrected.

1. — it is a pleasant thing to see the sun. man is mortal, flow- ers bloom in summer.

2. — Resolved, that the framers of the constitution, &c. 3. — The town has expended, the past year,

for grading streets, $15,000 :

for public buildings, 15,000.

4. — He said "you are too impulsive;" Eemember the maxim, " a penny saved is a penny earned." 5. — "The day is past and gone;

the evening shades appear ; O may we all remember well the night of death draws near." 6. — James and samuel went to baltimore last august; The general assembly meets on the first monday in february.

7. — The bill was vetoed by the president; John Jones, esq.; Richard the third ; " The opposition was led by lord Brougham." 8. — "When music, heavenly maid, was young, While yet, in early Greece, she sung, The passions, oft, to hear her shell, Throng'd around her magic cell." 9. — The central park; the Ohio river; I have read "great ex- pectations ; " the mountains of the moon are in Africa.

10. — The lord shall endure forever; Eemember thy creator; divine love and wisdom ; " The ways of providence."

11. — " I know that my redeemer liveth ; " " I am the way, the truth, the life ; " " The word was made flesh."

12. — Those are chinamen; the turcomans are a wandering race; the gypsies of Spain; the indians are fast disappearing.

13. — The swiss family Robinson; a russian serf; "The rank is but the Guinea's stamp ; " a Cashmere shawl ; a Damask rose.

14. — The emancipation proclamation; the art of cookery, (a title) ; the Missouri compromise ; the whisky insurrection ; " A treatise on the science of education and the art of teaching."

16. — i don't like to study grammar, i write correct enough, uow. o, how i wish school was out! H. G. 2.

18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

13. Italics, Small Capitals, etc.

I. Emphatic words, phrases, and clauses are frequently printed in italics.

Ex. — "Do not you grieve at this?" "The truth is, his lordship

for the press, and wipes his eyes with the public ." — Curran.

II. Words borrowed from foreign languages should be printed in italics.

Ex. — "Each word stood quite per se" — Lamb. "This odd quid pro quo surprised me into vehement laughter." — Walpole.

III. The names of authors, annexed to selections from their writings, are usually printed in italics.

Ex. — "His coward lips did from their color fly." — Shakspeare,

IV. Parenthetical words and phrases are frequently printed in italics.

Ex. — Old gentleman (looking quite unconcerned), "Run away, has she?"

V. Names of ships, books, newspapers, and periodicals are frequently printed in italics or small capitals.

Ex. — "The Quaker City has arrived." "The Journal is com- mitted to no such policy as that."

"VI. Names of important personages are frequently printed in small capitals.

VII. Words requiring special emphasis are frequently printed in small capitals or capitals.

Ex. — " I brand him as a rogue, a thief, a COWARD." — Placard.

Rem. 1 — Italicized words in the Bible are those supplied by translators to explain the original.

Rem. a. — In manuscripts, one line drawn under a word indi- cates italics; two lines, small capitals; three lines, CAPITALS.

Rem. 3 — In this work, fun-faced types are also used for dis- tinction.

ORTHOGEAPHY. 1 9

14. Syllables.

1. A Syllable may be composed,

1. Of a vowel, digraph, or trigraph ; as, o-men, ow-ranography, mw-de-cologne.

2. Of a vowel or diphthong, with one or more consonants pre- fixed or affixed ; as, l-o, h-oy, a-m, a-nd.

3. Of a vowel or diphthong, With one or more consonants pre- fixed and affixed ; as, b-&-d, fr-a-nk.

2. A vowel sound is an essential part of a syllable.

3. Synthesis is the process of combining elementary sounds.

4. Analysis is the process of separating a syllable or word into its elementary sounds.

15. Models for Analyzing* Syllables.

Model I.

*Lo. — Give both sounds in quick succession, Ii-o, and pronounce the word.

Model II.

to ... is a syllable, containing two elementary sounds. I- .... is a consonant-subvocal-lingual. (Give its sound.)

0 .... is a vowel, long sound. ( Give its sound.)

Model III.

Clank. — Give the five sounds in quick succession, c-1-a-n-k, and

pronounce the word.

Model IV.

Clank is a syllable, containing five elementary sounds.

C .... is a consonant-aspirate-palatal, substitute for k. (Give its sound.)

1 .... is a consonant-subvocal-lingual. (Give its sound.) a .... is a vowel, short sound. (Give its sound.)

n .... is a consonant-subvocal-palatal -nasal, substitute for n<j. (Give

its sound.) fc .... is a consonant-aspirate-palatal. ( Give its sound.)

20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Model V.

Boy. — Give the three sounds in quick succession, b-a-i, and pro- nounce the word.

Model VI.

Boy . . is a syllable, containing three elementary sounds. B ... .is a consonant-subvocal-labial. ( Give its sound.) oy ... is a diphthong, representing a broad, and i short. (Give the sound of each in quick succession.)

Model Til.

View. — Give the two sounds in quick succession, v-u, and pronounce the word.

Model VIII.

View . is a syllable, containing two elementary sounds. V .... is a consonant-subvocal-labial. (Give its sound.) iew . . is a trigraph, equivalent to u long. (Give its sound.)

Xote. — Either set of models may be used in analyzing syllables. The models for complete analysis need not be used after the classifi- cation of elementary sounds shall have been thoroughly learned.

Analyze the following words, omitting all silent letters:

And, fly, warm, elm, fin, sing, wax, when, sue, light, pot, home,

zinc, valve, kid, ask, sun, goat, jolt.

Form syllables by prefixing a consonant to a, ay, ean, oy ;

By prefixing two or more consonants to e, oo, aw, i :

By affixing one, two, or more consonants to any of the vowels or

diphthongs.

16. Words.

1. A Word may consist of one, two, or more syllables.

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable; as, care, man.

A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable; as, care-fid, man-ly.

A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable; as, care-ful- ness, man-li-ness.

A word of four or more syllables is called a polysyllable; as, com-mu-ni-ty, ec-cen-tric-i-ty.

ORTHOGRAPHY. 21

2. Accent is a stress of voice placed upon a particular syllable. It may be either primary or secondary,

the primary being the more forcible.

3. Every word of more than one syllable has one of its syllables accented.

4. In words having both a primary and a secondary accent, the secondary occurs nearest the beginning; as, in"~ compatibiV ity, in" comprehen! sible.

17. Models for Analyzing Words.

Tree is a word of one syllable: therefore a monosyllable. '

Mature is a word of two syllables : therefore a dissyllable. It

is accented on the first syllable. Commotion, is a word of three syllables: therefore a trisyllable.

It is accented on the second syllable. Indefatigable is a word of six syllables: therefore a 2>olysyllabler

Jts secondary accent is on the first syllable, and its

primary accent on the third.

Xote. — A word having been analyzed according to one of these models, analyze each syllable according to the preceding models. In separating a word into syllables, divide it as it is pronounced. In writing, never divide a syllable at the end of a line. Each line should end with a word or an entire syllable.

Analyze the following words :

Sand, lead, sack ; unction, famous, greatly ; endeavor, infamous, candidly; unpopular, information, gratuitous; domestication, in- terrogation, incredulity; incomprehensible, indefensibleness ; in- compatibility, incompassionately.

Write each of these words on your slates, and divide them into sylla- bles, marking the accented syllables.

Correct the accent in the following words :

Advertisement, primary, contrary, legislature, lamentable, secondary, infa/mous, armistice, admirable, interesting.

22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Change the accent of the following words to the second syllable, and give the meaning of each ivord before and after the change : In'sult, fer'nient, reb'el, rec'ord, pre'lude, conjure, entrance,

escort, increase, invalid, object, in'cense, es'say.

18. Classes.

1. Words are either Primitive or Derivative.

2. A Primitive or Radical word is one in no way

derived from another in the same language ; as, mind, faith.

3. A Derivative word is one formed by joining to a primitive some letter or syllable to modify its meaning ; as, re-mind, faith-ful.

4. A Compound word is one formed by uniting two or more primitive or derivative words; as, man-worship, Anglo-Saxon.

5. A Prefix is that part of a derivative word which is placed before the radical; as, re-call, sub-phi.

6. A Suffix is that part of a derivative word which is placed after the radical; as, faithful, change-«6fe.

7. Prefixes and suffixes are called Affixes.

"Sole. — The meaning and use of affixes should be learned from some work prepared for that purpose. — See De Wolf's Instructive Speller and Hand-Book of Derivative Words.

PART II

ETYMOLOGY.

19. Definitions.

1. Etymology treats of the classification, derivatio and properties of words.

2. With reference to meaning and use, words are divided into nine classes, called Parts of Speech; viz., Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Participle, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection.

3. A Noun is a name; as, house, Charlotte, magnetism.

4. An Adjective is a word used to describe or define the meaning, of a noun; as, fine houses; studious pupils; animal magnetism.

5. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as, his house; my book; your children; "Whom did you see?"

6. A Verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state; as, I am; George writes; the house stands.

7. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, par- taking of the properties of a verb and of an adjective or a noun; as, "A light, shining from afar;" "A letter, written in haste."

8. An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning

of a verb, adjective, participle, or an adverb ; as, " He runs

swiftly;" "You are very kind;" "The letter was written

hastily"

(23)

24 , ENGLISH GRAMMAE.

9. A Preposition is a word used to show the relation between its object and some other word; as, "The house stands on the hill."

10. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences; as, "John and Elisha are brothers." "Winds blow and rains descend."

11. An Interjection is a word used to denote some sudden or strong emotion; as, 0, ah, alas, pshaw.

THE NOUN. 20. Oral Lesson.

Write on your slates the names of five objects in the school- room. These words, as you perceive, are not the objects them- selves, but their names. They are called Nouns, which means names. Now write the names of five objects not in the school- room. What are these words called? Ans. — Nouns. Why? Ans. — Because they are names. Write the names of five of your school-mates. What are these words called? Ans. — Nouns. Why? Ans. — Because they are names.

Are there not other names by which your school-mates are called? Ans.— Yes; they may be called girls and bays. Can the name "girl" be applied to all the girls in the room? Ans. — Yes. Can the name "Sarah" be applied to all the girls in the room? Ans. — It can not. Why? Ans. — All the girls are not named "Sarah." There are Mary, and Charlotte, and Jane, and Susan, and many other names for girls.

We have, then, two kinds of Nouns, or names. One kind can be applied to each one of a class, and the other kind can be applied to a particular one only. The first kind are called Com- mon Nouns, and the second Proper Nouns. What kind are the names horse, book, boy, girl, map, blackboard? Ans. — Common Nouns. Why? Ans. — Because they can be applied to each one of a class. What kind are the names John, Charles, Washington, Boston, Europe? Ans. — Proper Nouns. Why? Ans. — Because they can be applied to particular persons, or particular places, only.

ETYMOLOGY NOUNS. 25

21. Definition.

A IVonn is a name ; as, desk, Richard, goodness, army.

22. Classes.

1. There are two classes of Nouns : Common and Proper.

2. A Common loun is a name which may be applied to any one of a kind or class of objects ; as, boy, child, book, radiation.

3. A Proper IVoun is the name of some particular person, place, people, or thing; as, Charles, Cincinnati, The French, The Sun.

Rem. i.— Common nouns have meaning, and admit of definition. Most proper nouns originally had meaning, but it is not taken into consideration in applying them; and, therefore, they do not admit of definition. There are about 30,000 common nouns, and 70,000 proper nouns, in the English language.

Rem. 2. — Whenever a proper noun assumes a meaning, so that it can be applied to each individual of a class, it becomes a com- mon noun; as, "He is the Cicero of our age;" "Bolivar was the Washington of South America ; " " He piled Ossa upon Pelion to accomplish his purpose."

Rem. 3. — Whenever a common noun is used to distinguish one individual from another of the same class, it becomes a proper noun; as, The Havana; The Falls; The Laurel Ridge.

Rem. 4 — When two or more words form but one name, they are taken together as one noun; as New York; Niagara Falls; John Milton; Lord Bacon; Chief Justice Chase.

4. Common Houns may be divided into four classes: Class Nouns, Abstract Nouns, Collective Nouns, and Verbal Nouns.

5. Class Hours are names which can be applied to each individual of a class or group of objects; as, horse, apple, man.

H. G. 3.

26 ENGLISH GKAMMAR.

6. An Abstract Xoun is the name of a quality con- sidered apart from the object in which it is found; as,

brightness, brittleness, cohesion.

7. A Collective Noun is a name singular in form, though denoting more than one; as, herd, jury, swarm, school, assembly.

8. A Verbal Noun is the name of an action, or a state of being ; as, singing, standing, seeming.

Rem. i. — Words, phrases, and clauses, used as nouns, or in the relations in which nouns occur, are called substantives, and when thus used have all the properties of nouns.

Rem. 2. —Such words as mass, heap, furniture, names of collec- tions of objects without life, are class nouns, not collective nouns. They are sometimes called mass nouns.

23. Properties.

The Properties of the Noun are Gender, Person, Number, and Case.

2L Gender.

1. Gender is a distinction of nouns and pronouns with regard to sex.

2. There are four genders: Masculine, Feminine, Com- mon, and Neuter.

3. The Masculine Gender denotes males; as, father, uncle, king, governor.

4. The Feminine Gender denotes females; as, mother, aunt, queen, governess.

5. The Common Gender denotes either males or fe- males, or both ; as, parent, children, bird, cattle.

ETYMOLOGY NOUNS. 27

6. The Neuter Gender denotes neither males nor fe- males ; as, stove, city, pen, ink, tree, house.

Rem. l. — By a figure of speech called Personification, gender is sometimes ascribed to inanimate objects. They should then be regarded as either masculine or feminine.

Ex. — "The ship has lost her rudder." "The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews." "The sun in his glory; the moon in her wane."

Rem. 2. — When masculine or feminine qualities are ascribed to animals, they are regarded as either masculine or feminine.

Ex. — " The nightingale sings her song." " The lion meets his foe boldly." "The fox made his escape."

Rem. 3. — Nouns used to denote both genders, though strictly applicable to males only, or females only, are usually regarded as masculine.

Ex. — "Heirs are often disappointed." "The English are a proud people." " The poets of America."

Rem. 4. — The distinction of gender is not observed in speaking of inferior animals, and sometimes even of children. Ex. — "The bee on its wing." "The child in its cradle."

7. There are three ways of distinguishing the masculine and feminine genders:

1. By using different words :

Ex. — Bachelor, maid, spinster ; bridegroom, bride ; brother, sister ; boy, girl ; cock, hen ; drake, duck ; earl, countess ; father, mother ; gentleman, lady ; hart, roe ; male, female ; man, woman ; Mr., Mrs. ; Sir, Madam; nephew, niece; son, daughter; uncle, aunt; Charles, Caroline; Augustus, Augusta.

2. By different terminations :

Ex. — Abbot, abbess ; baron, baroness ; host, hostess ; actor, actress ; prior, prioress; benefactor, benefactress; executor, executrix; mur- derer, murderess ; sorcerer, sorceress.

3. By prefixes and suffixes:

Ex. — Man-servant, maid-servant ; he-bear, she-bear ; male-descend- ant, female-descendant ; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow ; Mr. Smith, Mrs. Smith, Miss Smith ; pea-cock, pea-hen.

28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

25. Person.

1. Person is that property of a noun or pronoun which distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken to, and the person or object spoken of.

2. There are three persons : First, Second, and Third.

3. The First Person denotes the speaker; as, "I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States." " Many evils beset us mortals."

4. The Second Person denotes the person addressed; as, "James, be more careful." "Fellow Citizens, the crisis demands the utmost vigilance."

5. The Third Person denotes the person or object spoken of; as, "Milton was a poet;" "Rome was a city of flame" "1 am reading Tennysonls Poems"

Rem. l. — The writer or speaker often speaks of himself, or the person he addresses, in the third person; as, "Mr. Johnson. has the pleasure of informing Mr. Mason that he has been elected Honor- ary Member of the Oriental Society."

Rem. 2. — A noun in the predicate is of the third person, though the subject may be of the first or second.

Ex.-" You are the man wanted." " We are strangers." "I am he whom you saw."

26. Number.

1. Number is that property of a noun which distin- guishes one from more than one.

2. There are two numbers : Singular and Plural.

3. The Singular Number denotes but one ; as, apple, flower, boy, girl.

4. The Plural lumber denotes more than one; as, apples, flowers, boys, girls.

ETYMOLOGY NOUNS. 29

27. Formation of the Plural.

1. Nouns whose last sound will unite with s, form their plurals by adding s only to the singular; as, book, booh; boy, boys ; desk, desks.

2. Nouns whose last sound will not unite with s, form their plurals by adding es to the singular; as, church, churches; box, boxes; witness, witnesses.

3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into ies; as, glory, glories ; mercy, mercies.

4. Most nouns ending in / or fe, change these endings into ves; as, beef, beeves ; wife, wives.

5. Most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add es ; as, cargo, cargoes. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel, add s ; as, folio, folios.

6. Some nouns form their plurals irregularly; as, man, men; ox, oxen; tooth, teeth ; mouse, mice.

7. Letters, figures, marks and signs add 's; as, "Mind your p's and g-'sy" the 9's and ll's; the *'s; the +'s; "Those ^'s and 9's."

8. In compound words, the part which is described by the rest is generally pluralized; as, brothers-in-law, courts-martial, wagon- loads, ox-carts.

9. Compound words from foreign languages form their plurals according to (1) and (2) ; as, tete-d-tetes, piano-fortes, ipse-dixits, scire-f aclases.

10. Some compound words have both parts made plural ; as, man-servant, men-servants; knight-templar, knights-templars ; ignis- fatuus, ignes-fatui.

11. Compound terms composed of a proper noun and a title, may be pluralized by adding a plural termination to either the name or the title, but not to both ; as, the Miss Browns, the Misses Brown ; the Messrs. Thompson ; " May there be Sir Isaac Newtons in every science."

12. When the title is preceded by a numeral, the name is always pluralized; as, the three Miss Johnsons; the two Dr. Bensons ; the two Mrs. Kendricks.

30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

13. Some nouns have two plurals, but with a difference in mean- ing; as, brother, brothers (of the same family), brethren (of the same society) ; die, dies (stamps for coining), dice (for gaming) ; fish, fishes (individuals), fish (quantity, or the species); genius, geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits) ; index, indexes (tables of contents), indices (algebraic signs) ; j>enny, pennies (pieces of money), pence (how much in value) ; pea, peas (individuals), pease (in distinction from other vegetables).

14. Proper nouns, and words generally used as other parts of speech, are changed as little as possible, and usually add s only in forming their plurals; as', Mary, Marys; Sarah, Sarahs; Nero, Neros ; "The novel is full of ohs, bys, whys, alsos, and nos." There is good authority, however, for using Maries, Neroes, ivhies, noes.

15. Many nouns from foreign languages retain their original plurals, changing us to i ; um and on to a ; is to es or ides ; a to ce or ata ; and x to ces or ices ; as, calculus, calculi; arcanum, arcana; criterion, criteria; thesis, theses; ephemeris, ephemerides ; nebula, nebulaz; calix, calices ; index, indices.

28. General Remarks on Number.

1. Abstract nouns, and names of material substances, have no plural forms, as, silver, vinegar, hemp, tar, frankness, darkness. When different kinds of the same substance are referred to, a plu- ral i'orm may be used; as, sugars, vinegars, wines, oils.

2. Some nouns have no singular forms ; as, ashes, assets, belloivs, billiards, compasses, clothes, drawers, lees, scissors, shears, tongs. JVews and molassee have the plural form, but are regarded as singular. Lungs, bowels, and a few others, have a singular form denoting a part of the whole; as, "The left lung."

3. Some nouns have no singular forms, but are singular or plural in meaning; as, alms, amends, corps, mumps, measles, nuptials, odds, riches, series, suds, tidings, wages, and some others.

4. The names of some of the sciences are either singular or plural in meaning, according as they denote the science, or the objects of which the science treats; as, ethics, mechanics, mathe- matics, optics, pedagogics, physics, &c.

5. Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, deer^ ver- min, couple, salmon, trout, dozen, gross, hose, yoke.

ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 31

29. Case.

Case is the relation of a noun or pronoun to other words. Nouns have four cases: Nominative, Possessive, Objective, and Absolute.

30. Nominative Case.

The Nominative Case is the use of a noun or pro- noun as the subject or the predicate of a proposition.

Ex " The sun is shining." " That man is a sailor." In the

first sentence, "sun" is in the nominative case, because it is used as the subject of the proposition ; in the second, " sailor " is in the nominative case, because it is used as the predicate of the prop- osition.

31. Possessive Case.

1. The Possessive Case is the use of a noun or pro- noun to denote ownership, authorship, origin, or kind.

Ex. — Susan's book; Gray's Botany; the sun's rays; boys' hats; men's clothing.

2. The Possessive Case Singular is formed by annexing 's to the nominative; as, John's, Clarence's.

3. The Possessive Case Plural is formed by annexing the apostrophe only, when the nominative plural ends with s; as, boys'; "The Ohio State Teachers' Association."

Rem. l. — Plural nouns not ending with s, form their possessive case by annexing 's ; as, men's hats ; children's shoes.

Rem. 2. — In compound names, the possessive sign is annexed to the last word ; as, "Daniel Webster's speeches : " in complex names it is annexed to the last word ; as, " The Bishop of Dublin's pal- ace : " in a series of terms, and common possession, it is annexed to the last term ; as, "Day & Martin's Blacking ; " in a series of terms, and separate possession, it is annexed to each term; as, " Webster's and Worcester's Dictionaries."

32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Rem. 3. — When a nonn in the possessive case is limited by a noun in apposition with it, or by a descriptive phrase, the possess- ive sign is annexed to the noun immediately preceding the object possessed, though not always to the name of the possessor; as, "Her Majesty, Queen Victoria's government;" "The captain of the Fulton's wife died yesterday." Here "captain" is in the possessive case, and "Fulton" in the objective, governed by the preposition "of."

Rem. 4- — In compound words, the sign of possession is placed at the end; as, "The knight-templar' s costume;" "My brother-in- law's residence."

Rem. 5. — " For conscience' sake," " For goodness' sake," &c, are idiomatic exceptions to the general rule for forming the possessive case singular.

Rem. 6. — The sign ('s), is a contraction of is or es ; as, John's, King's; anciently written Johnis, Kingis, or Johnes, Kinges

32. Objective Case.

The Objective Case is the use of a noun or pronoun as the object of a transitive verb in the active voice, or of a preposition.

Ex. — "John studies grammar." "The book is on the table:" In the first sentence, "grammar" is the object of the transitive verb "studies;" in the second, "table" is the object of the prep- osition "on."

Rem. l. — Nouns of measure, quantity, time, distance, value, or direction, are in the objective case without a governing word ; as, "The lake is ten miles long;" "The child is six months old;" " He is worth a hundred thousand dollars ; " " That is a ten horse- power engine ; " " The men traveled north."

Rem. 2. — A noun or pronoun used to complete the meaning of a transitive verb is called a direct object: when added to a verb to denote that to or for which any thing is or is done, or that from which any thing proceeds, it is called an indirect object.

When an indirect object precedes the direct, the preposition should be omitted ; when it follows, it should be expressed ; as, " I gave him an apple;" "I gave an apple to him."

ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS.

33

33. Absolute Case.

The Absolute Case is the use of a noun independent of any governing word.

Ex. — "Joh?i, bring Hie a book ; " " Your fathers, where are they ? " "Honor being lost, all is lost."

Rem. — A noun may be in the absolute ease,

1. By direct address; as, "Charles, come to me." This use is sometimes called the Vocative Case.

2. By mere exclamation ; as, " Ob, Popular Applause ! "

3. By pleonasm, or by placing the noun before the sentence in which an affirmation is made concerning it; as, "Gad, a troop shall overcome him."

4. With a participle ; as, "The sun being risen, we pursued our journey."

34. Nouns in Apposition.

A noun limiting the meaning of another noun, denoting the same person, pluce, or thing, is, by apposition, in the same case.

Ex. — "Washington the general became Washington the states- man.1' "We visited New York, the metropolis of the United States." " In her brother Abraham's house."

35. Declension.

The I>eclensi©n of a noun is its variation to denote number and case.

	Examples.
Singular.	Plural.	Singular,	Plural.
Nom. Boy,	Boys,	Nom. Fly,	Flies,
Poss. Boy's,	Boys',	Poss. Fly's,	Flies',
Obj. Boy.	Boys.	Obj. Fly.	Flies.
Nom. Charles,		Nom. Goodness,
Poss. Charles's,		Poss. Goodness',
Obj. Charles.		Obj. Goodness.

34

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

36. Parsing.

Parsing consists (1) in naming the part of speech ; (2) In telling its properties; (3) In pointing out its rela- tion to other words; (4) In giving the rule for its con- struction.

37. Order of Parsing.

1. A Noun, and why?

2. Common or Proper, and why ?

3. If Common, whether a Class Noun, &c, and why?

4. Gender, and why?

5. Person, and why?

6. Number, and why?

7. Case, and why?

8. Eule for construction.

38. Models for Parsing.

I. " Mary sings." Mary ... is a noun; it is a name : proper; it is the name of a par- ticular person : feminine gender; it denotes a female : third person ; it denotes the person spoken of: singular number; it denotes but one: nominative case; it is used as the sub- ject of the proposition " Mary sings." Rule I. " The sub- ject of a proposition is in the nominative case."

II. " Horses are animals." Animals . is a noun; (why?) : common; it can be applied to any one of a class or kind : common gender; it denotes either males or females : third person ; (why ?) : plural number; it de- notes more than one: nominative case; it is used as the predicate of the proposition " Horses are animals." Eule II. "A noun or pronoun, used as the predicate of a prop- osition, is in the nominative case."

III. " The poet Milton was blind." Milton . . is a noun; (why): proper; (why?): masculine gender; it denotes a male : third person ; (why ?) : singular number;

ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 35

(why?) : nominative case, in apposition with "poet." Rule

IV. "A noun or pronoun, used to limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun, by denoting the same person, place, or thing, is in the same case."

IV. "Henry's lesson is learned." Henry's . is a noun; (why?): proper; (why?): masculine gender; (why?): third person; (why?): singular number; (why?) : possessive case; it denotes possession, and modifies "lesson." Rule III. "A noun or pronoun, used to limit the meaning of a noun denoting a different thing, is in the possessive case."

V. "John studies grammar" Grammar is a noun ; (why ?) : common ; (why ?) : neuter gender; (why?): third person ; (why?): singular number; (why?): objective case; it is used as the object of the transitive verb "studies." Rule VI. "The object of a transitive verb in the active voice, or its participles, is in the objective case.'*

VI. " The book lies on the table." Cable ... is a noun ; (why ?) : common ; (why ?) : neuter gender; (why?): third person ; (why?): singular number; (why?): objective case; it is used as the object of the preposition " on." Rule VII. " The object of a preposition is in the objective case."

VII. "William, open the door." William . is a noun ; (why ?) : proper ; (why ?) : masculine gender ; (why?) : second person; (why?) : singular number; (why?) : absolute case; it is the name of a person addressed. Rule

V. "A noun or pronoun used independently, is in the absolute case."

39. Exercises.

l. Nominative Case. 1. The wind blows. 2. The sun shines. 3. Horses run. 4. Rain descends. 5. The vessel sails. 6. Schol- ars study. 7. Grass grows. 8. Fire burns. 9. Liberty is sweet. 10. St. Helena is an island. 11. Lead is a metal. 12. Water is a liquid. 13. Cicero was an orator. 14. Webster was a statesman. 15. Grammar is a science. 16. Birds are animals.

36 ENGLISH GBAMMAB.

2. Possessive Case. 1. The storm's fury is past. 2. Henry's health is good. 3. The king's palace is on fire. 4. Mary's task is done. 5. Byron's poems are published. 6. Jane borrowed Sarah's book. 7. Mr. Johnson sells boys' hats. 8. The defeat of Xerxes' army was the downfall of Persia.

s. Objective Case. 1. John struck James. 2. Joseph bought the book. 3. The widow lost her son. 4. Peter studies algebra. 5. The horse kicked the boy. 6. The man wrote a letter. 7. A dog bit a man. 8. Samuel lives over the river 9. Martha went with Susan. 10. The house stands on the hill. 11. James is going to Cincinnati. 12. The boy ran by the mill.

4. Absolute Case. 1. The rebellion being ended, the army .disbanded. 2. Henry being away, the work was not done. 3. "Friends, Eomans, Countrymen! lend me your ears!" 4. "To arms! they come! the Greek! the Greek!" 5. "My daughter! oh, my daughter!" 6. "Your fathers, where are they?" 7. "My son, have you seen him ? "

Parse all the nouns in the folloioing sentences :

1. Boys like to play. 2. The Atlantic Ocean is three thousand miles wide. 3. Johnson the doctor is a brother of Johnson the lawyer. 4. Shakspeare lived in Queen Elizabeth's reign. 5. "Ah, Warwick! Warwick! wert thou as we are!"

6. Temperance is a virtue. 7. King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets? 8. The inferior animals are divided into five classes: quadrupeds, fowls, fishes, reptiles, and insects. 9. The little army fought bravely on that day. 10. Where are the Platos and Aris- totles of modern times? 11. I have seen Mr. Squires, the book- seller and stationer.

Connect all errors in the following sentences:

1. I have two brother-in-laws. 2. There were three knight- templars in the procession. 3. Nebulas are sometimes called star- dust. 4. I saw the two Mrs. Jackson. 5. The Friends' are hold- ing a meeting : some people call them Quaker's 6. He called at Steele's the banker's. 7. The Jones' were all there.

8. The boys slate was broken. 9. The mens' wages should be paid promptly. 10 The colonel's of the 7th regiment's horse ran away. 11. She is reading in her sister's Susan's book. 12. He studied O. B. Pierce' Grammar. 13. The fellows impudence was intolerable. 14. He has octavoes, quartoes, and folioes, among his books.

ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES. 37

THE ADJECTIVE. 40. Oral Lesson.

Here are some apples, nice for eating : what shall we call them ? Ans. — Ripe apples. I have just eaten one, and it tasted sweet: what else can we call them ? Ans. — Sweet apples. They are quite soft: what else can we call them? Ans. — Mellow apples. Write on your slates, "Ripe, siveet, mellow apples." All these words de- note some quality of the apples : what shall we call them ? Ans. — Quality-words. A very good name.

Let us count the apples : one apple, two apples, three apples, four apples. Let us also number them : the first apple, the second apple, the third apple, the fourth apple. Write these numbers on your slates, as I write them on the blackboard — one, two, three, four: first, second, third, fourth. What shall we call these words ? Ans. — Number-words.

When I sj)eak of the apple nearest me, I say, "This apple;" when of one farther from me, "That apple." Do the words this and that denote any quality of the apples? Ans. — They do not. What do they do, then? Ans. — They point them out. Very well: what shall we call them? Ans. — Pointing-out-words.

You see that all the words we have used, in some manner de- scribe " apples." Some denote quality : some, number : some merely point out. What is the word "apple?" Ans. — A noun. Then they all describe a noun. We will call those words which describe or limit the meaning of nouns, Adjectives. What are all of these words? Ans. — Adjectives.

The " quality- words " we will call Descriptive Adjectives, because they describe by denoting some quality. The "number-words" and " pointing-out- words " do not denote quality. We will call them Definitive Adjectives. .

Write "This is a good book." What is "good?" Ans. — An adjective. Why? Ans. — It describes the word "book." What kind? Ans. — Descriptive. Why? Ans. — It denotes a quality be- longing to the book. Write " These two books are mine." What are " these " and " two ? " Ans. — Adjectives. Why? Ans. — They describe "books." What kind? Ans. — Definitive. Why? Ans — They define without denoting any quality.

Write "Every man can do some good." What are "every" and "some?" Ans. — Adjectives. Why? Ans. — They limit nouns. What kind? Ans. — Definitive. Why? Ans. — They define with- out denoting any quality.

38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

41. Definition.

An Adjective is a word used to describe or define the meaning of a noun; as, wise men, that book, three steam- ships, the fourth stanza.

Rem. — The English language has about 7,000 adjectives.

42. Classes.

Adjectives may be divided into two general classes: Descriptive and Definitive.

43. Descriptive Adjectives.

1. A Descriptive Adjective describes the meaning of a noun by denoting some quality belonging to it.

Ex. — A round table, a square table, a sour apple, a sweet apple, a good boy, a bad boy, an Italian sunset, twinkling stars, thick- warbled songs.

2. There are three kinds of Descriptive Adjectives: Com- mon, Proper, and Participial.

3. A Common Adjective is any ordinary epithet; as, good, hard, broad, flexible.

4. A Proper Adjective is an adjective derived from a proper noun; as, French, American, Websterian.

5. A Participial Adjective is a participle placed be- fore the noun which it describes; as, a shining light, echo- ing shouts, a loritten agreement.

Rem. l. — Words commonly used as other parts of speech, some- times perform the office of descriptive adjectives, and should be parsed as such.

Ex. — A gold ring, a silver cord, the California pine, a make-believe patriot, double-distilled nonsense. " The West is as truly American, as genuinely Jonathan, as any other part of our country."

ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 39

Rem. 2. — An adjective is frequently limited by a word joined to it by a hyphen. The compound term thus formed is called a compound adjective, and should be parsed as a single word.

Ex. — A high-sounding title, an ill-matched pair.

Rem. 3. — Participial adjectives are derived directly from verbs. Participles usually follow the nouns they describe.

Rem. 4 When a descriptive adjective represents a noun un- derstood, or not expressed, the article must be prefixed; as, "The ivise are provident;" "The good are happy." Adjectives thus used should be parsed as " adjectives used as nouns."

Tell which of the adjectives in the following sentences are Common,

Proper, and Participial :

1. The unfortunate man was a hard-working mechanic. 2. The fields looked beautiful. 3. English books are costly. 4. The howl- ing storm is passed. 5. The soil is very productive. 6. The water falls into a marble basin. 7. I prefer a New England winter to an Australian summer.

44. Definitive Adjectives.

1. A Definitive Adjective limits or defines the mean- ing or application of a noun without expressing any of its qualities.

Kx. — The Ohio, that man, three dollars, the third seal, a two-fold reference. "All men are mortal." "Each soldier received his pay."

2. Definitive Adjectives are divided into three classes: Articles, Pronominal Adjectives, and Numeral Adjectives.

45. Articles.

1. The is called the Definite Article, because it definitely points out the object which it defines or restricts; as, "The book is on the table;" "The horse ran over the bridge."

2. A or An is called the Indefinite Article, because it defines or restricts in an indefinite or general manner; as, "A book is on a table;" "A horse ran over a bridge."

40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

3. An should be used before words beginning with a vowel sound; A before words beginning with a consonant sound. They are spoken of as one article, because they are merely an earlier and a later form of the same word.

Hem. l. — The definite article is used,

1. To point out a particular object or class of objects, or a par- ticular individual or portion of a class; as, "The sun and the moon ;" " The Turks and the Greeks are at war ;" " The rich and the poor here meet together."

2. To distinguish an object from another having the same name ; as, Mississippi, the name of a State ; the Mississippi, the name of a river : Robert Fulton, the name of a person ; the Robert Fulton, the name of a steam-boat.

3. To point out an object as familiarly known or spoken of, or as preeminently distinguished ; as, " The Tlibernia sailed yesterday ;" "The Capitol is a noble building;" "The immortal Washington"

Rem. 2. — The indefinite article is used to show that no particular one of a class is meant — the leading idea being any or one; as, a man, i. e., any man, or one man ; "A picture hangs on the wall," i. e., one picture. " Bring me a book," i. e., any book.

Rem. 3. — The indefinite article may be used,

1. To point out a single individual; as, a plum, i. e., one plum; a horse, i. c., one horse; an ox, i. e., one ox.

2. To point out a single sum or aggregate ; as, a dozen apples, a few dimes, a hundred dollars, a wealthy people.

Rem. 4. — An article sometimes limits, not a noun alone, but a noun as limited by other words; as, "The old men retired early; the young men remained until midnight." The article here limits the complex ideas " old men " and " young men." "An early spring is no sign of a fruitful season." The article here limits the complex ideas "early spring" and "fruitful season."

46. Pronominal Adjectives.

1. Pronominal Adjectives are definitives, most of" which may, without an article ^prefixed, represent a noun understood; as, all men, each soldier, yonder mountain.

2. They may be divided into three classes: Demonstra- tives, Distributives, and Indefinites.

ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 41

47. Demonstratives.

1. Demonstratives point out objects definitely. They are this, that, these, those, former, latter, both, same, yon, yonder.

2. This, (plural these,) distinctly points out an object as near in place or time ; as, " This desk and these books."

3. That, (plural those,) distinctly points out an object as not near, or not so near as some other object; as, "That desk and those books."

4. In speaking of two objects, that should refer to the former, and this to the latter; as, "These horses are larger than those."

5. Former and latter are used to designate which of two objects previously mentioned is referred to; as, "The cry of danger to the Union was raised to divert their assaults upon the Constitu- tion. It was the latter, and not the former, which was in danger."

6. Both implies not only the one but the other also ; as, "Both forts were taken;" "James and Silas were both tardy."

7. Same denotes an identical or similar object; as, "That is the same man we saw yesterday ;" " Both tables are made of the same wood."

8. Yon and yonder point out some object in sight ; as, " Yon house on the hill;" "Yonder mountain is a volcano."

48. Distributives.

1. Distributives represent objects as taken separately. There are four distributives: each, every, either, neither.

2. Each can be applied to one of two or any greater number ; as, "Each warrior drew his battle blade;" "Useless each without the other."

3. Every can be applied to one of more than two individuals only; as, "They received every man a penny;" "Every person in the room was astonished."

4. Either can be applied to one of two objects only; as, "Either of the two roads leads to town ;" "You may have either house."

5. Neither means not either ; as, "Which of the two shall I take? both? one? or neither?"

H. G. 4.

42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

49. Indefinites.

1. Indefinites refer to objects in a general way, without pointing out any one in particular. The principal indefinites are all, any, another, certain, divers, enough, few, little, many, much, no, none/ one, own, other, several, some, sundry, which, whichever, whichsoever, what, whatever, whatsoever.

2. ah describes objects taken together; as, "All the years of man's life;" "All men are mortal."

3. Any denotes a single one of many; as, "Have you any wheat to sell ? " " Neither go into the town, nor tell it to any in the town."

4. Another, or other, denotes something distinct from some- thing else of the same kind; as, "He took another road;" "He will let out his vineyard to other husbandmen."

5. Certain denotes one or some in an indefinite sense ; as, "And I, Daniel, was sick certain days;" "I shall not vote for a certain individual."

6. Divers means unlike, various, numerous; as, "A prey of divers colors of needle- work ;" "Divers miracles."

7. Enough denotes a sufficiency; as, "I have enough for my brother;" "Enough has been said already."

8. Few denotes not many, a small number; as, " Many shall be called, but few chosen ;" " I have a few old books."

9. Little means small in quantity, amount, or duration; as, "A little learning is a dangerous thing;" "A little sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of the hands to sleep."

10. Many denotes a large number; as, "Many men of many minds;" "The mutable, rank-scented many." — Shakspeare.

11. Much denotes a large quantity; as, "There is much wealth in this town;" "Thou shalt carry much seed out into the field, and shalt gather but little in."

12. No means not any, none. As a noun it means one who votes in the negative ; as, " The noes have it."

13. None means not one, or not any ; as,' "Ye shall flee when none pursueth you;" "Thou shalt have none assurance of thy life."

ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES- 43

14. One corresponds to another; as, "They love one another" i. e., each person loves the other.

15. Own implies possession with emphasis or distinction, as, " My oivn home ;" " Our own dear mother."

16. Several denotes any small number more than two ; as, "Sev- eral victories." Also, single, individual; as, "I'll kiss each several paper for amends."

17. Some denotes a certain but indeterminate number or quan- tity; as, "Some money;" "I have brought some books."

18. Sundry means various, divers; as, "So teach sundry gram- marians."

19. What and which, and their compounds, point out objects definitely or indefinitely ; as, " What lesson shall we learn to- morrow?" "He told me which of the two did it."

50. Numeral Adjectives.

1. Numeral Adjectives are those which express num- ber and order definitely; as, four, fourth, fourfold.

2. They are divided into three classes: Cardinal, Or- dinal, and Midtiplicative.

3. Cardinal Numerals denote simply the number of objects ; as, two, thirteen, fifty, a thousand.

4. Ordinal Numerals mark the position of an object in a series; as, second, thirteenth, fiftieth, the thousandth.

5. Multiplicative Numerals denote how many fold; as, twofold, fourfold.

GENERAL REMARKS.

1. When a noun, limited by either a descriptive or a definitive adjective, is some indefinite word, or has been previously used in the same sentence, it may be omitted ; as, " The cedars highest on the mountain are' the smallest;" "The foremost horse is a better animal than the hindmost." " Give me this book, and you may have that."

44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

2. Such, many, only, but, much, and nvt, when used alone limit plural nouns only. When followed by the indefinite article a or an, the phrases such a, many a, &c., limit singular nouns; as, "If you repay me not on such a day;" "Many a time;" "He is but a man ;" "Not a drum was heard." These phrases should be parsed as single words.

3. When definitive adjectives are used in connection with de- scriptive, the former should be placed first; as, "That valuable property;" "Ten small houses."

4. When cardinal and ordinal numerals are used together, the latter should be placed first; as, "The last two days;" "The first three chapters."

5. A cardinal numeral used as a noun, requires no article : an ordinal should have the article prefixed; as, "Were not ten cleansed?" "The tenth was rescued."

6. Each other and one another are sometimes called reciprocals, because they are reciprocally related ; as, " They mutually assist each other;" "They help one another."

7. Adjectives which vary in form to denote number, should agree in that property with the nouns they limit. Say, " this sort," not "these sort."

8. Other parts of speech should not be improperly used as adjectives. Say "these books," not "them books;" "His voice sounds harsh," not "harshly."

51. Comparison.

1. Comparison is a variation of the adjective to ex- press different degrees of quality; as, wise, wiser > wisest; good, better, best.

2. There are three I>egrees of Comparison : the

Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.

3. The Positive degree ascribes to an object the simple quality, or an equal degree of the quality; as, "A mild winter;" "She is as good as she is beaidiful"

4. The Comparative degree ascribes to one of two objects a higher or lower degree of the quality than that

ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 45

expressed by the positive ; as, "A milder winter than usual f "Mary is less studious than Emma."

5. The Superlative degree ascribes the highest or low- est degree of the quality to one of more than two objects; as, "The mildest winter ever known;" "The least skillful rider could do no worse."

Rem. 1. — The suffix ish, and the words rather, somewhat, &c, denote the possession of a little of the quality ; as, bluish, rather young, somewhat uncomfortable.

Rem. 2. — The words altogether, far, by far, vastly, much, very, exceedingly, a most, a little, too, very, slightly, greatly, &c, denote a high degree of the quality without implying comparison; as, very useful, exceedingly welcome, a most valuable invention.

Rem. 3. — Adjectives denoting qualities which can not exist in different degrees, can not, with propriety, be compared — though some writers, not taking them in their full sense, often use them in the comparative and superlative degrees.

Ex. — Blind, deaf, perfect, right, level, square, straight, perpendic- ular, equal, naked, honest, sincere, hollow, empty, dead. " My sin- cerest regards." " Our sight is the most perfect of our senses."

52. Of Comparatives and Superlatives.

1. In Ascending comparison, the comparative and su- perlative degrees are regularly formed,

1st. By adding to the positive of monosyllables, r or er for the comparative, and st or est for the superlative; as, wise, wiser, wisest; hard, harder, hardest.

2d. By prefixing to the positive of adjectives of more than one syllable, more for the comparative, and most for the superlative; as, honorable, more honorable, most honor- able.

Rem. l. — Most adjectives of two syllables ending in y or le, after a consonant, or accented on the second syllable, form their com- parative and superlative degrees like monosyllables ; as, holy, holier, holiest; gentle, gentler, gentlest.

46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Rem. 2. —Some adjectives of two syllables, ending in a vowel or liquid sound, form their comparative and superlative degrees like monosyllables; as, handsome, handsomer, handsomest; narrow, narrower, narrowest.

Rem. 3. — Some words are expressed in the superlative degree by adding the suffix most; as, hindmost, innermost.

2. In Descending comparison, the comparative is formed by prefixing less, and the superlative by prefixing

least, to the positive; as, wise, less wise, least wise.

3. Some adjectives are compared irregularly ; as, good, better, best; bad, worse, loorst.

Rem. l. — Poets sometimes compare monosyllables by prefixing more and most; as, "A foot more light, a step more true."

Rem. 2. — When monosyllabic and polysyllabic adjectives come together, the monosyllables are placed first, and all are compared by prefixing more and most; as, "The more nice and elegant parts;" "The most rude and barbarous people."

Rem. 3. — Adjectives should not be doubly compared; as, "A more healthier climate;" "After the most strictest sect of our relig- ion, I lived a Pharisee."

53. Order of Parsing.

1. An Adjective, and why?

2. Descriptive or Definitive, and why?

3. Compare it, if it admits of comparison.

4. Degree of comparison, and why?

5. What does it describe or define? . 6. Rule.

54. Models for Parsing.

I. "Every diligent hoy received merited praise."

Every ... is an adjective ; it is a word used to describe or define the meaning of a noun : definitive ; it defines without expressing any quality: distributive pronominal; it represents objects taken separately : it can not be compared, and belongs to "boy." Rule XII. "An adjective or participle belongs to some noun or pronoun."

ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES.

47

I>iligent

Merited

is an adjective; (why ?) : descriptive; it describes a noun by denoting some quality: common; it is an ordinary epithet: compared, pos. diligent, comp. more diligent, sup. most dili- gent : positive degree, and belongs to " boy." Rule XII. is an adjective; (why?): descriptive; (why?): participial; it is a participle placed before the noun it limits: com- pared, pos. merited, comp. more merited, sup. most merited: positive degree, and belongs to " praise." Rule XII.

Many a

Fine

II. " Many a fine intellect is buried in poverty."

. is an adjective; (why?): definitive; (why?): indefinite pro- nominal; it refers to objects in a general way: it can not be compared, and belongs to " intellect." Rule XII.

. is an adjective; (why?): descriptive; (why?): common; (why?): compared, pos. fine, comp. finer, sup. finest: positive degree, and belongs to " intellect." Rule XII.

III. "The first two engravings are American harvest scenes."

The .... is an adjective; (why?) : definitive; (why?) : definite article; (why?) : it can not be compared, and belongs to "engrav- ings." Rule XII.

First. ... is an adjective; (why?): definitive; (why?): numeral; it denotes number: ordinal; it marks the position of an ob- ject in a series : it can not be compared, and belongs to "engravings." Rule XII.

Two ....is an adjective; (why?): definitive; (why?): numeral; (why?): cardinal; it denotes the number of objects: it can not be compared, and belongs to "engravings." Rule XII.

American is an adjective; (why?) : descriptive; (why?): proper; it is derived from a proper noun : it can not be compared, and belongs to "scenes." Rule XII.

Harvest .is an adjective; (why?): descriptive; (why?) common; (why?) : it can not be compared, and belongs to "scenes." Rule XII.

IV. " The weather is pleasant."

Pleasant . is an adjective; (why?): descriptive; (why?): common; (why?) : compared, pos. pleasant, comp. more pleasant; sup. most pleasant : positive degree, and belongs to " weather." Rule XII.

48 ENGLISH GEAMMAE.

55. Exercises.

Parse the nouns and adjectives in the following sentences:

1. A loud report was heard. 2. Fearful storms sweep over these beautiful islands. 3. Life is but a vapor. 4. These walks are quiet and secluded. 5. I feel sad and lonely. 6. The fields look green. 7. He took a twofold view of the subject. 8. Bright and joyful is the morn. 9. The steak was cooked rare.

10. Either road leads to town. 11. Each soldier was a host in him- self. 12. Both horses are lame. 13. Such a law is a disgrace to any state. 14. Kepeat the first four lines in concert. 15. My drowsy powers, why sleep ye so ? 16. Homer was a greater poet than Virgil. 17. One story is good until another is told. 18. Silver and gold have I none. 19. The Australian gold fields are very extensive. 20. The floor was formed of six-inch boards.

21. My opening eyes with rapture see The dawn of this returning day.

22. With many a weary step, and many a groan,

Up the high hill he heaves a huge round slune.

23. Strong Creator, Savior mild, Humbled to a little child, Captive, beaten, bound, reviled —

Jesus ! hear and save.

Exercises to be corrected:

1. Put them books on the table. 2. You may have either of them six apples. 3. Neither of my three hats is large enough. 4. That book you are now reading was printed in 1578. 5. These men we saw yesterday were Italians. 6. He gave a reward to all of the four men. 7. None of the two young ladies is very beautiful.

8. There are less boys in school now than former^. — (Less suggests quantity — -fewer suggests number.) 9. I have caught less fish than you. 10. They worship both the sun, moon, and stars. 11. There is no glory in doing what every body can do. 12. Such persons as desire may remain. — (Do not use such instead of all.) 13. The gravel walk was rolled smoothly. 14. I like our now minister very much. 15. The eggs were boiled hardly. 16. John reads too loudly.

17. The relative should be placed as nearly as possible to its ante- cedent. 18. Often touching will soil silver. 19. There are not fewer than ten tons of iron in that bridge. 20. Every member are expected to contribute something. 21. Sing the two first and the two last verses.

ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 49

22. You may have the peaches oft the three first trees in them two rows. 23. The former of them five sentences is incorrect. 24. I never saw a more happier man. 25. Worser evils than poverty can he im- agined. 2G. That was the most unkindest cut of all. 27. He is the aWkwardest, backwardest boy in school.

28. I do not like these kind of apples. 29. I Avould rather have a squarer box. 30. Which is meanest, a miser or a thief? 31. Jacob loved Joseph more than all his children. 32. None of our family was at the party last evening. 33. That man occupies the largest store- room of any in the town.

THE PRONOUN. 56. Oral Lesson.

Notice what I write: "John took John's hat, and put John's hat on John's desk." Do you think this is a correct sentence? Ans.—No, sir, we do not. What words are unnecessarily repeated ? Ans. — "John" and "hat." Write the sentence on your slates as you think it should be written. Sarah, you may read what you have written. (Sarah reads "John took his hat, and put it on his desk." The teacher writes it on the blackboard.) Now, the words used in the place of "John " and " hat," are called Pronouns, which means "instead of nouns." WThat shall we call all words used in- stead of nouns? Ans. — Pronouns.

I will write again : "i" write, you read, but he whispers." What are the words "I," "you," and "he"? Ans. — Pronouns. Why? Ans. — Because they are used instead of nouns. What person is "I"? Ans. — First person, because it stands for the person speak- ing. What person is "you"? Ans. — Second person, because it stands for the person spoken to. What person is "he"? Ans. — Third person, because it stands for the person spoken of. Those words which show by their form the person of the nouns they rep- resent are called Personal Pronouns. What kind of pronouns are these words? Ans. — Personal Pronouns.

Write this sentence: "The man who was with me is a lawyer." What is "me"? Ans. — A pronoun. What other pronoun is there in the sentence? Ans. — "Who." That is right — and what word does "who" stand for? Ans. — Man. But "who" can be used to represent the first, second, or third person ; as, " I who speak to you ;" " You who listen ;" " He who whispers." It does not change its H. G. 5.

50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

form to denote person, but relates to some noun, and must be of the same person and number as the noun to which it relates. It is therefore called a Relative Pronoun. What shall we call all similar words? Ans. — Relative Pronouns.

Write this sentence: "Who has lost a pencil?" The word " who" is here used in asking a question. We will call it an Inter- rogative Pronoun. What shall we call those pronouns which are used in a similar manner? Ans. — Interrogative Pronouns.

Write this sentence: "That book is mine." What two words can I use instead of " mine? " Ans. — " My book." " Mine," then, stands for both the possessor and the thing possessed. We will call it a Possessive Pronoun. What shall we call all words used in a similar manner? Ans. — Possessive Pronouns.

57. Definition.

1. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as, his book, my house; "Whom did you see?"

2. The Antecedent of a pronoun is tlie noun, or equivalent expression, instead of which the pronoun is used. It usually precedes, but sometimes follows the pronoun.

Ex — "The poor widow lost her only son." Here "widow" is the antecedent of "her." "True to his flag, the soldier braved even death." " Soldier " is the antecedent of " his."

3. The Antecedent may be a noun, a different pronoun, a phrase, or a clause.

Ex..— "A pupil that is studious will learn." "Pupil" is the antecedent of "that." "He who runs may read." "He" is the antecedent of "who." "He desired to pray, but it was denied him." "To pray" is the antecedent of "it." "He has squandered his money, and he now regrets it" "He has squandered his money" is the antecedent of "it."

4. The Antecedent may be omitted; in which case it is said to be understood.

Ex. — "Who steals my purse steals trash." "The person," or "he," understood, is the antecedent of "who."

ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 51

58. Properties.

1. The Properties of a Pronoun are Gender, Person, Number, and Case.

2. The gender, person, and number of a pronoun are always the same as those of its antecedent, but its case de- pends upon the construction of the clause in which it is found.

59. Classes.

Pronouns are divided into four classes: Personal, Pos- sessive, Relative, and Interrogative.

60. Personal Pronouns.

1. Personal Pronouns both represent nouns, and show by their form whether they are of the first, second, or third person. They are either Simple or Compound.

2. The Simple Personal Pronouns are I, thou, he, she, and it, with their declined forms, we, our, us, my, mine, ye, you, your, thy, thine, thee, his, him, her, its, they, their, them.

3. The Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by adding self or selves to some form of the Simple Person- als ; as, myself, yourselves, himself, themselves.

61. Declension.

1. The Simple Personal Pronouns are declined as fol- lows :

First Person.

Singular. JVom. I,

Poss. My or mine, Obj. Me.

Plural. Norn. We, Poss. Our, Obj. Us.

52

ENGLISH GEAMMAE.

			Second Person.
	Singular.	Plural.		Singular.	Plural.
Nom.	Thou,		Ye,	Nom.	You,	You,
Poss.	Thy or	thine,	Your,	Poss.	Your,	Your,
Obj.	Thee,	Singular	You. Third	Obj. Person.	You, Plural.	You.
	Mas.	Fem.	Neut.		Neut. or Com.
Norn.	He,	She,	It,	Nom.	They,
Poss.	His,	Her,	Its,	Poss.	Their,
Obj.	Him,	Her,	It.	Obj.	Thern.

2. The Compound Personal Pronouns are declined as follows :

First Person.

Singular. Plural.

Nom. <Sc Obj. Myself. Nom. & Obj. Ourselves.

Second Person.

Singular. Plural.

Nom. & Obj. Thyself or Yourself. Nom. & Obj. Yourselves.

Third Person.

Singular.

Mas., Fem. & Neut.

Himself, Nom. & Obj. -<j Herself, Itself.

Plural.

Nom. & Obj. Themselves.

GEtfEIMX REMARKS.

1. Mine and thine were formerly used before words commencing with a vowel sound, in preference to my and thy. They are still used thus in poetry; as, "Thine eyes I see thee raise."

2. Thou, thy, thine, thee, thyself, and ye, though habitually used by the Friends, and frequently in poetry, in the Bible, and other sacred writings, are now seldom used except in solemn style.

ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 53

They may be regarded as antiquated forms. You, your, yours, and yourself, are now preferred.

3. You, originally plural, and still plural in its grammatical relations, is used to represent singular as well as plural nouns.

4. We is often used in place of I, in royal proclamations, edito- rials, and when the speaker or writer wishes to avoid the appear- ance of egotism ; as, " We, George III, King of Great Britain and Ireland, do proclaim," &c. " We formerly thought differently, but have changed our mind."

5. It is sometimes used in the nominative without referring to any particular antecedent ; and in the objective for euphony alone ; as, "It thunders:" "It seems to me;" "It is a true saying;" "Oome and trip it on the green."

6. The compound personal pronouns are used in the nominative and objective cases only. To express emphatic distinction in the possessive case, the word own is used instead of self or selves ; as, " Let every pupil use his own book ;" " Successful merchants mind their own business, not tjiat of their neighbors."

7. The English language being destitute of a pronoun of the third person singular and common gender, usage has sanctioned the employment of the masculine forms he, his, him, for that pur- pose; as, in speaking of scholars generally, we say, "A thorough scholar studies his lesson carefully."

8. When reference is made to an assemblage containing males only, or females only, the masculine or feminine forms should be used, as the case may require.

9. When pronouns of different persons are used, the second should precede the third, and the third the first; as, "You, and he, and I were boys together."

62. Order of Parsin

»«

1. A Pronoun, and why?

2. Personal, and why?

3. Simple or Compound.

4. What its antecedent?

5. Gender, person, and number? Rule.

6. Decline it.

7. Case, and why?

8. Rule.

54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

63. Models for Parsing.

I. "I have seen him."

I is a pronoun; (why?) : personal; it shows by its form

whether it is of the first, second, or third person : sim- ple ; its antecedent is the name, understood, of the per- son speaking : gender, first person, singular number,

to agree with its antecedent : Rule IX. " Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in gender, person, and number :" declined, singular, nom. I, pass, my, obj. me ; plural, nom. we, poss. our, obj. us: nominative case; (why?): Rule I.

Him is a pronoun; (why?): persona?/ (why?): simple; its

antecedent is the name, understood, of the person spoken of: masculine gender, third person, singular number, to agree with its antecedent : Rule IX : declined, sing., nom. he, poss. his, obj. him ; plural, nom. they, poss. their, obj. them: objective case; (why?): Rule VI.

II. "James, lend me your book."

Me is a pronoun; (why?): personal; (why?): simple; its

antecedent is the name, understood, of the speaker:

■ gender, first person, singular number, to agree with

its antecedent : Rule IX : decline it : objective case, ii is the indirect object of transitive verb " lend." Rule VI.

III. "The soldiers helped themselves."

Themselves is a pronoun ; (why ?) : compound personal ; it is formed by adding selves to one of the declined forms of a sim- ple personal: its antecedent is "soldiers:" masculine gender, third person, plural number, to agree with its antecedent : Rule IX : decline it : objective case, it is the object of the transitive verb " helped." Rule VI.

IV. "I, myself, heard him say so."

Myself. ... is a pronoun; (why?): compound personal; (why?) : its antecedent is the name, understood, of the speaker:

gender, first person, singular number, to agree with

its antecedent : Rule IX : decline it : nominative casef in apposition with " I :" Rule IV.

ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 55

64. Exercises.

Parse the nouns, personal pronouns, and adjectives in t/ie following

sentences :

1. He and I attend the same school. 2. She gave her sister a new book. 3. Have you seen him to-day? 4. I saw it with my own eyes. 5. You, yourself, told me so. 6. The wicked is snared in the work of his own hands. 7. I bought the book, and read it. 8. They live in our house.

9. I see them on their winding way. 10. For we dare not make ourselves of the number, or compare ourselves with some that com- mend themselves : but they, measuring themselves by themselves, and comparing themselves among themselves, are not wise.

11. My country, 't is of thee, Sweet land of liberty,

Of thee, I sing.

12. Thou great Instructor, lest I stray, Teach thou my erring feet thy way.

Correct the following sentences :

1. Him and me both study grammar. 2. I and he were play- mates. 3. Her and my aunt are great friends. 4. Every person should try to improve their mind and heart. 5. Each scholar should try to learn their lessons. 6. Those molasses, they cost one dollar a gallon. 7. Many a thoughtless youth make good business men — but it is after they have reformed.

8. Both John and Samuel got his lesson. 9. If a fish is caught foul, they are more difficult to land. 10. People should be kind to each other. 11. Did you see which of the scholars finished their examples first? 12. Every boy and girl shall have their reward. 13. Let the President and the Senate make such appointments as it pleases. 14. If any member of the congregation wishes to con- nect themselves with this church, they will please come forward while the choir sings.

15. They had some victuals left, and we ate it. 16. Every person and every thing was in its proper place. 17. The hen-hawk caught a hen, and killed her on her own nest. 18. The earth is my mother, and I will repose on its bosom. 19. It is me, and not her, who you wish to see. 20. If any passenger has not paid his fare, they will come up to the captain's office and pay it.

ENGLISH GEAMMAE.

65. Possessiye Pronouns.

1. Possessive Pronouns are words used to represent both the possessor and the thing possessed. They are mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs.

2. To denote emphatic distinction, my own is used for mine, his own for his, thy own for thine, our oivn for ours, your own for yours, their own for theirs.

Ex.— " This book is my oivn;" "Stand, the ground's your own. my braves ! " " Do not borrow or lend pencils : each scholar should have one of his own."

Rem. — Two sets of models are given for parsing Possessive Pronouns. Both methods are sanctioned by good authorities.

66. Order of Parsing.

1. A Pronoun, and why?

2. Possessive, and why?

3. What is its antecedent?

4. Gender, person, and number, and why? Rule.

5. Case, and why? Rule.

67. Models for Parsing.

I. "That book is hers, not yours." FIRST METHOD.

Hers .... is a pronoun; (why?): possessive; it represents both the possessor and the thing possessed; its antecedent is " book ;" neuter gender, third person, singular number, to agree with its antecedent: Rule IX: nominative case, it is used as the predicate of the proposition "That book is hers :" Rule II.

Yours ... is parsed in a similar manner ; equivalent to " your book." SECOND METHOD.

Hers .... is a pronoun; (why?) : possessive; (why?) : it is equivalent to "her book." Parse "her" as a personal pronoun in the possessive case, according to Rule III, and "book" as nredicate-nominative, according to Rule II.

ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 57

II. " The ground 's your own" ^

FIRST METHOD. Your own is a pronoun; (why?) : possessive; (why?): its antecedent is "ground:" neuter gender, third person, singular number; (why?): nominative case; it is used as the predicate of the proposition " The ground 's your own." Kule II.

SECOND METHOD. Your own is a pronoun; (why?) : possessive; (why?): it is equivalent to "your ground." Parse "your" as a personal pronoun in the possessive case, according to Kule III, and " ground" as the predicate-nominative, according to Kule II.

68. Exercises.

Parse the possessive pronouns in the following sentences :

1. The farm is neither his nor theirs. 2. Is that horse of yours lame yet ? 3. I did not hear that lecture of yours last evening.

4. He is an old friend of ours. 5. This book is not mine ; it must be his or hers. 6. That carriage of theirs is a very fine one. 7. Friend of mine, why so sad?

Exercises to be corrected:

1. That horse is his' n. 2. Is that book your 'n or her 'n ? 3.1 think it is her'n. 4. He had no team; so he borrowed our'n.

5. Your hat is not so pretty as her'n. 6. We'uns are better off than you 'uns. 7. You 'uns are a low set.

69. Relative Pronouns.

1. A Relative Pronoun is used to represent a pre- ceding word or phrase, called its antecedent, to which it joins a limiting clause; as, "The man whom you saw is my father."

Rem. i. — The antecedent is a word or phrase on which the rel- ative clause depends. It may be either a definite or an indefinite object. When the object is indefinite, the relative clause stands alone; as, "Who steals my purse, steals trash."

Rem. 2. — The difference between personal and relative pronouns is shown by the following distinctions: 1. Personal pronouns have a distinct form for each grammatical person; as, first person, I;

s7

58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

second person, thou, or you; third person, he, she, or it: the rela- tives do not change their form for person. 2. A personal pronoun may be the subject of an independent sentence; as, "He is well:" a relative can never be thus used ; it is always found in a depend- ent clause; as, "Laws which are unjust should be repealed."

Rem. 3 — Eelatives serve two purposes in a sentence: one, to represent nouns in any relation; the other, to join a limiting clause to the antecedent. The first is a pronominal, the second, a conjunctive use.

2. Relative Pronouns are either Simple or Compowwi.

3. The Simple Relatives are who, used to represent persons; ivhich and what, to represent things; that, to rep- resent both persons and things; and as, to take the place of who, which, or that, after such, many, and same.

Rem. l. — What is sometimes used as a definitive adjective, as well as a relative, in the same sentence : in which case it is placed before the noun it limits ; as, " I send you ivhat money I have," i. e., " I send you the money which I have." When the noun it limits is understood, what takes its place, and should be parsed, first as a pronominal adjective, and secondly as a relative.

Rem. 2. — That is a relative when who, whom, or which can be substituted for it ; as, " He that [who] is slow to wrath, is of great understanding." It is a pronominal adjective when it immediately precedes a noun, expressed or understood ; as, " That book is yours;" "I did not say that" It is a conjunction when it joins a dependent clause to its principal; as, "I know that my Ee- deemer liveth."

Rem. 3. — What, when a relative, can be changed into that ivhich, or the thing which; as, "Tell me what [that which] you know ;" " I got what [the thing which] I desired." That, or the thing, should be parsed as the antecedent part of what, and which as the relative. The antecedent part, that, is usually a pronom- inal adjective, either limiting a noun expressed, or representing it understood.

Rem. 4 — Besides being a relative, what may be an interrogative pronoun; as "What did you say?" — a pronominal adjective; as, " Wliat book have you?" — an interjection ; as, "What! is thy serv- ant a dog, that he should do this?" — an adverb ; as, "What [partly] by force, and what by fraud, he secures his ends."

ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 59

	70. Declension.
	Singular and Plural.		Singular and Plural.
Nom.	Who,	Nom.	Which,
Poss.	Whose,	Poss.	Whose,
Obj.	Whom.	Obj.	Which.

The Compound Relatives are formed by adding ever, so, and soever to the simple relatives. They are who- ever, whoso, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever.

Rem. — Whoever, ivhoso, and whosoever, are equivalent to he who, or any one who; as, " Wlwever studies will learn," i.e., "Any one who studies will learn." Whichever and whichsoever are equivalent to any which; as, " Whichever way you may take will lead to the city," i. e., "Any way which you may take," &c. Whatever and what- soever are equivalent to any thing which ; as, " I am pleased with whatever you may do," i. e., " I am pleased with any thing which you may do." Compound relatives are indeclinable, and should be parsed like the simple relative what.

71. Order of Parsing.

1. A Pronoun, and why?

2. Relative, and why?

3. Name its antecedent.

4. Simple or Compound?

5. Gender, person, and number, and why? Rule.

6. Decline it.

7. Case, and Rule.

72. Models for Parsing.

I. "A man tvho is industrious, will prosper."

Who .... is a pronoun; (why?) : relative; it represents a preceding word or phrase, to which it joins a limiting clause : its ante- cedent is " man :" simple : masculine gender, third person, singular number, to agree with its antecedent: Rule IX: nominative case ; it is used as the subject of the subordi- nate proposition " who is industrious :" Rule I.

60

ENGLISH GKAMMAP.

II. "I am he whom ye seek."

Whom ... is a pronoun; (why?) : relative; (why?) : its antecedent is "he:" simple: masculine gender, third person, singular num- ber; (why?): Rule IX: objective case; it is the object of the transitive verb "seek:" Rule VI.

• III. " Happy is the man that findeth wisdom."

That .... is a pronoun; (why?) : relative; (why?) : its antecedent is "man:" simple: masculine gender, third person, singular number; (why?): Rule IX: nominative case; it is the subject of the subordinate proposition " That findeth wis- dom:" Rule I.

IV. "The horse which you sold me is lame."

Which ... is a pronoun; (Avhy?): relative; (why?): its antecedent is "horse:" simple: masculine gender, third person, singular number; (why?): Rule IX: objective case; it is the object of the transitive verb " sold :" Rule VI.

V. "I remember what you said."

What. ... is a pronoun; (why?): relative; (why?): it is equivalent to that which — "that " being the antecedent part, and " which " the relative. Parse "that" as a "pronominal adjective used as a noun," in the objective case after "remember."

Which. . . is a pronoun (why?): relative; (why?): its antecedent is "that:" neuter gender, third person, singular number; (why?) : objective case; object of the transitive verb "said:" Rule VI.

VI. "That is the man ivhose house we occupy."

Whose. . . is a pronoun; (why?): relative; (why?): its antecedent is "man:" masculine gender, third person, singular number; ( why?) : Rule IX : possessive case; modifies " house :" Rule III„

VII. "Whoever studies will learn."

Whoever, is a pronoun; (why?): relative; (why?): compound; it is equivalent to he ivho, or any one %vho — "he" being the an- tecedent part, and "who" the relative. Parse "he" as a personal pronoun, subject of "will learn," or "one" as a "pronominal adjective used as a noun," subject of "will learn," and "who" as a relative, by preceding models.

ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 61

VIII. " Whatever purifies sanctifies."

Whatever is a pronoun; (why?): relative; (why?): compound; it is equivalent to that which. Parse "that" and "which" ac- cording to Model V — "that" being the subject of "sanc- tifies," "ivhich" of "purifies."

IX. " Whoso keepeth the law is a wise son."

Whoso. . . is a pronoun; (why?): relative; (why?): compound; it is equivalent to he who, or any one who. Parse according to Model VII.

X. "As many as came were baptized."

As is a pronoun; (why?): relative; (why?): its antecedent is

" "many:" simple: common gender, third person, plural number; (why?): Rule IX: nominative case; it is used as the subject of the subordinate proposition "as came," i. e., who came: Rule I.

73. Exercises.

Parse the relative pronouns in the following sentences :

1. Those who sow will reap. 2. He that hateth, dissembleth with his lips. 3. They that forsake the law, praise the wicked ; but such as keep the law, contend with them. 4. There is no class of persons that I dislike so much as those who slander their neigh- bors. 5. The house which you admire so much, belongs to the man whom we see yonder.

6. Whatever is, is right. 7. Whatsoever ye shall ask in my name, that will I do. 8. He will do what is right. 9. This is the dog that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. 10. A kind boy avoids doing whatever injures others.

Correct the following sentences:

1. Tell me who you saw. 2. Those which are rich should assist the poor. 3. I am the chap what is not afraid of ghosts. 4. I gave all what I had. 5. This is the man who we sent for. 6. The dog whom you bought, was stolen.

7. Who went with me, I shall not tell. 8. I am happy in the

G2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

friend which I have long proved. 9. Whom, when they had scourged him, they let him go. 10. They compose the easiest that have learned to compose. 11. Do you know who you are talking to? 12. They are the sort of people who I do not like. 13. This is the child who was lost.

74. Interrogative Pronouns.

1. The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, and what, when used in asking questions; as, "Who goes there?" "Which is yours?" "What did you say?"

2. The Subsequent of an Interrogative Pronoun is that part of the answer which is represented by it. An Interrogative must agree with its subsequent in gender, person, and number.

Rem. l — Who seeks to designate some person: which, to dis- tinguish a certain individual from others: what, to describe the character or occupation of the person inquired for ; as, " Who is that gentleman?" — Mr. Webster. — " Which one?" — Daniel Web- ster.— " What is he?" — An eminent lawyer and statesman.

Rem. 2. — When a definite object is referred to, which and what are pronominal adjectives, limiting the name of the object inquired for; as, u Which lesson shall we learn?" " What book shall we study?" When an indefinite object is referred to, the interroga- tive takes its place; as, " Which is mine?" " What say you?"

Rem. 3 — The interrogatives who and which are declined like relative pronouns.

Rem. 4. — Apply Rule TX in parsing interrogatives, changing "antecedents" to " subsequents."

75. Order of Parsing.

1. A Pronoun, and why?

2. Interrogative, and why?

3. Name its subsequent, if expressed.

4. Gender, person, and number. Rule.

5. Decline it.

6. Case, and why? Rule.

ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 0>S.

* "^ " 76. Models for Parsing. ^

I. "Who goes there?"

Who . .is a pronoun; (why?): interrogative; it is used in asking a question : its subsequent is indefinite : gender and person inde- terminate: singular number, to agree with its subsequent: Rule IX: nominative case; it is used as the subject of the sentence "Who goes there?" Rule I.

II. "Which is yours?" — The large one. ±

Which is a pronoun (why?): interrogative; (why?): its subsequent^

"one:" neuter gender, third person, \ singular number; (why?): Rule IX: nominative case; it is used as the subject of the sen- tence "Which is yours?" Rule I.

III. "What is; that man?"— A blacksmith.

What . is a pronoun; (why?): interrogative ; (why?): its subsequent is "blacksmith:" masculine gender, third person, singular number; (why?): Rule IX: nominative case; it is used as the predicate of the sentence "What is that man?" Rule II.

77. Exercises.

Parse the interrogative pronouns in the folloioing sentences :

1. Who saw the horse run ? 2. Whose house is that on the hill yonder? 3. Whom did he call? — James. 4. For whom did he inquire ? 5. Which will you have, the large or the small book ?

6. Whom did you take me to be? 7. What shall I do?— Wait. 8. What can be more beautiful than that landscape? 9. Which is the lesson ? 10. Who told you how to parse " what " ?

Parse the relative and interrogative pronouns in the following sen- tences :

1. Who is in the garden? — My father. 2. I do not know who is in the garden. ■ 3. Tell me what I should do. 4. What vessel is that ? 5. Always seek for what you need the most.

6. Whose house was burned last night? — Mr. Hubbard's. 7. The boy closed the shutters, which darkened the room. 8. What is his name ? 9. Whoever enters here should have a pure heart. 10. I gave all that I had.

64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Correct the following sentences :

1. Whom do you suppose it was? 2. Who do you suppose it to be? 3. Those who consider themselves a good critic are not so considered always by others. 4. One should not think too favor- ably of themselves. 5. Do you know Avho you are talking to? !

6. The army was cut up, or at least they suffered much. 7. Be sure to tell nobody whom you are. 8. Each of the sexes should be kept within their proper bounds. 9. The council were divided in its estimates. 10. No one could have acted more gallantly than him .who bore the standard of the legion.

11. I wish I was her. 12. Many a youth have injured their pros- pects for life by one imprudent step. 13. The moon appears, but the light is not his own. 14. Between he and I there is some dis- parity of years, but none between he and she.

15. Whom say the people that I am? 16. Every one of those pleasures that are pursued to excess, convert themselves into poison. 17. They that honor me, I will honor. 18. The very men that had fought in the Peninsular war, and who had received the plaudits of all Europe, were defeated at New Orleans.

19. She was a conspicuous flower, which he had sensibility to love, ambition to attempt, and skill to win. 20. Tho.se lots, if they had been sold sooner, they Avould have brought more money.

Parse the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in the following sentences: 1. Virtue is the condition of happiness. 2. Ye are the light of the world. 3. That garment is not well made. 4. One ounce of gold is worth sixteen ounces of silver. 5. The prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are ended. 6. Every man went to his own house. 7. The army is loaded with the spoils of many nations. 8. Be of the same mind one toward another.

9. He sacrificed every thing he had in the world : what could we ask more? 10. Who 's here so base that would be a bondman? 11. I speak as to wise men: judge ye what I say. 12. Liberty was theirs as men: without it they did not esteem themselves men. 13. The death of Socrates, peacefully philosophizing with his friends, is the most pleasant that could be desired. 14. I was a stricken deer, that left the herd long since.

15. O Popular Applause ! what heart of man Is proof against thy sweet, seducing charms

16. Beauty is but a vain, a fleeting good : A shining gloss, that fadeth suddenly.

ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 65

17. What black, what ceaseless cares besiege our state . What strokes we feel from fancy and from fate.

18. Unveil thy bosom, faithful tomb ;

Take this new treasure to thy trust ;

And give these sacred jrelicsroom

To slumber in the silent dust.

%

19. Thy spirit, Independence, let me share, - "V

Lord of the lion-heart and eagle-eye : Ej!

Thy steps I '11 follow with my bosom bare;

Nor heed the storm that howls along the s\y. h

20. The gay will laugh jj^J % When thou art gone ; the solemn brood of care Plod on, and each one as before will chase

His favorite phantom: yet all these shall leave Their mirth and their employment, and shall con;e And make their bed with thee. — Bryant.

THE VERB. 78. Oral Lesson.

The teacher writes on the blackboard, "A horse runs," and asks What does the horse do ? " Aris. — A horse runs. What else may a horse do? Ans. — A horse trots, walks, gallops, eats, drinks, &c. Write these words on your slates. Are they the names of things? Ans. — They are not: they are the names of actions. What shall we call them ? Ans. — Action-words. A very good name, but gram- marians call them Verbs.

Write on your slates, "John studies." What is the subject of the sentence? Ans. — "John." What is the predicate? Ans. — "Studies." Does the sentence tell what John studies? Ans. — It does not. Write "grammar" after the verb "studies." The sen- tence now reads "John studies grammar." In this sentence, the meaning of "studies" is completed by the word "grammar." What element is that word? Ans. — An objective element.

A verb which requires an objective element to complete its meaning, is called a transitive verb; a verb which does not require an objective element to complete its meaning is called an intransi- tive veriou

66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Why? Ans. — Because its meaning is completed by an objective element. What is "run," in the sentence "John runs?" Ans. — An intransitive verb. Why? Ans. — Because its meaning is not completed by an objective element.

Write this. sentence on your slates: "The fields look green." What is the subject of this sentence? Ans. — "Fields." What is the predicate ? Ans. — " Green." What is the office of the word "look"? Ans. — It asserts the predicate "green" of the subject "fields." Correctly answered: its use is copulative; and all copu- lative words, except the various forms of " be," are called copulative verbs. What is " look " in this sentence ? Ans. — A copulative verb. What is "seems" in the sentence "He seems afraid?" Ans. — \ r m copulative verb. Why? Ans. — Because it asserts the predicate of fW*y the subject.

79. Definition.

%

A Verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state ; as, I am; George writes; The house stands.

Rem. — The being, action, or state, may be stated abstractly, or represented as belonging to a subject; as, " To write;" "Boys write;" "To seem;" "He seems discouraged."

80. Classes with Respect to Use.

1. With respect to their use, Verbs may be divided into Copulative, Transitive, and Intransitive.

2. A Copulative Verb is used to assert the predicate of a proposition of the subject; as, "Sugar is sweet;" "He seems honest."

Rem — The copula to be is the only pure copulative. The verbs become, seem, appear, stand, walk, and other verbs of motion, position, and condition, together with the passive verbs is named, is called, is styled, is elected, is appointed, is constituted, is made, is' chosen, is es- teemed, and some others, are frequently used as copulatives.

Ex. — "The road became rough;" "The men appeared cheerful;" " He is styled the Czar of all the Kussias ;" " Sir Walter Scott is called the Wizard of the North ;" " Gen. Washington ivas elected first Presi- dent of the United States."

ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 67

3. A Transitive Verb requires an object to complete its meaning; as, "The hunter hilled a bear;" "The scholar learned his lesson;" "That house has seven gables."

4. An Intransitive Verb does not require an object to complete its meaning; as, "Flowers bloom;" "Grass grows;" "The wind blows furiously."

Rem. l. — The action expressed by a transitive verb has refer- ence to some object external to the subject, upon which it termi- nates: the action expressed by an intransitive verb has no such reference, but affects the subject only. If an object is required to complete its meaning, a verb is transitive, otherwise intransitive. A verb in the passive form is transitive, if its subject in the passive voice can be made its object in the active.

Ex. — " That boy studies algebra." The verb " studies " is transitive, because its meaning is completed by the object "algebra." "That boy studies." The verb "studies" is transitive, because some word, as les- son, grammar, &c, is required to complete its meaning. " The winds blow" The verb "blow" is intransitive, because the action expressed by it affects the subject only, and does not require the addition of an object to complete its meaning. " The letter was written by me," i. e.r I wrote the letter. The verb " was written " is transitive, because its subject in the passive voice becomes its object in the active.

Rem. 2. — Verbs which signify to cause to do what an intransi- tive verb expresses, are said to be used in a causative sense.

Ex. — "The farmer burns wood," i.e., "The farmer causes wood to bum." The verb " burns" is used in a causative sense.

Rem. 3. — Some verbs are transitive in one signification, and in- transitive in another.

Ex. — "It breaks my chain;" "Glass breaks easily;" "He returned the book;" "1 returned home;" " The vessel ran the blockade ;" "The horses ran."

Rem. 4. — A verb usually intransitive, sometimes becomes tran- sitive. This generally occurs, in poetical expressions, when the object is like the verb in meaning, and when the verb is used in a causative sense.

Ex. — "He lives a noble life;" "And he dreamed yet another dream;" " Those men are playing a game of chess ;" " Grinned horribly a ghastly smile;" "The pirate sank the ship;" "To equip and march armies re- quires money as well as forethought."

68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

81. Classes with Respect to Nature.

1. With respect to their nature, Verbs may be divided into Active, Passive, and Neuter.

2. An Active Verb expresses action; as, " Horses gal- lop;" " The farmer ploivs."

3. A Passive Terb represents its subject as acted upon; as, "The field ivas plowed;" "The soldier was wounded."

4. A Itfeuter Terb implies being, or condition ; as, " I am;" "Your hat lies on the stand;" "The child sleeps in its mother's arms."

82. Classes with Kespect to Form.

1. With respect to their form, Verbs are either Reg- ular or Irregular.

2. A Regular Verb forms its past indicative and per- fect participle by adding d or ed to the present indicative, or simplest form of the verb; as, love, love-d, love-d; count, count-ed, count-ed.

3. An Irregular Verb does not form its past indica- tive and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present indicative; as, see, saw, seen; go, ivent, gone.

83. Properties.

The Properties of Verbs are Voice, Mode, Tense, Number, and Person.

84. Toice.

1. Voice is that form of the transitive verb which shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon.

ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 69

2. Transitive Verbs have two voices: an Active and a Passive Voice.

3. The Active Voice represents the subject as acting upon an object; as, " John struck James;" "The boy was studying;" "The cat caught the mouse."

4. The Passive Voice represents the subject as being acted upon; as, "James was struck by John;" "The mouse was caught;" "The lesson was studied."

5. The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing some form of the neuter verb to be to the perfect participle of a transitive verb.

Rem. l — A verb in the active voice is changed into the pas- sive, by making the direct object in the active the subject in the passive.

Ex. — "The boy shut the door," (active;) "The door was shut by the boy," (passive.) "He saw the comet;" "The comet was seen by the astronomer."

Rem. 2. — Certain verbs are sometimes used, with a passive sig- nification, in the active voice. They then denote the capacity to receive an act, rather than its actual reception.

Ex.— "This stick splits easily;" "Butter sells for forty cents;" "This cloth wears well;" "This timber saws well ;" " The bridge is building;" "I have nothing to wear;" "He has some ax to grind;" "He has no money to spend foolishly."

Rem. 3. — A few verbs sometimes assume the passive form, though used in an active sense.

Ex. — "The melancholy days are come" i.e., have come; "Babylon is fallen," i. e., has fallen; "She is gone" i. e., has gone; "The hour is arrived," i. e., has arrived.

Rem. 4 — The passive voice is used when the agent is unknown, or when we wish to conceal it and call attention to the act and its object alone ; as, " The robbery was committed (by some person un- known, or known but not mentioned) in broad daylight." When we wish to make the agent prominent, the active voice should be used; as, "The escaped convict committed the robbery in broad daylight."

70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

85. Exercises.

Tell which of the verbs, in the following sentences, are in the active

voice, and which in the passive:

1. Sarah loves flowers. 2. John was astonished at the news. 3. William saw a meteor. 4. A meteor was seen. 5. I have writ- ten a letter. 6. That poem was written by Saxe. 7. He should have waited longer. 8. The heavens declare the glory of God. 9. He found the money.

86. The Participle.

1. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, par- taking of the properties of a verb and of an adjective or a noun.

Rem. — The participle is so called from its partaking of the properties of a verb, and of an adjective and a noun. It is the attributive part of the verb, used without assertion. It is not a verb, consequently neither mode nor tense belongs to it. It simply denotes continuance or completion of action, being, or state, rela- tively to the time denoted by the principal verb of the sentence in which it is found.

2. There are three Participles: the Present, the Perfect, and the Compound. The present and the compound have both an active and a passive form and use. The perfect has an active and a passive use.

3. The Present Participle denotes the continuance of action, being, or state ; as, loving, being loved.

Rem. — The present active participle always ends in ing. It may be used,

1st. As an adjective; as, u Twinkling stars."

2d. As a predicate; as, "The stars are twinkling."

3d. As a noun ; as, " I am fond of reading."

4th. As a noun, with the modifications of a verb ; as, "Describ- ing a past event as present, has a fine effect in language."

4. The Perfect Participle denotes the completion of action, being, or state; as, seen, appointed.

ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 71

Rem. — This participle generally, though not always, ends in d or ed. It is frequently used as an adjective, but never as a noun, and is usually found in compound forms of the verb.

Ex. — "He died, loved by all;" "Her promise, made cheerfully, was kept faithfully."

5. The Compound Participle denotes the completion of action, being, or state, at or before the time represented by the principal verb; as, "Having written the letter, he mailed it."

Rem. — This participle is formed by placing having or having been before the perfect participle, and may be used as a noun ; as, " I am accused of having plotted treason ;" " He is charged with having been engaged in the slave-trade." It is also formed by placing having been before the present participle ; as, u Having been loving."

87. Exercises.

Give the present, perfect, and compound participles of the following

verbs :

Rely, find, help, study, recite, inquire, answer, plow, cultivate, join, emulate, spell, grow, paint, resemble, hope, suffer, sit, see, go, come, lay, arrive, exhaust, enjoy, write, read, learn, ventilate.

Form sentences, using any of the above participles as predicates. Model. — " Mary is studying her lesson."

88. Auxiliaries.

1. Auxiliary Verbs are those which are used in the conjugation of other verbs.

2. They are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, must.

Rem. l. — Do, be, have, and will are often used as principal verbs; as, "He does well;" "I am;" "We have cares and anx- ieties;" "He ivilled me a thousand dollars."

Rem. 2. — The auxiliaries were originally used as principal verbs, followed by the infinitives of what are now called the prin-

72

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

cipal verbs ; as, " I can [to] read ;" " You may [to] go ;" " He has [to] come." The sign to is now dropped, and the infinitive is regarded as the principal verb ; the auxiliaries being mere form- words, showing the relations of mode and tense.

Rem. 3. — The auxiliaries, when used as such, except must, wnich is used in the present tense only, have two tenses: the present and the past.

89. Conjugation of the Auxiliaries.

		Present	Tense.
	Singular.			Plural.
1st Person.	2d Person.	3d Person.	1st Person.	2d Person.	3d Person.
I	Thou	He	We	You	They
Am,	art,	is,	Are,	are,	are,
Do,	dost,	does,	Do,	do,	do,
Have,	hast,	has,	Have,	have,	have,
Will,	wilt,	will,	Will,	will,	will,
Shall,	shalt,	shall,	Shall,	shall,	shall,
May,	mayst,	may,	May,	may,	may,
Can,	canst,	can,	Can,	can,	can,
Must,	must,	must, Past '	Must, rense.	must,	must.
Was,	wast,	was,	Were,	were,	were,
Did,	didst,	did,	Did,	did,	did,
Had,	hadst,	had,	Had,	had,	had,
Would,	wouldst,	would,	Would,	would,	would,
Should,	shouldst,	should,	Should,	should,	should
Might,	mightst,	might,	Might,	might,	might,
Could,	couldst,	could, MO 90. De	Could, DE. ftnition.	could,	could.

1. Mode is the manner in which the action, being, or state is expressed.

2. There are five modes: the Indicative, Subjunctive, Potential, Imperative, and Infinitive.

ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 73

91. Indicative Mode.

The Indicative Mode asserts a thing as a fact, or as actually existing; as, "The man walks;" "The house was burned"

Rem. — The indicative mode may be used in interrogative and exclamatory sentences ; also, in subordinate propositions, to denote what is actual, or what is assumed as actual ; as, "Is he a mer- chant?" "The rascal has stolen my horse!" "I learn that you have removed from town."

92. Subjunctive Mode.

The Subjunctive Mode asserts a thing as doubtful, as a wish, a supposition, or a future contingency ; as, "If this be true, all will end well ;" "Had I the wings of a dove ;" " I shall leave, if you remain"

Rem. l. — The subjunctive mode is so called because it is used in subjoined or subordinate propositions only. It represents an ideal act, or a real act placed under a condition of more or less doubt, and is joined to the verb of the principal pro^ osition by the subordinate connectives if though, except, lest, that, unless, and some others. These connectives are called the signs of the subjunctive.

Rem. 2. —The sign is frequently omitted, in which case the auxiliary or copula precedes the subject ; as, "Had I time," i. e., If I had time ; " Were I a king," i. e., If I were a king.

Rem. 3 — The present subjunctive represents the thing supposed as possible, though doubtful; as, "If I go:" I may go or I may not. It implies future time; as, "If it rain, I shall not go;" "It is necessary that the dispatch be sent as soon as possible." " If it rains" is indicative, denoting present time; i.e., it implies that the speaker does not know whether it is raining notv or not.

Rem. 4 — The past subjunctive denotes indefinite or present

time, and represents a supposition contrary to the fact, or unreal ;

as, " If he were honest, [implying that he is not,] he would pay

me." "If he was honest" is indicative, implying that the speak-"-

H. G. 7.

74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

does not know whether the person spoken of was honest, in time past, or not.

Rem. 5. — The past perfect subjunctive denotes past time, and represents a supposition contrary to the fact; as, "If I had been invited, [implying that I had not,] I should have gone."

Hem. 6. — The subjunctive is very generally used in expressing suppositions and conclusions in reasoning; as, "If a regular hex- agon be inscribed in a circle, any side will be equal to the radius of the circle;" "If the thankful refrained, it would be pain and grief to them."

93. Potential Mode.

The Potential Mode asserts the power ', necessity, lib- erty, duty, or liability of acting, or being in a certain state; as, "You can read;" "He must go;" "You may retire;" "They should be more careful."

Rem. i. — The potential mode, like the indicative, is used in interrogative and exclamatory sentences; also, in subordinate propositions, to represent what is assumed as actual, or what has not been realized; as, "I know that I may be disappointed;" " He says that I may study algebra."

Rem. 2. — The signs of the potential mode are the auxiliaries may, can, must, might, could, would, and should.

1. Can or could implies power or ability within one's self; as, "He can do it," i. e., he has ability to do it without assistance from others.

2. May or might implies an agency without or beyond one's self; hence, possibility, probability, permission, wishing — the act being contingent on something beyond one's own will or power ; as, "He may go," i.-e., all hindrances are removed: "You may all go to the picnic," denotes permission : " O, that he might return," denotes a wish that all hindrance to his return be removed.

3. Must denotes physical, mental, or moral necessity; as, "We must submit to the laws," i. e., in the nature or fitness of things, there is a necessity for our doing so.

4. Should denotes that the act or state is not dependent upon the doer's will, but on that of another; hence, duty or obligation;

ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 75

as, "He should pay his debts," i. e., it is his duty, or he is under a moral obligation to pay his debts.

5. Would implies inclination, wish, or desire; as, "He would pay his debts, if he could," i. e., he has the inclination or desire.

94. Imperative Mode.

The Imperative Mode expresses a command, an ex- portation, an entreaty, or a permission; as, "Charge, Ches- ter, charge/" "Do come to see us;" "Lead us not into temptation."

Rem. l. — The imperative mode may usually be known by the omission of the subject; as, " Write" [thou, you, or ye]. It denotes a command, when a superior speaks to an inferior; an exhorta- tion, when an equal speaks to an equal; a prayer or supplication, when an inferior addresses a superior. It is used mostly in prin- cipal propositions, and is made subordinate in direct quotations only; as, '"He said, 'Be silent.'"

Rem. 2. — The expressions "Let Ellen come," "Let him go," &c, are made up of the imperative of the verb let, and the objective case of a noun or pronoun, limited by an infinitive. They are equivalent to "Permit [thou] Ellen to go," &c.

Rem. 3. — These expressions are sometimes abridged by drop- ping the verb let, changing the infinitive to the imperative, and the objective case to the nominative ; as, "Come one, come all," i. e., Let one come, let all come: "Sing we to our God above," i. e., Let us sing to our God above. In such cases, the noun or pronoun should be parsed as the subject of the proposition, the imperative agreeing with it in number and person. This use of the impera- tive, in the first or third person, is not uncommon.

Ex. — "Ruin seize thee, ruthless king." — Gray. "Laugh those who may, weep those who must." — Scott. "Then turn wc to her latest trib- une's name." — Byron. "Proceed we therefore to our subject." — Pope. "Be it enacted."— Statutes of Ohio. "Be it so."— Webster. "Somebody call my wife." — Shakspeare. "So help me God." "Hallowed be thy name."

Rem. 4. — The imperative mode is sometimes used to denote merely the intention or wish of the speaker, without special refer- ence to any person addressed; as, "God said, Let there be light;'*

76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

"Deliver me from such friends." It may also be used to denote indifference or unconcern on the part of the speaker; as, "Let it

95. Infinitive Mode.

The Infinitive Mode expresses the action, being, or state, without affirming it; as, to write; to have written; "He rose to speak"

Rem. l. — The infinitive may usually be known by the sign to placed before it. This sign is omitted after the verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, help, let, make, need, see, and a few others ; as, "Bid them be quiet;" "Let them come on;" "See him run."

Rem. 2. — The infinitive, as an abstract noun, may be the subject or predicate of a sentence; may be in apposition with a noun; and may be the object of a transitive verb or preposition; as, "To lie is disgraceful;" "To work is to pray;" "Delightful task, to rear the tender thought;" "I love to read;" "Can save the son of Thetis from to die."

Although the infinitive has the construction of a noun, it may govern an object, or be modified by an adverb. It is never lim- ited by an adjective attribute, but may have a predicate adjective belonging to it; as, "To converse is pleasant"

96. Exercises.

Tell the mode of the verbs in the following sentences :

1. A great storm is raging. 2. You may go or stay. 3. Bring me some flowers. 4. Hope thou in God. 5. If he study, he will excel. 6. If he studies, it is when he is alone. 7. Were I rich, I would purchase that property. 8. Who will go with me? 9. Do let me see your book'.

10. I must not be tardy. 11. Lift up your heads, O ye gates! 12. Blessed are the poor in spirit; for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. 13. IJe should have told you. 14. They dare not puzzle us for their own sakes. 15. Let us not, I beseech you, deceive our- selves longer.

16. God help us ! what a poor world this would be, if this were the true doctrine. 17. If a line is parallel to a line of a plane, it

ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 77

is parallel to that plane. 18. If a plane intersect two parallel planes, the lines of intersection will be parallel. 19. Such a man were one for whom a woman's heart should beat constant whiia he breathes, and break when he dies.

20. Eeign thou in hell, thy kingdom; let me serve In heaven, God ever blest. — Milton.

21. Place me on Sunium's marble steep, ,X

Where nothing, save the waves and* I, May hear our mutual murmurs sweep;

There, swan-like, let me sing and die. — Byron.

TENSE. 97. Definition.

1. Tense denotes the time of an action or event.

2. There are three divisions of time : Past, Present, and Future. Each division has two tenses: an absolute and a relative.

3. The Absolute Tenses are the Present, the Past, and the Future. They denote indefinite or incomplete action.

4. The Kelative Tenses are the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and the Future Perfect They denote com- pleted action.

98. Present Tense.

The Present Tense denotes present time; as, " I ivalk;' u The army is marching."

Rem. l. — The present tense is used in expressing a general truth, or what is habitual; as, "Perseverance conquers all things;" " The mail arrives at six P. M."

Rem. 2. — The historical present is the present used for the past, to describe more vividly what took place in past time ; as, " Tacitus describes the manners and customs of the ancient Germans;"

78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

"Ulysses wakes, not knowing where lie was." — Pope. "Matthew traces the descent of Joseph ; Luke traces that of Mary."

Rem. 3. — The present subjunctive implies future time ; as, " If I go, I shall not return."

The present potential implies either present or future time ; as, "It may be snowing" (now); "I may go" (to-morrow).

The present imperative is future in regard to the act or state ; as, "Come again," i e., at some future time.

Rem. 4. — The present of the speaker or hearer is what is meant by present time. The present of the reader may not be the same as that of the writer.

Rem. 5.— When preceded by a relative pronoun, or by con- junctive adverbs of time, the present tense is sometimes future in its reference; as, "He will please all who employ him;" "The flowers will bloom when spring comes."

99. Present Perfect Tense.

The Present Perfect Tense represents an action or event as past, but connected with present time ; as, " I have learned my lesson/'

Rem. l. — Have, the sign of the present perfect tense, originally denoted possession. It retains this meaning when used as a prin- cipal verb. As an auxiliary, it denotes completion ; as, " The hunt- ers have hilled a wolf;" "A man has fallen from the bridge."

Rem. 2. — The present perfect indicative also expresses action completed in past time, but continued in itself, or in its effects, to the present; as, "He has lived here ten years," (and lives here now); "Cicero has written orations," (and still lives in his writings).

The present perfect potential usually denotes the present or future probability that an act relatively past was performed ; as, " I must have paid that noter" (a fact now probable) ; " In two years he may have outgrown you," (a fact then to be probable).

Rem. 3. — When preceded by a conjunctive adverb of time, the present perfect tense sometimes denotes future time; as, "He will forward the goods as soon as he has received them."

\ \j^

. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 79

100. Past Tense.

The Past Tense expresses what took place in time wholly past; as, "I wrote;" "I was sailing"

Rem. — The past indicative denotes what was habitual or cus- tomary; as, "We lived high in those days." In the progressive form, it denotes an act in past time, but not completed; as, "He was driving furiously when I saw him."

The past subjunctive generally expresses a supposition contrary to the fact, and represents present time; as, "If I were going [now], I would ride."

The past potential denotes (1) a duty or obligation, without ref- erence to time; as, "Judges should be merciful:" (2) a habit or custom; as, "He would be absent a week at a time:" (3) ability possessed in past time; as, "He could walk yesterday:" (4) present possibility or power; as, "I could write [nowj if I would:" (5) a future possibility; as, "If I should write to you [hereafter], you must answer immediately."

101. Past Perfect Tense.

The Past Perfect Tense represents an act as ended or completed in time fully past; as, "The cars had started before we reached the depot/'

Rem. i. — The past is frequently used instead of the past perfect, to denote the completion of an act at or before a certain past time mentioned ; as, " The boat left before midnight"

Rem. 2 — The past perfect subjunctive and past perfect potential denote past time simply, and deny the action or event; as, "If I had started sooner, I should have overtaken you."

102. Future Tense.

The Future Tense expresses what will take place in future time ; as, " I shall return soon f " The lion shall eat straw like the ox."

Rem. l. — shall and will are the signs of the future tense. Shall expresses the action or event (1) as a duty commanded or

80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

authorized ; as, " He shall pay you ;" " Thou shall not steal :" (2) as something unavoidable, unless a certain condition be complied with; as, "I shall suffer, if I do not take my overcoat:" (3) as future; as, "I shall leave at noon;" "You shall often find the richest men the meanest."

Will expresses the action or event (1) as something determined upon, or proceeding from the nature of things; as, "I will go: no power on earth can prevent me;" "The cause will raise up armies:" (2) as future; as, "You will feel better to-morrow."

Rem. 2. — Shall, in the first person, and will, in the second and third, are usually employed to denote futurity; as, "We shall arrive there by noon;" "You will be glad to see us;" "He will be with us."

Will is used, in the first person, to denote determination; and shall, in the second and third, to denote necessity; as, "I will write to you;" "Neither he nor you shall go without me."

103. Future Perfect Tense.

The Future Perfect Tense represents an action as finished or ended at or before a certain future time ; as, " I shall have finished my task at three o'clock;" "We shall have dined before you arrive."

104. Tenses in all the Modes.

1. The Indicative Mode has the six tenses.

2. The Subjunctive Mode has three tenses: the present, past, and past perfect.

3. The Potential Mode has four tenses: the present, present perfect, past, and past perfect.

4. The Imperative Mode has one tense: the present

5. The Infinitive Mode has tivo tenses: the present and present perfect.

Rem. — Tense does not properly belong to the infinitive mode. Its tenses are mere forms, without regard to time. The present

ETYMOLOGY — VEEBS. 81

tense denotes progressive or completed action or state, with refer- ence to past, present, or future time; the present perfect, a com- pleted action or state in an unlimited manner.

105. Signs of the Tenses : Active Yoice.

Indicative Mode.

Present, . . . Simple form of the verb.

Past, .... When regular, add ed to the simple form.

Future, . . . Prefix shall or will to the simple form.

Present Perfect, " have, hast, or has to the perfect participle.

Past Perfect, . " had or hadst to the perfect participle.

Future Perfect, " shall have or will have to the perfect participle.

Subjunctive lilode.

If, though, except, unless, &c, placed before tense forms given in the Conjugation, are signs of the subjunctive mode.

Potential Mode.

Present, . . . Prefix may, can, or must to the simple form. Past, .... " might, could, would, or should to the simple form. Present Perfect, " may, can, or must have to the perfect participle. Past Perfect, . " might, could, would, or should have to the perfect participle.

Imperative Mode.

Present, . . . Let, or a command.

Infinitive Moile.

Present, . . . Prefix to to the simple form.

Present Perfect, " to have to the perfect participle.

Participles.

Present, . . . Add ing to the simple form.

Perfect, . . . When regular, add ed or d to the simple form.

Compound, . . Prefix having to the perfect participle.

K

106. Forms of the Terb.

Verbs have five forms, which may oe considered subdivisions of the tenses: the Common, the Emphatic, the Progressive, the Passive, and the Ancient, or Solemn Style.

82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

2. The Common Form represents an act as a custom, or as completed without reference to its progress; as, "I write;" '"J. shall write"

3. The Emphatic Form represents an act with em- phasis ; as, " I do write ;" " He did go."

Rem. — This form is used in the present and past indicative and subjunctive, and in the present imperative. It is formed by pre- fixing the present and past tenses of to do to the simple form of the verb.

4. The Progressive Form is used to denote action or state in progress; as, "I am writing;" "He had been singing"

Rem. — The progressive form may be used in all the modes and tenses, and is formed by prefixing the various modes and tenses of the neuter verb to be to the present participle of the principal verb.

5. The Passive Form denotes the reception of an act by its subject; as, "I am struck:" "John was punished;" " I shall be loved"

Rem. — The passive form, is used in all the modes and tenses, and is formed by prefixing the various modes and tenses of the neuter verb to be to the perfect participle of the principal verb.

6. The Ancient Form, or Solemn Style, is used in the Bible, in religious worship, and sometimes in poetry and burlesque; as, "Thou art the man;" "So shalt thou rest;" "Thou art a pretty fellow."

107. Person and Number.

r

1. The Person and Jfnmber of verbs are the changes which they undergo to mark their agreement with their subjects.

2. A subject in the second person singular, generally requires the verb, or its auxiliary, to end in t, st, or est;

y>

w

ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 83

as, "Thou shalt not steal;" "Thou canst read;" "Thou

runnest;"

3. A subject in the third person singular, generally requires the verb, or its auxiliary, to end in s, es, or eth; as, "Julia reads;" "The horse goes;" "God loveth us."

4. The personal terminations in the plural are the same s the first person singular, except in the verb to be.

5. A verb must agree with its subject in person and number.

Rem. l. — When two or more nominatives, differing in person, are taken collectively, the verb prefers the first to the second, and the second to the third. When they are connected by or or nor, or are taken separately, it prefers the person of the nominative next to it. Courtesy requires the first place to be given to the second person, and last place to the first.

Ex. — " You, he, and I have to remain ;" " You and he have to learn that long lesson;" uYou or I am mistaken;" "Thou and thy friends are to make reparation."

Rem. 2 — A verb must be in the singular number (1) when its nominative is in the singular; (2) when its nominative is a group of objects viewed as one thing; (3) when its nominative is an object conceived as a unit, though denoted by a plural nominative ; (4) when its nominative is two or more objects taken singly, and denoted by different or by several nominatives.

Ex. — "Kain falls;" "The army is marching;" " Dorahey & Son was written- by Dickens;" "The ten dollars was duly paid;" "Descent and fall to us is adverse;" "For thine is the kingdom, and the pover, and the glory."

a3. — A verb must be in the plural number (1) when its nominations- a single object, or a group of objects conceived as to its individual parts; (2) when its nominative is plural; (3) when plural nominatives are used in connection with singular nomina- tives, taken separately, or connected by or or nor; (4) when it has " two or more objects taken collectively.

Ex. — "The rains descend;" "The multitude pursue pleasure;" JiEither the magistrate or the laws are at fault;" "You, he, and 1 M-e here."

84 ENGLISH GKAMMAK.

108. Unipersonal Yerbs.

A Unipersonal Verb is one by which an act or state is asserted independently of any particular subject; as, "It snows;" "It cleared off;" "It behooves us to be careful."

Rem. — Meseems, meseem,ed, methinks, methought, may be regardec as unipersonal verbs, equivalent to it seems, it seemed to me, I think, I thought.

109. Conjugation.

1. The Conjugation of a verb, is the correct expres- sion, in regular order, of its modes, tenses, voices, persons, and numbers.

2. There are four forms of conjugation: the Regular, the Emphatic, the Progressive, and the Interrogative.

3. The Principal Parts of a verb are the present indicative, the past indicative, and the perfect participle.

4. The Synopsis of a verb is its variation in form, through the different modes and tenses, in a single number and person.

110. Conjugation of the Yerb "To Be."

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle.

Be, or am, Was, Been.

SYNOPSIS.

INDICATIVE MODE.

Present, ... I am. Past Perfect, . I had been.

Present Perfect, I have been. Future, ... I shall be.

Past, I was. Future Perfect, I shall have been.

X

ETYMOLOGY — VERfiS. 85

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present, . . . If I be. Past, . . . . If I were.

Past Perfect, .... If I had been.

POTENTIAL MODE.

Present, ... I may, can, or must be.

Present Perfect, I may, can, or must have been.

Past, .... I might, could, would, or should be.

Past Perfect, . I might, could, would, or should have been.

REGULAR CONJUGATION. f

Note. — Shall, in the first person, and will, in the second and third, future tenses, are used to denote futurity. When will is used in the first person, or shall, in the second or third, determination or necessity is represented.

INDICATIVE MODE.

1. 2. 3.	PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. I am, 1. We are, Thou art, 2. You are, He is; 3. They are.
	PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
1. 2. 3.	I have been, 1. We have been, Thou hast been, 2. You have been, He has been ; 3. They have been,
	PAST TENSE.
1. 2. 3.	I was, 1. We were, Thou wast, 2. You were, He was ; 3. They were.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. I had been, 1. We had been,

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been,

3. He had been; 3. They had been.

86

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Singular.

1. I shall be,

2. Thou wilt be,

3. He will be;

FUTURE TENSE.

Plural.

1. We shall be,

2. You will be,

3. They will be.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been,

2. Thou wilt have been,

3. He will have been:

2. You will have been,

3. They will have been,

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

1. If I be, 1. If we be,

2. If thou be, 2. If you be,

3. If he be ; 3. If they be.

1. If I were,

If thou wert, If he were:

PAST TENSE 1.

If we were,

2. If you were,

3. If they were.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. If I had been, 1. If we had been,

2. If thou hadst been, 2. If you had been,

3. If he had been ; 3. If they had been.

POTENTIAL MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

1. I may be,

2. Thou mayst be,

3. He may be;

1. We may be,

2. You may be,

3. They may be.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. I may have been,

2. Thou mayst have been,

3. He may have been ;

1. We may have been,

2. You may have been,

3. They may have been.

ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 87

PAST TENSE.

Singular. Plural.

1. I might be, 1. We might be,

2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be,

3. He might be ; 3. They might be.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been,

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been,

3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been.

HSote. — In reviews, use the auxiliary can or must. IMPEEATIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

2. Be, or do thou be ; 2. Be, or do ye or you be.

INFINITIVE MODE. Present, To be. Present Perfect, To have been.

PAETICIPLES. Present, Being. Perfect, Been. Compound, Having been,

111. Conjugation of the Yerb "To Love."

ACTIVE VOICE.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Present Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle.

Love. Loved. Loved.

SYNOPSIS.

INDICATIVE MODE.

Present, ... I love. Past Perfect, . I had loved.

Present Perfect, I have loved. Future, ... I shall love. Past, .... I loved. Future Perfect, I shall have loved.

88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present, . . . If I love. Past, . . . If I loved.

Past Perfect, .... If I had loved.

POTENTIAL MODE.

Present, ... I may, can, or must love.

Present Perfect, I may, can, or must have loved.

Past, .... I might, could, would, or should love.

Past Perfect, . I might, could, would, or should have loved.

REGULAR CONJUGATION.

INDICATIVE MODE.

	PRESENT	TENSE.
Singular.		Plural.
1. I love,		1. We love,
2. Thou lovest,		2. You love,
8. He loves;		3. They love.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved,

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved,

3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved.

PAST TENSE.

1. I loved, 1. We loved,

2. Thou loveds 2. You loved,

3. He loved ; 3. They loved.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved,

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved,

3. He had loved; 3. They had loved.

FUTURE TENSE.

1. I shall love, 1. We shall love,

2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love,

3. He will love ; 3. They will love.

ETYMOLOGY — VEKES. 89

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural.

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved,

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved,

3. He will have loved; 3. They will have loved.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

1. If I love, 1. If we love,

2. If thou love, 2. If you love,

3. If he love ; 3. If they love.

PAST TENSE.

1. If I loved, 1. If we loved,

2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved,

3. If he loved; 3. If they loved.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. If I had loved, 1. If we had loved,

2. If thou hadst loved, 2. If you had loved,

3. If he had loved ; 3. If they had loved.

POTENTIAL MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

1. I may love, 1. We may love,

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love,

3. He may love; 3. They may love.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. 2. 3.	I may have loved, Thou mayst have loved, He may have loved ;	1. 2. 3.	We may have loved, You may have loved, They may have loved.
	PAST	TENSE.
1. 2. 3.	I might love, Thou mightst love, He might love; H. G. 8.	1. 2. 3.	We might love, You might love, They might love.

90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

^ . < Singular. Plural.

1. I might have loved, 1.' We might have loved,

2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved,

3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

2. Love, or do thou love; 2. Love, or do ye or you love.

INFINITIVE MODE. Present, To love. Present Perfect, To have loved.

PARTICIPLES.

Present, Loving. Perfect, Loved. Compound, Having loved.

112. Conjugation of the Yerb "To Love."

PASSIVE VOICE.

The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing, as an auxiliary, the. various forms of the neuter verb to be, to the perfect participle of a transitive verb. The tense of the verb to be determines the tense in the Passive Voice.

SYNOPSIS. INDICATIVE MODE.

Present, I am loved.

Present Perfect, ... I have been loved.

Past, I was loved.

Past Perfect, . ' . . . I had been loved.

Future, I shall be loved.

Future Perfect, ... I shall have been loved.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Present, . . If I be loved. Past, . . If I were loved.

Past Perfect, . . . If I had been loved.

ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.

91

POTENTIAL MODE.

Present, I may be loved.

Present Perfect, ... I may have been loved.* *' \

Past, I might be loved.

Past Perfect, .... I might have been ilo^d. '-

KEGTJLAB, CONJUGATION. ,\ i ■ *-

INDICATIVE MODE.

Singular.

1. I am loved,

2. Thou art loved, 3 He is loved;

PEESENT TENSE.

Plural )

1. We are lov|d,

2. You are loved,

3. They are loved.

PEESENT PEEFECT TENSE.

1. I have been loved, 1.

2. Thou hast been loved. 2.

3. He has been loved; 3.

We have been loved, You have been loved, They have been loved.

1. I was loved,

2. Thou wast loved,

3. He was loved;

PAST TENSE.

1. We were loved,

2. You were loved, 3.

They were loved, x j.""V,* •,

PAST PEEFECT TENSE. - ^ ^§**H^

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved,

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, '♦',_,

3. He had been loved; 3. They had been lov^L.

FUTUEE TENSE.

1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be .loved,

2. Thou wilt be loved 2. You will be loved,

3. He will be loved; 3. They will be loved.

FUTUEE PEEFECT TENSE.

1. I shall have been loved, 1. We shall hrve been loved,

2. Thou wilt have been loved, 2. You will have been loved,

3. He will have been loved ; 3. They will have been loved.

92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural..

1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved,

- 2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved,

3. If he be loved; 3. If they be loved.

PAST TENSE.

1. If I were loved, 1. Were I loved, 1. If we were loved,

2. If thou wert loved, 2. Wert thou loved, 2. If you were loved,

3. If he were loved ; 3. Were he loved ; 3. If they were loved.

Rem — For the Past Perfect Tense, prefix if to the forms of the past perfect indicative.

POTENTIAL MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved,

2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved,

3. He may be loved ; 3. They may be loved.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. I may have been loved, 1. We may have been loved,

2. Thou mayst have been loved, 2. You may have been loved,

3. He may have been loved ; 3. They may have been loved.

PAST TENSE.

1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved,

2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved,

3. He might be loved ; 3. They might be loved.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. I might have been loved, 1. We might have been loved,

2. Thou mightst have been loved, 2. You might have been loved,

3. He might have been loved ; 3. They might have been loved.

Note. — In reviews, use the auxiliary can or must. IMPERATIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

2. Be loved, or be thou loved ; 2. Be loved, or be you loved.

ETYMOLOGY — VEEBS. 93

INFINITIVE MODE.

Present, To be loved. Pres. Perfect, To have been loved.

PAKTICIPLES. Pres., Being loved. Perfect, Loved. Compound, Having been loved.

113. Coordinate Forms of Conjugation.

The Progressive, the Emphatic, and the Interrogative are called the Coordinate Forms of Conjugation.

SYNOPSIS.

PROGRESSIVE FORM. INDICATIVE MODE.

Present, I am loving.

Present Perfect, ... I have been loving.

Past, I was loving.

Past Perfect, .... I had been loving.

Future, I shall be loving.

Future Perfect, ... I shall have been loving.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Present, . . If I be loving. Past, . . If I were loving.

Past Perfect, ... If I had been loving.

POTENTIAL MODE.

Present, I may be loving.

Present Perfect, ... I may have been loving.

Past, I might be loving.

Past Perfect, .... I might have been loving.

INFINITIVE MODE.

Present, To be loving. Present Perfect, To have been loving.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

Present, .... Be thou loving.

PARTICIPLES.

Present, Loving. Compound, Having been loving.

94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

THE EMPHATIC FORM. INDICATIVE MODE.

Present, I do love. Past, I did love.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present, If I do love. Past, If I did love.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

Present, Do thou love.

INTERROGATIVE FORM. INDICATIVE MODE.

Present, . . . Love I ? Do I love ? Am I loving ?

Present Perfect, Have I loved ?. Have I been loving ?

Past,. . . . Loved I? Did I love? Was I loving?

Past Perfect, . Had I loved ? Had I been loving ?

Future, . . . Shall I love? Shall I be loving?

Future Perfect, Shall I have loved? Shall I have been loving?

POTENTIAL MODE. Present, . . Must I love ? Past, . . . Might I love ?

Pres. Perfect, Must I have loved ? Past Perfect, Might I have loved ?

114. Negative Forms.

1. To conjugate a verb negatively, place not after it, or after the first auxiliary ; but before the infinitive and the participles.

Ex. — Indicative, I learn not, or I do not learn. I have not learned. I learned not, or did not learn, &c.

Infinitive. — Not to .learn. Not to have learned.

Participle. — Not learning. Not learned. Not having learned.

2. To conjugate a verb interrogatively and negatively ; in

the indicative and potential modes, place the subject and

not after the verb, or after the first auxiliary.

Ex. — Learn I not? or; Do I not learn? Have I not learned? Did I not learn ? &c.

ETYMOLOGY — VERBS.

95

115. Exercises.

Write a synopsis of trie transitive verbs write, think, row, arouse, build, conquer, command, entreat, teach, and instruct, in trie In- dicative, Subjunctive, and Potential Modes, Active and Passive Voices.

Tell the mode, tense, person, and number of each verb in • the follovj- ing sentences :

1. He has gone. 2. I might write. 3. We had gone. 4. He had been assured. 5. If I were loved. 6. They may have been left. 7. You were seen. 8. Thou wilt have loved. 9. She will have been invited. 10. He might have built. 11. You might have been seen. 12. The vessel will have sailed.

13. We might have written. 14. They were loved. 15. If I had been loved. 16. If he is loved. 17. Though he love. 18. Though he is loved. 19. If I may be seen. 20. We can go. 21. Go 22. Eemain. 23. If he return. 24. If he returns.

116. Irregular Yerbs.

An Irregular Verb is one which does not form its past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present tense; as, do, did, done; go, went, gone.

The following list contains the Principal Paints of most of the Irregular verbs. Those marked e, have also the regular forms.

Present.	Past.	Perfect Participle.	Present.	Past.	Perfect Participle.
Abide,	abode,	abode.	Become,	became, .	become.
Am,	was,	been.	Befall,	befell,	befallen.
Awake,	awoke, r	f awaked, I awoke.	Beget,	/ begat, l begot,	begotten,
		O )	begot.
Arise,	arose,	arisen.	Begin,	began,	begun.
Bear,	f bore, ) '•bare,	born.	Behold,	beheld,	beheld.
(bring forth,		Belay,	belaid, R.	belaid, r.
Bear, (carry,) bore,	borne.	Bend,	bent, r.	bent, r.
Beat,	beat,	/ beaten, «- beat.	Bereave,	bereft, r.	bereft, R0
		Beseech,	besought,	besought.

96

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Present.	Past.	Perfect Participle.	Present.	Past.	Perfect Participle.
Bet,	bet, R.	bet, R.	Dream,	dreamt, R. dreamt, r.
/'Tio+irlo	j betided, I betid,	betided,	Dress,	drest, r.	drest, R.
• -DclltltJ,	betid.	Dwell,	dwelt, r.	dwelt, R.
*Bid,	{bid, «- bade,	bid,	Drive,	drove,	driven.
bidden.	Eat,	ate,	eaten.
Bite,	bit,	f bitten, I bit.	Fall, Feed,	fell, fed,	fallen, fed.
Bind,	bound,	bound.	Feel,	felt,	felt-
Bleed,	bled,	bled.	Fight,	fought,	fought.
Bless,	f blessed, I blest,	blessed,	Find,	found,	found.
blest.	Forbear,	forbore,	forborne.
Breed,	bred	bred.	Forget,	forgot,	f forgotten, l forgot.
Break,	J bx-oke,	broken,
I brake,	broke.	Forsake,	forsook,	forsaken.
Brin^,	brought,	brought.	Flee,	fled,	fled.
Bold,	built, r.	built, r.	Fling,	flung,	flung.
Burn,	burnt, r.	burnt, r.	Fly,	flew,	flown.
Burst,	burst,	burst.	Freeze,	froze,	frozen.
Buy,	bought,	bought.	Freight,	freightec	, fraught, R
Cast,	cast,	cast.	Get,	got,	f got, \ gotten.
Catch,	caught, r	caught, r.
Chide,	chid,	f chidden, \ chid.	Give,	gave,	given.
		Gild,	gilt, R.	gilt, r.
Choose,	chose,	chosen.	Gird,	girt, r.	girt, r.
Cleave, {adhere,	/ cleaved, ' I clave,	cleaved.	Go, Grave,	went, graved,	gone, graven, R.
rvi „„	r cleft,	cleft,	Grind,	ground,	ground.
Cleave, j , {splits	cloven,	Grow,	grew,	grown.
	y- clave,	cleaved.	Hang,	hung, r	hung, r.
Cling,	clung,	clung.	Have,	had,	had.
Clothe	/ clothed, <• clad,	clothed,	Heave,	hove, R.	hoven, R.
Ksl.\J\jll.\^ +	clad.	Hew,	hewed,	hewn, r.
Come,	came,	come.	Hear,	heard,	heard.
Cost,	cost,	cost.	Hid3,	hid,	f hidden, I hid.
'-reep,	crept,	crept.
Crow,	crew, r.	crowed.	Hit,	hit,	hit,
Cut,	cut,	cut.	Hold,	held,	/ held, <- holden.
Dare,	durst, r.	dared.
Deal,	dealt,	dealt.	Hurt,	hurt,	hurt.
Dig,	dug, R.	dug, R.	Keep,	kept,	kept.
Do,	did,	done.	Kneel,	knelt, R	knelt.
Draw,	drew,	drawn.	Knit,	knit, R.	knit, R.

ETYMOLOGY VERBS.

97

Present.	Past.	Perfect Participle.	Present.	Past.	Perfect Participle
Know,	knew,	known.	Shake,	shook,	shaken.
Lay,	laid,	laid.	Shape,	shaped,	shapen, R.
Lead,	lead,	led.	Shave,	shaved,	shaven, r.
Lean,	leant, R.	leant, R.	Shear,	shore, R.	shorn, R.
Leap,	leapt, R.	leapt, r.	Shed,	shed,	shed.
Learn,	learnt, r.	learnt, r.	Shine,	shone, R.	shone, R.
Leave,	left,	left.	Shoe,	shod,	shod.
Lend,	lent,	lent.	Shoot,	shot,	shot.
Let,	let,	let.	Show,	showed,	shown.
Lie, (recline,) lay,	lain.	Shred,	shred,	shred.
Light,	lit, r.	lit, r.	gyuLt,	shut,	shut.
Lose,	lost,	lost.	m>	sat,	sat.
Load,	loaded,	laden, r.	Jk	f sang, I sung,
Make,	made,	made.	Sing,	sung.
Mean,	meant,	meant.	Sink,	f sank, V sunk,	sunk.
Meet,	met,	met.
Mow,	mowed,	mown, r.	S0W,(*ca«er,)S0Wed,	sown, R.
Pay,	paid,	paid	Slay,	slew,	slain.
Pass,	past, r.	past.	Sleep,	slept,	slept.
Pen,( inclose, ) pent, r.	pent, r.	Sling,	slung,	slung.
Plead,	f plead, r. 1. pled,	plead, r. pled.	Smell,	slunk, slit,	slunk, slit,
Put,	put,	put.	smelt,	smelt, R.
Quit,	quit, r.	quit, r.	Smite,	smote,	' smitten, v smit.
Rap,	rapt, R.	rapt, r.
Read,	read,	read.	Speak,	spoke,	spoken.
Reave,	reft,	reft.	Speed,	sped,	sped,
Rend,	rent,	rent.	Spell,	spelt, r.	spelt, r.
Rid,	rid,	rid.	Spend,	spent,	spent.
Ride,	rode,	f ridden, v rode.	Spill,	spilt, R.	spilt, R.
	| rang, *~ rung,	Spin,	/ spun, I. span,	spun.
Ring,	rung.
		SJf.it,	f spit, ^ spat,	spit,
Rise,	rose,	risen,	spitten.
Rive,	rived,	riven, R.	Split,	split,	split.
Run,	ran,	run.	Spread,	spread,	spread.
Saw, Say,	sawed, said,	sawn, r. said.	Spring,	J sprang, i. sprung,	sprung.
See,	saw,	seen.	Spoil,	spoilt, R.	spoilt, R.
Seethe,	sod, R.	sodden, r.	Stay,	staid, R.	staid, R.
Seek,	sought,	sought.	Stand,	stood,	stood.
Set,	set,	set.	Stave,	stove, r.	stove, R.

H. G. 9.

98

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Pi-esent. Steal,

Sting, Stride,

Strike,

String, Strive,

Strow,

Past.

stole, stuck, stung,

f strode,

l- strid,

struck,

strung, strove,

strowed,

Swear, -j

Sweat, Sweep, Swell,

Swim,

Swing,

Take,

Teach,

Rem

may be

swore,

sware,

sweat, r.

swept,

swelled,

swam,

swum,

swung,

took,

taught,

Perfect Participle.

stolen.

stuck.

stung.

stridden,

strid. j struck, v stricken.

strung.

striven, f strowed, <- strown.

sweat, e. swept, swollen, r.

swum.

swung, taken, taught.

Present.	Past.
Tear,	tore,
Tell,	told,
Think,	thought,
Thrive,	throve, r
Throw,	threw,
Thrust,	thrust,

Tread, trod,

Wax,

Wear,

Weave,

Weep,

Wake,

Wed,

Wet,

Whet,

Win,

Wind,

Work,

Wring,

Write,

waxed, wore, wove, r. wept, woke, r. wed, r. wet, r. whet, r. won, wound, wrought, R. wrung, wrote,

, — The auxiliaries are all irregular verbs, found in the paradigm for their conjugation.

Perfect Participle.

torn.

told.

thought.

thriven, R.

thrown.

thrust.,

trodden,

trod.

waxen, r.

worn.

woven, r.

wept.

woke, R.

wed, r.

wret, R.

whet, R.

won.

wound.

wrought, R.

wrung.

written.

'heir forms

117. Defective and Redundant Yerbs.

1. Defective Verbs are those which want some of the Principal Parts.

Ex. — Beware, from be and aware, used mostly in the impera- tive mode, but may be used wherever be would occur in the con- jugation of the verb to be; as, "Beware the awful avalanche!" " If angels fell, why should not men beware f "

Ong-iit, used in both present and past tenses; as, "I know I ought to go," (now); "I knew he ought to have gone," (then).

Quoth, used for said; as, " 'Not 1/ quoth Saneho." It always stands before its subject. Quod is also used in the same sense, by old authors.

Wit, in the sense of know ; as, To wit, i. e., namely. Wot, wis, wert, wist, wote,. derived from wit, ? re found in old authors.

ETYMOLOGY VERBS. 99

2. The Auxiliaries are also defective, wanting the perfect participle.

3. Redundant Verbs are those which have more than one form for their past tense or perfect participle.

Ex. — Cleave; cleft, clove, or clave; cleft, cloven, or cleaved.

118. Exercises.

Exercises to be corrected:

1. The cloth was weaved beautiful. 2. I seen him run when you come. 3. The boys fit 'most an hour. 4. I stringed the rasp- berries on a spear of grass. 5. Were the cattle drove to pasture? 6. She has took my pencil. 7. The ship which springed a leak has just hoved in sight. 8. The plastering has fell from the ceiling. 9. Charles winned the prize after he had strove many times.

10. I did not git my exercise wrote in time. 11. The wind has blowed the fence down. 12. He has went and brung some snow into the house. 13. Who learned you how to spell. 14. The stone smit him right in the face. 15. 1 laid down, and ris much refreshed. 16. The cars have ran off the track. 17. The bells ringed when we come into town.

18. He could have went. 19. I have saw some fine cattle to- day. 20. I and you is going to the concert, aint we? 21. Neither he nor she are good to me. 22. The steamboat come a puffing along. 23. His face has wore a sad expression for more 'n a week.

24. I 'm in a quandary whether a horse or a grayhound run the fastest. 25. The man throwed a stone, and made the coon git. 26. John dumb the tree, and shaked the chestnuts down.

119. Order of Parsing.

«

1. A Verb, and why

2. Regular or Irregular, and why?

3. Give its principal parts.

4. Copulative, transitive, or intransitive, and why?

5. Voice and form, and why?

6. Mode, and why?

7. Tense, and why? Inflect the tense.

8. Person and number, and why? Rule.

100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

120. Models for Parsing.

I. "Mary has recited her lesson." Has recited is a verb; it is a word which expresses being, action, or state: regular; it forms its past tense and perfect participle by adding ed: principal parts are pres., recite, past, recited, perfect participle, recited: transitive; it re- quires the addition of an object to complete its meaning: active voice; it represents the subject as acting: common form; it represents a customary act: indicative mode; it asserts a thing as actual: present perfect tense; it repre- sents a past act as completed in present time: third person, singular number; to agree with its subject "Mary," according to Rule XIII: "A verb must agree with its subject in person and number."

II. "I shall go if you stay." Shall go ... is a verb; (why?) : irregular; it does not form its past tense and perfect participle by adding ed: principal parts are go, went, gone: intransitive; (why?): common form; (why?): indicative mode; (why?): future tense; (why?): first person, singular number; (why?): Rule XIII.

Stay is a verb; (why?): regular; (why?): principal parts;

(give them): intransitive; (why?): commom form; (why?): subjunctive mode; it represents an act as con- ditional : present tense in form, but denotes future time : second person, singular or plural number; (why?): Rule XIII.

III. "He should have answered my letter." Should have answered is a, verb; (why?): regular; (why?): prin- cipal parts; (give them): transitive; (why?): active voice; (why?): common form; (why?): potential mode; it represents an act as obligatory : past perfect tense ; it is the form used to represent an act as completed at or before some other act: third person, singular number; (why?): Rule XIII.

IV. "Bring me a glass of water."

Bring is a verb; (why?) : irregular ; (why?) : principal parts;

(give them): transitive; (why?): active voice; (why?):

ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 101

common form ; (why?): imperative mode ; (why?): present ten?e; (why?): second person, singular number, to agree with its subject "thou" understood: Rule XIII.

V. "He attempted to ascend the mountain/' To ascend . . is a verb; (why?): regular; (why?) : principal parts; (give them) : transitive; (why?): active voice; (why?): common form; (why?): infinitive mode ; (why?): present tense; (why?): object of " attempted " : Eule VI.

VI. " The letter ivas written yesterday." Was written is a verb ; (why?): irregular; (why?): principal parts ; (give them): transitive; (why?): passive voice; it rep- resents the subject as being'acted upon: indicative mode; (why?) : past tense; (why?) : third person, singular num- ber; (why?): Rule XIII.

VII. "Liberty is sweet."

Is is a verb; (why?) : irregular ; (why?) : principal parts;

(give them): neuter; (why?): copulative; it is used to connect the predicate "sweet" to the subject "liberty": indicative mode; (why?): present tense; (why?): third person, singular number, to agree with its subject "lib- erty": Rule XIII.

VIII. " He was considered rich." Was considered is a verb; (why?): regular; (why?): principal

parts; (give them): passive form ; (why?): copulative; (why?): indicative mode; (why?): past tense; (why?): third person, singular number ; (why?): Rule XIII.

IX. "The fields look green."

Look is a verb ; (why?) : regular; (why?) : principal parts;

(give them): copulative; it connects the predicate "green" to the subject "fields": indicative mode; (why?): present tense; (why?): third person, plural number; (why?): Rule XIII.

X. "John hastened to assist us." To assist ... is a verb; (why?) : regular; (why?): principal parte; (give them): transitive; (why?): active voice; (why?): infinitive mode; it expresses action without affirming it: it depends upon "hastened": Rule XVII.

102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

XI. " To lie is disgraceful." rro lie. , ... is a verb; (why?) : regular; (why?): -principal parts; (give them): infinitive mode; (why?): it is the subject of the sentence "To lie is disgraceful/' and is in the nominative case ; Rule I.

XII. '" I heard the wolves howling in the forest." Howling- . . is a participle; it partakes of the properties of a verb and of an adjective: it is derived from the verb ' howl'*, present participle; it denotes continuance: it belongs to "wolves": Rule XII.

XIII. " Take this letter, written by myself." Written .... is a participle; (why?): (from what word derived?) : perfect participle; it denotes completion: it belongs to "letter": Rule XII.

XIV. "He has been reading Shakspeare." Has been reading- is a verb ; (why?) : irregular; (why?) : principal parts; (give them): active voice; (why?): progressive form; it denotes continuance of action: indicative mode; (why?): present perfect tense; (why?): third person, singular number; (why?): Rule XIII.

XV. " That man did buy our house."

Did fony ... is a verb; (why?): irregular; (why?): principal parts; (give them): active voice; (why?): emphatic form; it denotes assertion with emphasis : indicative mode ; (why?): past tense; (why?): third person, singular num- ber"; (why?): Rule XIII.

121. Exercises.

Parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs in the following

sentences :

1. They commenced plowing yesterday. 2. I seldom write let- ters. 3. My father brought me some pine-apples when he came from the city. 4. She had gone to walk. 5. When do you intend to return my umbrella ? 6. The workmen should have been more careful. 7. Hallowed be thy name. 8. Respect the aged. 9. I could not learn to do it.

w

ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 103

10. The weather was unpleasant. 11. He should have been more industrious. 12. Shall I assist you? 13. How many regi- ments Were mustered out? 14. Have all the gifts of healing? 15. Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 16. The pc-or must work in their grief. 17. We were speedily convinced that his professions were insincere.

18. Hear, father, hear our prayer!

Long hath thy goodness our footsteps attended.

• 19. That very law that molds a tear,

And bids it trickle from its source, That law preserves the earth a sphere,

And guides the planets in their course. — Rogers.

20. Why restless, why cast down, my soul? Hope still, and thou shalt sing The praise of Him who is thy God, Thy Savior, and thy King.

Passive Forms. 1. He was beaten with many stripes. 2. The sheep were destroyed by wolves. 3. Every crime should be pun- ished. 4. You, he, and I were invited. 5. America was discov- ered by Christopher Columbus. 6. He has been elected mayor of our city. 7. This lake is said to be one hundred feet deep. 8. The work might have been finished yesterday.

Progressive, Emphatic, and Interrogative Forms. 1. He

is writing a letter. 2. They should have been studying their les- sons. 3. They were digging for gold. 4. I do wish you were here. 5. He did not commit forgery. 6. How do you learn so fast? 7. Why does he persist in denying it? 8. Where were you going when I met you?

Exercises to be corrected:

1. John did n't go to do any mischief. 2. He laid down to take a nap. 3. I reckon you are from the East. 4. You had not ought to have done so, for you knowed better. 5. Had I have known that, I should rather have not seen him. 6. The blacksmith shoed my horse. 7. I should not of known him. 8. He could have went as well as not.

9. I have saw a steam-boat to-day. 10. I never seen any thing like it. 11. He has gone and done it. 12. Mary was chose on my side. 13. The water has ran into our cellar. 14. He knew

104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

\

nothing of what was being done. 15. Those trees will bear being pruned more yet. 16. A new school-house is being built in our district. 17. The boy had swam the river.

18. I will be drowned : nobody shall help me. 19. Would we

ave a good time if we should go? 20. Was I to play truant, I should get punished. 21, By following me, you shall get there sooner. 22. We will receive our money to-morrow. 23. Writing is to make letters with a pen or pencil.

24. The order served rather to exasperate instead of quieting the people. 25. Money is scarce and times hard. 26, I never could, and presume I never shall understand that passage. 27. Your in- tentions might, and probably were, good. 28. No one ever worked so hard as I have done to-day. 29. Any word that will compare is an adjective,

30. Time and tide waits for no man. 31. Either Stephen or Jonas have to stay at home. 32. What black despair, what horror fill his mind? 33. That a belle should be vain, or a fop ignorant, are not to be wondered at. 34. Our potatoes is all gone.

X

THE ADVERB, 122. Oral Lesson.

Write this sentence on your slates : " Jane sang a song." What element is " song " ? Ans. — An objective element. Why? Ans. — Because it completes the meaning of the predicate. Write " Jane sang a song sweetly." Does "sweetly" complete the meaning of the predicate? Ans. — It does not. What word is modified by it, however? Ans. — "Sang." How does it modify " sang " ? Ans. — It tells how Jane sang.

Write this sentence: "You are very kind." What word is modified by "very"? Ans. — "Kind." What -part of speech is "kind"? Ans. — An. adjective. Write "A letter, hastily written, was sent me yesterday." What does "hastily" modify? Ans. — '"Written." What part of speech is "written?" Ans. — A parti- ciple. Write "The letter was written very hastily." What does « very " modify ? Ans.—11 Hastily." What does " hastily " modify ? Ans. — " Was written."

Those words, and all others used in a similar manner, are called Adverbs.

ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS. 105

i

123. Definition.

An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, adjective, participle, or an adverb; as, "She sings sweetly;" "The roads are very rough ;" "The ranks were quickly broken ;" " He reads tolerably well."

Rem. i. — An adverb is equivalent to a phrase consisting of a preposition and its object, limited by an adjective.

Ex. — "He walks rapidly" i. e., He walks in a rapid manner. "He lives there," i. e., He lives at that place. "The work is intensely inter- esting," i. e., The work is interesting in an intense degree.

Rem. 2. — An adverb sometimes modifies a phrase or a clause.

Ex. — "He sailed nearly round the globe;" "The old man likewise^ came to the city." In the first sentence, nearly limits the phrase " round the globe ;" and in the second, likewise modifies the entire proposition.

124. Classes.

1. With respect to their meaning and use, adverbs are divided into five classes: Adverbs of Time, Place, Cause, Manner, and Degree.

2. Adverbs of Time answer the questions, When? How long? How often?

Ex. — After, again, ago, always, anon, early, ever, never, forever, frequently, hereafter, hitherto, immediately, lately, now, often, seldom, soon, sometimes, then, wdien, while, weekly, until, yet, &c.

Rem. — To-day, to-morrow, to-night, yesterday, yesternight, (for- merly written y ester day and y ester night,) are nouns, not adverbs. When used as modifiers, they should be parsed as nouns in the objective case, without a governing word. (See Eule VIII.)

Ex.— "He will come to-day;" "They all left yesterday;" "We had a severe storm yesternight."

3. Adverbs of Place answer the questions, Wliere? Whither?* Whence ?

Ex.— Above, below, down, up, hither, thither, here, there, where, herein, therein, wherein, hence, thence, whence, every-where, no-

106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

where, somewhere, far, yonder, back, forth, aloof, away, aboard, aloft, ashore, backwards, forwards, first, secondly, wherever, &c.

Rem. — There is sometimes used as an expletive to introduce a sentence; as, "There were giants in those days;" "Breathes there a man with soul so dead?"

4. Adverbs of Cause answer the questions, Wliy?

Wherefore f

Ex — Wherefore, therefore, then, why.

5. Adverbs of Manner answer *the question, How?

Ex. — Amiss, asunder, anyhow, well, badly, easily, foolishly, sweetly, certainly, indeed, surely, verily, nay, no, not, nowise, haply, perhaps, perchance, peradventure, probably, &c.

Rem. — Most adverbs of manner are formed by adding ly to adjectives or participles; as, wise, wisely ; united, unitedly.

6. Adverbs of Degree answer the questions, How much? How little?

Ex. — As, almost, altogether, enough, even, equally, much, more, most, little, less, least, wholly, partly, only, quite, scarcely, nearly, excellently, too, chiefly, somewhat, &c.

7. Adverbs which show the manner of the assertion are called modal adverbs ; as, verily, truly, not, no, yes. &c.

8. When, where, why, &c, when used in asking ques- tions, are called interrogative adverbs.

9. An Adverbial Phrase is a combination of words

used as a single adverb.

Ex. — "In general;" "hand in hand;" "by and by;" "through and through;" "no more;" " for the most part;" "as usual," &c. Such combinations may be parsed as single adverbs.

10. Conjunctive Adverbs are those which connect two propositions, and modify a word in each.

Ex. — " I shall see you again when I return ;" " Go where glory waits thee;" "I have been to Boston since I saw you last;" "Pay

ETYMOLOGY ADVERBS. 107

your bills before you leave;" "The book remained where I left it;" " I will go as soon as I have eaten my dinner."

Rem. l. — Conjunctive adverbs are equivalent to two phrases; one containing a relative pronoun, the other the antecedent of the relative. In the sentence, " He defends himself when he is at- tacked," when = at the time in which. "At the time" modifies "defends," and "in which" modifies "attacked;" hence when, the equivalent of the two phrases, modifies both.

Rem. 2. — The principal conjunctive adverbs are as, after, before, how, since, therefore, till, until, when, where, wherefore, while, and

why.

125. Comparison.

Many adverbs admit of comparison.

1. Derivatives ending in ly are usually compared by prefixing more and most, less and least to the simple form; as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely ; firmly, more firmly, most firmly.

2. Three adverbs are compared by adding er and est to the simple form, viz.: fast, faster, fastest; often, oftener, oftenest; soon, sooner, soonest.

8. Some adverbs are compared irregularly ; as, well, better, best ; ill) worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most, &c.

GENERAL REMARKS.

1. Some adverbs seem to be used independently ; as, yes, no, ivhy, well, &c, in certain constructions. They may be parsed as modi- fying the entire proposition, the preceding sentence, something understood, or as independent.

Ex.— "Have you my book?— No." "Why, that is strange." "Well, I am surprised." "Yea, the Lord sitteth King forever."

2. An adverb frequently denotes manner when it modifies a verb, and degree when it modifies an adjective or an adverb ; as, " I think so " = manner; " I feel so lonely " = degree.

3. Adverbs frequently become adjectives after copulative and passive verbs ; as, " He reads better'" = adverb ; " He seems better" — adjective. " It runs well " = adverb ; " He looks well" = adjective.

4. The adjective form of a word, or the adjective mode of com-

108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

parison, is allowed in poetry to a greater extent than in prose; as, "Breathe soft, ye winds;" "Drink deep;" "Dry clanked his har- ness."

5. Certain words are used sometimes as adverbs and sometimes as adjectives. They are adverbs when they modify verbs, adjec- tives, and other adverbs, and adjectives when they modify nouns or pronouns.

Ex. — "I can remain no longer;" "Let no man deceive yon." In the first sentence, "no" is an adverb, modifying "longer"; in the second, it is an adjective, modifying " man."

6. In such expressions as " He works for hire only," " One man only was injured," " only " is an adjective, modifying the preced- ing noun. "He sells drugs and books also" Here "also" is an adverb, modifying "sells" understood. "He sells drugs, and he also sells books."

126. Order of Parsing.

1. An Adverb, and why?

2. Compare it.

3. Tell what it modifies.

4. Eule.

127. Models for Parsing.

I. " He acted wisely"

Wisely is an adverb; it is used to modify the meaning of a

verb : compared, wisely, more wisely, most wisely : it is an adverb of manner, and modifies "acted": Rule XVIII: "Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, participles, and adverbs."

II. "Why do you laugh?"

Why is an adverb; (why?) : it is not compared: interroga- tive adverb, and modifies " do laugh " : Rule XVIII.

III. "They walk hand in hand."

Hand in band is an adverbial phrase; it is a combination of words used as a simple adverb: it modifies "walk": Rule XVIII.

ETYMOLOGY — PEEPOSITIONS. 109

IV "I shall certainly recover."

Certainly. . . . is an adverb; (why?): modal; it shows the manner in which the assertion is made: it modifies "shall recover": Rule XVIII.

V. " I will go whenever you wish."

Whenever . . . is an adverb; (why?) : conjunctive adverb; it connects two clauses, and modifies a word in each : it modifies "will go" and "wish": Rule XVIII.

128. Exercises.

Parse the adverbs in the following sentences : .

1. They lived very happily. 2. Why do you look so sad? 3. When spring comes, the flowers will bloom. 4. How rapidly the moments fly ! 5. He signed it then and there. 6. I have read it again and again. 7. He will do so no more. 8. The mystery will be explained by and by. 9. Perchance you are the man.

10. Whither has he gone? 11. They were agreeably disap- pointed. 12. He lives just over the hill yonder. 13. Henceforth let no man fear that God will forsake us. 14. I saw him before he left. 15. I will not be unjust. 16. I have not seen him since I returned from New York* 17. Doubtless, ye are the people. 18. Perhaps I shall go.

THE PREPOSITION. 129. Oral Lesson.

Write this sentence on your slates: "Mr. Olds is a wealthy man." What element is "wealthy"? Ans. — An adjective ele- ment. What does it modify? Ans. — "Man." Write this sen- tence: "Mr. Olds is a man of wealth." You see that "of wealth," in this sentence, has the same meaning as " wealthy" in the other. What part of speech is "wealth"? Ans. — A noun. The word "of" connects "man" and "wealth," and shows the relation be- tween the ideas expressed by them. In this case, the relation is that of possession: "man" possesses "wealth." Words used in this manner are called Prepositions, because they are usually placed before nouns.

In the sentence "We live in London," what words tell where

110 ENGLISH GKAMMAK.

we live? Ans. — "In London." These words constitute what is called a phrase, and form an adverbial element. The word limited by the phrase is called the antecedent term of relation, and the noun following the preposition, the subsequent term, or object. The ante- cedent term may be any thing which can be modified, but the subsequent must be the objective case of a noun or something used as a noun.

In the sentence " I recite in the afternoon," what is the ante- cedent term of -elation? Ans. — "Becite." Why? Ans. — Because it is the word which is modified by the phrase "in the afternoon." What is the subsequent term, or object? Ans. — "Afternoon." Why? Ans. — Because it is the object of the preposition "in."

130. Definition.

A Preposition is a word used to show the relation between its object and some other word; as, "The man of Uz ;" " Ellen is walking in the garden."

Rein, l, — A preposition and its object form a separable phrase, which modifies some word or combination of words, called the antecedent term of the relation expressed by the preposition; the object of the preposition being the subsequent term. In the sen- tence, "The house stands on a hill," stands is the antecedent term of relation, and hill the subsequent.

Rem. 3 — The object of a preposition may be a word, a phrase, or an entire proposition; as, "He lives in Chicago;" "The ship was about to be launched;" "Reason and Justice have been jury- men since before Noah was a sailor."

Rem. 3. — Two prepositions are frequently combined and used as one ; as, " He came from over the sea ;" " The church stands over against the school-house." In such cases, parse the two preposi- tions as one, calling the combination a complex preposition.

Rem. 4 — Sometimes the object of a preposition is omitted ; as, "The boys went out;" "The regiment marched by." In such cases, parse the preposition as an adverb.

Rem. 5.— The antecedent term is sometimes omitted; as, '"From Vermont?' asked the landlord;" UiAs to that,' said the dial-plate." In such cases, parse the preposition as showing the relation between its object and an antecedent term understood.

ETYMOLOGY PREPOSITIONS. Ill

For, in the complex phrases, "For him to lie," uFor you to dV ceive," &c., may be parsed as an introductory preposition.

Rem. 6. — When the relations between objects of thought are so obvious that they need no expression, the prepositions are usually omitted; as, "I came home yesterday;" "He is worth a million ;" " The bridge is a mile long." In such cases, the subse- quent term of relation is said to be in the objective case without a governing word.

131. List of Prepositions.

A = at, on, or in; "Be quiet, and go a-angling." Aboard; " Aboard ships, dull shocks are sometimes felt." About; "It was a day to be at home, crowding about the fire." Above; "Above your voices sounds the wail of starving men." According to ; " Proceed according to law." Across; "Their way was across a stretch of open meadow." After; "After life's fitful fever, he sleeps well." Against; "Uplift against the sky, your mighty shapes." Along- ; " I hear the waves resounding along the shore." Amid, amidst; "A lark reared her brood amid the corn." Among-, amongst; "He was always foremost among them." Around ; " I hear around me cries of fear."

As to ; "As to the parts of the cargo, they were already made fast." At ; " She is at church ;" " The bell rings at noon." Athwart; "Athwart the waste the pleasant home-light shines." Before; " Who shall go before them ? " "I left before sunrise." Behind ; "We have seen the moon rising behind the eastern pines." Below ; "It was on the road to Kennebec, below the town of Bath." Beneath; "The steps creaked beneath his noiseless tread." Beside; "I sat beside her;" "He is beside himself." Besides; "There is nothing at all besides this manna." Between ; " The town is situated between two mountains." Betwixt; "The waters roll betwixt him and the Wooded knoll." Beyond ; "His thoughts turned to his home beyond the sea." But == except; "He had retained nothing but his father's belt." By ; " Strength came by working in the mines." Concerning; "The Lord hath spoken good concerning Israel." Down; "They wandered in throngs down the valley." During ; " He staid at home during the war." Ere ; " Nile flowed ere the wonted season." Except; "Are they all gone except you?" For ; "I looked up for a moment;" "I sell for cash."

112 ENGLISH GHAMMAK.

From; "He felt like a leaf torn from a romance."

In ; " Late in life, lie began life in earnest."

Into; "He gazed into the vast surrounding darkness."

Notwithstanding ; " He is proud, notwithstanding his poverty."

Of; "'Tis the middle watch of a summer's night."

OiT; "The vessel was becalmed off Cuba."

On; "He sprang on a rock;" "I leave on Saturday."

Out of; "No one was moving, at least out of doors."

Over; "The billows had rolled over him;" "He rules over us."

Past; "He drove past our house this morning."

Round ; "A shoreless ocean tumbled round the globe."

Save; "Silent is all save the dropping rain."

Since; "The Lord hath blessed thee since my coming."

Till, until; "Not till the next morning did the boys appear."

Tltrongh ; " Then stept she down through town and field."

Throughout; "There was much anxiety felt throughout the land."

To; "Let the old tree go down to the earth."

Toward, towards; "He turned me toward the moonlight."

Under; "He stands erect under the curved roof."

Unto ; " Verily, I say unto you."

Up ; " He sailed up the river."

Upon ; " They were walking upon the hurricane deck."

With; "The sky was red with flame."

Within; "Something of ambition and pride stirred within him."

Without; "The morning broke without a sun."

Rem. l. — The following prepositions, less commonly used, may be added to the foregoing list :

Abaft, aloft, alongside, afore, adown, aloof, aneath, aslant, atween, atwizt, despite, inside, outside, maugre, minus, plus, per, sans, underneath, versus, via, as for, along with, despite of, from among, from before, from betwixt, from off, from under, off of, over against, round about, but for; and the participial forms excepting, regarding, bating, touching, respect- ing, &c, when followed by objects.

lem. 2. — But, for_ since, and some others, are sometimes used as conjunctions; as, "I must go, for it is late.",

Rem. 3. — Care should be taken to' select such prepositions as express the relations intended.

Ex. — Among, amongst are applicable to more than two objects; as, "He divided the estate among the four brothers:" between, betwixt, are applicable to two objects only; as, "He divided the estate between the two brothers."

ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS. 113

During should be used when the event continues through all the period mentioned; as, "I have